The Bhakti Movement—An Interpretation

Author(s): REKHA PANDE

Source: Proceedings of the Indian History Congress , 1987, Vol. 48 (1987), pp. 214-221
Published by: Indian History Congress

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/44141682

JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide
range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and
facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].

Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at
https://about.jstor.org/terms

Indian History Congress is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
Proceedings of the Indian History Congress

This content downloaded from

182.75.45.1 on Mon, 27 Feb 2023 10:03:13 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 38

The Bhakti Movement - An Interpretation

REKHA PANDE

1.1 Indian culture and civilization had weilded an immense assimilative

power and the Greeks, Sakas and Hunas were easily absorbed within
the fold of her population. This however did not happen with the Turk-
Afghan invaders who maintained their distinct identity. But the long
association of the two groups and the demand for peace and security
coupled with the broad out look of a number o f people did create an
interaction and synthesis. This interaction and synthesis is very interest-
ing. Though face to face with the democratic social ideal of Islam, where
all were equal in the eyes of God, the social rigidity of the Hindus was
not relaxed and caste distinctions continued to exist. Nor on the other
hand the lofty ideals of toleration of the various creeds of Hinduism
were accepted by Islam. Therefore, without undergoing any radical
changes in their beliefs, ground was prepared by the 'Bhakti movement'
where the two could meet.

1.2 The Bhakti movement is treated chiefly as a literary movement or

at best an ideological phenomena which had religion at the basis of its
inspiration. This haj mainly happened due to lack of emphasis on social
history and hence the socio-economic factors which aimed at bringing
in a change have been generally ignored. It cannot be denied that every
religious reform movement has a certain purpose. It rises out of certain
socio-economic conditions and aims at the upliftment of the unprivileged
and oppressed sections of the society. A study of the Bhakti Movement
with this emphasis would be very helpful in understanding this move-
ment in its proper context.

1.3 This paper is a humble attempt on our part to understand the

Bhakti movement in its proper context. Was it a protest movement ?
What was its socio-economic and political background? What were the
aims and ideologies of the saints. Was any change in the status of
women a part of their ideology? How did they perceive women? What
were the reasons for these attitudes?

1.4 The Bhakti movement was a product of a transitional society when

214

This content downloaded from

182.75.45.1 on Mon, 27 Feb 2023 10:03:13 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
a number of changes were taking place in the society on the political,
economic and social front. Since there is a close relationship between
socio-political and economic trends and the religious activity, the Bhakti
movement cannot be seen in isolation. Therefore, it becomes necessary
to see the various changes taking place in society on several fronts.
1.5 On the political front ihe 14th and 15th century saw the decline of
the powerful state and the rise of a number of provincial and regional
states.1 The feuds and conflicts among feudal lords, rebellions of vassal
chieftains and the in increasing discontent of the peasants, combined to
undermine the authority of the Sultanate. Bengal had asserted its
independence from Delhi by about the middle of 14th century. By the
beginning of 16th century north India saw the rise of a number of feudal
states like Bengal, Khandesh, Jaunpur, Malwa, Bihar, Kashmir, Sindh,
Multan and in the Decean the Bahamani kingdom which was split into
small feudal states.

1.6 On the economic front the Delhi Sultanate brought in a number of

changes in this period. It definitely created an economic organisation
considerably superior to the previous one. In its earlier phase it had
released social forces which had led to the expansion in towns and
alteration in agrarian relations.2 By the beginning of the 14th century
there was a considerable growth in these towns and expansion in craft
production and commerce. All this had resulted from a number of
changes in the various crafts as a result of improvement in technology.
This can be seen in sericulture, carpet weaving on the vertical loom,
introduction of spinning wheel ( rharkha ) in the cotton textile sector, in
the building sector the connecting lime and vaulted roofing with extensive
use of true arch and dome and the manufacture of paper.3 The increase
in commerce can be seen in the increase of coinage as result of the
transfer of stored silver and gold into minted money.4 There is
also seen an increase in the slave market to provide cheap reserves of
labour for the various crafts.5 This slave labour also played an impor-
tant role in the urban economy and was a major channel for the growth
of the urban muslim artisan class.®

1.7 Therefore on the economic front the increase in craft production

and commerce had created unstable conditions for the artisan
and merchant classes. Most of the surplus of these artisans was being
appropriated making their conditions worse day by day. Though a
number of artisans were coming from the ranks of people outside the
professions, they were not accepted as equals among the Indian artisans
organized along hereditary custom bound caste. On the other hand while
the merchants and tradesmen had attained a lot of wealth, they had no

215

This content downloaded from

182.75.45.1 on Mon, 27 Feb 2023 10:03:13 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
place in the social hierarchy. The situation wat similar to what was
happening during the period when the rise of Buddhism and Jainism
took place. The city had produced its own social stratification where the
artisan or merchant was most powerful. Yet the Brahmanical literature
did not include the trader and artisan among the superior groups.7

1.8 The social front was also characterised by a change. There was the
Brahmanical oppression of the worse kind. In order to maintain their
status quo, complex rites and rituals were practiced by them and those
who did not fit into the traditional four castes were termed outcastes
or chandalas.8 By this time Jainism and Buddhism had practically
disappeared and it was orthodox Brahmanism that had reigned supreme
over the whole of India. They alone understood Sanskrit in which the
ancient religious texts were produced, and this made the performance of
various rites and rituals their monopoly.

1.9 Indian muslims were also divided into * Sharif Zats, or high castes
and 4 Ajlaf Zars ' or low castes. The conversion of Islam, had certainly
not made an individual change his old environment which was deeply
influenced by caste distinctions and a general social exclusiveness. The
different classes of muslim communities also began to live aloof from
one another, even in seperate quarters in the same city.® Among the
muslims although caste was recognised in social relations, yet when it
came to prayer and worship the caste and class differences were ignored
and the poor and lich worshipped side by side, but outside they were
again ajlafs and sharifs. Ignorance, blind faith and meaningless habits
and customs had dotted the religious scene.

1.10 The Bhatki movement was a product of this society and its ideology
served a purpose. Its saints were not idle philosophers or arm chaired
reformers. They mostly came from the lower sections of society and
worked for their living. Raidas was a cobbler, Dharna an untouchable
jat peasant, Kabir was a low casts weaver, Dadu a low caste spinner,
Nanak a small time trader, Namdev a tailor and Tukaram was also a
low caste trader. They narrated their philosophy in local dialects in
lyrical forms which showed little adherence to conventional literary
traditions of Sanskrit. The readings of the various hymns and songs
composed by the Bhaktas give us a clear glimpse into their social aims
and objectives. The saints were trying to make a readjustment among the
hindus and muslims no doubt, for the creation of a harmonious society.
To Nanak, 'religion did not consist in mere words, but one who looked
on all men as equal is religious'.10

1.11 Dadu also spoke against the divisions of people on various grounds
saying,

216

This content downloaded from

182.75.45.1 on Mon, 27 Feb 2023 10:03:13 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
 'you plead for lhe sccts? The earth & sun, water and air, day and
night, moon and sun.
Attend him best. Of what sect are they?
Of none but the unseen and truthful the great Lord".11

Kabir also says that in the beginning there were no such distinctions
of race, caste and creed.

"Adam, who was first, did not know

whence came mother Eve.
Then there was no Turk, nor Hindu
No blood of the mother, no seed of the father*
Then there were no cows, no butchers,
who pray cried, 'In the name of God'.
Then there was no race, no caste,
Who then made Hell and Paradise.12

The Bhakti saints continuously harped on love. To then Bhakti was

a single minded devotion growing ultimately to intense love. Raidas,
states in one of his verses.

'Thou hast bound me by claims of illusion

I have bound thee with ropes of love
I am making an effort to emancipate myself
But when I attain freedom, then who will adore Thee?13

Kabir also states that one does not become a scholar by reading scrip-
tures. It is only through the learning of love that one can become a real
scholar.14

1.12 The Bhakti saints spoke of a direct relationship between man and
God. They were opposed to the traditional, rigid, elaborate and meaning-
less rituals that had crept into religious practices.

To Nanak,
Religion does not consist in wandering to tombs
Or places of cremation, or sitting in
different postures of contemplation.
Religion does not consist in wandering from
country to country or in bathing at sacred places
Abidipure, amid the impurities of the world
Thus shalt thou find the way of religion.15

Kabir also discards the temple and the mosque by asking, if the Hindu
god stays in a temple and the muslim God in a mosque what happens

217

This content downloaded from

182.75.45.1 on Mon, 27 Feb 2023 10:03:13 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
to a place where there is neither a temple nor a mosque. He refuses to
follow these blind folded but follows his inner conscious and goes his
own way.16

The same thought is expressed by Nam Dev in a different from,

The Hindu is blind and so is the Mussulman

The Hindu worships in the temple and the muslim in the mosque
But Nama offers his worship to Him
who needs neither temple nor mosque.'17

1.13 By doing away with the various rituals the Bhaktai were alio
fighting the Brahmanical domination and the injustices of the caste
system.

To Nanak
'Nonsense are castes and nonsense the names attached to them
All creatures are under one shelter that of God.1*
He further states,
'It is needless to ask a saint,
the caste to which he belongs
the barber has sought God, the washer man and the carpenter
Hindus and muslims alike have achieved that end
Where, remains no mark of distinction.19

Kabir also denounces all rituals stating that God can be found in every
breadth.

'O servant where does thou seek me

Lo, I am besides thee
1 am neither in Kaba nor in Kailash
Neither am I in rites and ceremonics nor in Yoga and renunciation.
If thou art a true seeker, thou shalt at once see me.
though shalt meet me in a moment
Kabir sa>s, 'Oh Sadhu God is the breath of all breath.20

1.14 By enroling a large number of traders and craftsmen into its rank
and file, the Bhakti movement was making them conscious, of their
position and the need for democratising the religious and social structure
of the society. There was to be no previleged class at the top dominating
over the vast majority of silent, submissive and improtesting believers.
The preachings of many of these saints and their devotional songs gave
a real shape to the concept of an egalitarian society. They played an
important role in awakening the hindu consciousness on the necessity of
reforming the religion of its customs and superstitions'. By establishing

218

This content downloaded from

182.75.45.1 on Mon, 27 Feb 2023 10:03:13 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
the institution of ' Sangať and ť Fanget ' Nanak brought all people to
stand at a common platform.

1.15 Therefore the Bhakti saints, were protesting in a loud voice against
the various injustices meted out to them by society. Religion is but a
part of the social mileu and has to be assessed on the basis of the needi
of the society at a particular point in time. The creation of a casteless,
society was the need of the time and hence a clamour for the total
change.

1.16 But was it really a 'total change'? Were women any part of this
change? The answer is 'No*. A very interesting phenomena which
emerges is that though these saints were clamouring for various reforms
and a great change women were completely left out. This is in complete
contrast to a number of women Bhaktas who were getting the liberty of
self expression for the first time, through their Bhakti poetry. Most of
these women were very revolutionary in their personal lives opposing the
institution of marriage and family itself. The most prominent among
these were Meera in Rajasthan, Laleshwari in Kashmir, Sahajobai and
Bihanabai in Maharashtra, Akk Mahadevi in Karnataka and Godamma
in Tamil Nadu.

1.17 In contrast to these women, the male Bhaktas talk in very deroga-
tory terms for women. Except perhaps for Nanak who says.

'It is by women that we are conceived and it

is from her that we are betrothed and married
It is a woman we befriend and
it is she who keeps the race going
When one woman dies another is sought for
and it is with her that we get established in society
Why call her evil from whom are born kings and great men".

1.18 The other dominant discourse of the Bhakti movement, especially

of the Nirguna saint, looks down upon women. They could not rise above
the age old prejudice of regarding women a barrier to the path of
salvation. To Kabir, she is more horrible than hell, and one who is used
by all.11 Further, it is a women's destiny that she would finish all men
and then remain alone.23 Tulsidas has associated women, drum, inbecile,
Sudra and animals in one category that are fit only to be beaten.24
Surdas also says, a woman is worse that a poisonous snake and one has
to beware of their poison. Once she entraps a man it is difficult to be
free.26 Dadu Dayal say» a woman is but the enemy of man and a man is
the enemy of woman and in the end she will get nothing.26

219

This content downloaded from

182.75.45.1 on Mon, 27 Feb 2023 10:03:13 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
1.19 The only duty of a woman is to serve her husband, through the
institution of marriage. Keshavdas says clearly, a women should
not leave her husband even if he is disabled, dumb, mad, lame, blind or
deaf.27 The only duty of a woman is to serve her husband for all else has
no purpose.28 To Dadu Dayal, a woman is to be kept at home only
when she serves her husband.29 For Tulsidas also, the only religion
which a woman has, is to serve and obey her husband with her mind,
body and soul.30

1.20 That the dominant discourse of the Bhakti movement of the

Nirguna Saint, refers to women in retrogatory terms should not come as
a surpirse. They were but depicting a reality of their times. A woman's
position in society is determined by its patriarchal structure which made
the man superior and a woman subordinate to him, her status defined in
terms of her role in the family vis-a-vis the husband. A woman has no
worth outside the institution of marriage through which she must serve
her husband.

1.21 The Saguna Saints were mainly agriculturist or still associated with
agrarian related areas, where woman did play a pivotal role. Hence they
do not look down upon women. Even when Tulsi looks down upon
woman, he raises the characters of Sita, Parvati, Kaikai, Mandodari
and Tara to a high stature.31 On the other hand, most of the Nirguna
Saints were related to the upcoming industrial sector, being associated
with professions like tanning, weaving, trading, tailoring etc., where
women did not have apivotal role to play, and their age old [prejudices
against women, as a barrier to salvation, continued.

1.22 It cannot be denied, that biological differences between the sexes

are not in themselves sufficient to limit individuals to the great extent
that social roles dictate. There are large variations in gender roles from
one time period to another in the same society.32 Gender is therefore a
creation of society and its reproduction takes place in the ideological
and cultural realm.33 This becomes an important mechanism for the
control of women and the creation of inequality within a patriarchal
society.

1.23 Patriarchal institututions have been with us since time immemorial

and they continue to persist irrespective of any changes34 In fact in
periods of transition, the dominant discourse becomes more prominent
in keeping women in the background. The first institution that has to be
protected in times of change is the family and women who are looked
upon as the upholders of the morality of society. The explanation for
this can probably be sought in the male apprehension of female sexua~

220

This content downloaded from

182.75.45.1 on Mon, 27 Feb 2023 10:03:13 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms
lity. Hence every attempt it made to control tt.

1.24 The Bhakti saints' attitude is a case in point. Though clamouring

for change and protesting vocally against the prevalent injustices in the
society, they conveniently left out women relegating them to the back-
ground and the home. She had no place in the change that was being
sought. It was a change defined by male parameters. Since the change
was being sought within a given structure it did not attempt at changing
the power structure of society vis-a-vis man and woman. The perception
of change and the need to come to terms with it were not seen as
synonymous with a radical ideology in favour of a 'total change*. There
were no attempts at reorganisation of the social relationships within the
family. Therefore the element of protest in the Bhakti movement was
limited for it left out women totally.

221

This content downloaded from

182.75.45.1 on Mon, 27 Feb 2023 10:03:13 UTC
All use subject to https://about.jstor.org/terms