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Children and Youth Services Review 111 (2020) 104872
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Children and Youth Services Review

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/childyouth
The psychosocial impacts of cybervictimisation and barriers to seeking T

social support: Young people’s perspectives
Rebecca Dennehya, , Sarah Meaneyb, Mary Cronina, Ella Arensmana,c
⁎
a
School of Public Health, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
b
National Perinatal Epidemiology Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
c
National Suicide Research Foundation, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland
A RT ICLE INFO ABSTRACT
Keywords: The negative impact of cyberbullying on the mental health of victims is well established. However, qualitative
Cyberbullying research related to the mental health impacts of cybervictimisation and how these are experienced by young
Mental health people is scarce. In particular, little is known about young people’s perceptions of the association between
Rumination cyberbullying and suicidal behaviours. This paper reports findings on the mental health impacts of cyberbul-
Entrapment
lying, and barriers to seeking social support, from eleven focus groups with 64 young people aged fourteen to
Suicide
Young people
seventeen (53% female), across four secondary schools. Thematic analysis identified two central themes: The
Psychological Nature of Cyberbullying (sub-themes include Trapped by the Omni-Presence of Cyber Technology;
Negative Overthinking; The Impacts of Negative Overthinking on Young People’s Lives; and Suicide as a Means
of Escape) and Barriers to Help-Seeking (including sub-themes Needing Help Regarded as Sign of Weakness;
Young People Unable to Identify and Express Feelings; Lack of Confidence in Parents Ability to Provide Support;
and Inappropriate School Intervention). Cyberbullying was described as more psychological in nature and im-
pact than traditional bullying with increased deleterious effect on the mental health and wellbeing of victims.
Victims experience rumination and worry fuelled by the omni-present, pervasive, and permanent nature of cyber
interactions. Young people’s inability to seek support maintains and exacerbates victims’ distress. Participants
perceived suicide as a viable escape route for young victims defeated and entrapped by cybervictimisation and
their own negative thoughts. Interventions should address emotional competence and mental health literacy in
young people, as well as empowering support networks including parents, peers, and school personnel, to foster
an environment that promotes help-seeking.
1. Introduction complex challenges for parents, teachers, and policy-makers (Betts &
Spenser, 2017; Cassidy, Faucher, & Jackson, 2013; Deschamps &
Traditionally bullying, defined as intentional aggressive behaviour, McNutt, 2016; Livingstone, Haddon, Görzig, & Ólafsson, 2011; Marées,
carried out repeatedly in peer relationships characterised by an im- 2012; Sigal, Tali, & Dorit, 2013; Valkenburg & Peter, 2011). The debate
balance of power, has been confined to the physical spaces frequented regarding conceptual and operational definitions of cyberbullying is
by young people such as schools (Olweus, 1997). However, in recent ongoing. However, it is commonly defined using the traditional bul-
years the proliferation of information and communication technology lying criteria of repeated intentional harm and a power imbalance be-
(ICT), including smart phones and social media, has created a new tween victims and perpetrators with the addition that aggression is
arena for bullying behaviour, the cyber world (Patchin & Hinduja, conveyed through electronic media (Kowalski et al., 2014; Tokunaga,
2006). 2010). Several studies report overlapping characteristics between the
Cyberbullying is now well established as a public health problem two phenomena, however, cyberbullying has a number of unique fac-
(David-Ferdon & Hertz, 2007). Research indicates that 10–40% of tors stemming from the features of the cyber world and the sometimes
young people experience cybervictimisation (Kowalski, Giumetti, complex and ambiguous nature of the communications which take
Schroeder, & Lattanner, 2014). It is a serious issue for young people place within it (Cassidy et al., 2013; Dennehy et al., 2020). Cyber
whose lives are increasingly immersed in technology and presents technology is integral to young people’s interactions and their
⁎
Corresponding author at: School of Public Health, 4th Floor, Western Gateway Building, University College Cork, Western Road, Cork, Ireland.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (R. Dennehy), [email protected] (S. Meaney), [email protected] (M. Cronin), [email protected] (E. Arensman).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.childyouth.2020.104872
Received 3 October 2019; Received in revised form 14 February 2020; Accepted 14 February 2020
Available online 15 February 2020
0190-7409/ © 2021 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/BY/4.0/).
R. Dennehy, et al. Children and Youth Services Review 111 (2020) 104872
relationships (Dennehy et al., 2020; Valkenburg & Peter, 2011). Con- Saini, Wu, & MacFadden, 2010; Walker & Sleath, 2017). Adults do not
tinual engagement with social media increases young people’s acces- have first-hand experience of using cyber technology in their youth and,
sibility to perpetrators potentially facilitating relentless victimisation therefore, the development of appropriate prevention and intervention
beyond the reach of traditional bullying which is largely confined to the strategies can benefit from youth engagement (Spears, Slee, Campbell,
school day (Dennehy et al., 2020; Tokunaga, 2010). Another distin- & Cross, 2011; Spears, Taddeo, Daly, Stretton, & Karklins, 2015). Young
guishing feature of cyberbullying is the potential for anonymous per- people are experts in their technology-rich lives and as such can provide
petration. Approximately 50% of victims do not know the identity of unique insights (Bennett, Maton, & Kervin, 2008). Cyberbullying re-
their aggressor (Kowalski & Limber, 2007) and research with young search has been dominated by quantitative research methods which
people indicates that this contributes to fear, distress, and feelings of have provided information on the characteristics, prevalence, beha-
powerlessness in cyber victims (Dennehy et al., 2020; Dooley, Pyzalski, viours, attitudes, and impacts related to cyberbullying (Espinoza &
& Cross, 2009). Further, evidence of victimisation can remain online Juvonen, 2013; Hinduja & Patchin, 2010; Menesini & Nocentini, 2009;
indefinitely as a permanent reminder to victims while the global reach Mishna, Cook, Gadalla, Daciuk, & Solomon, 2010; Patchin & Hinduja,
of cyber technology enables an infinite number of witnesses (Campbell, 2010; Smith, 2019). While these approaches make a useful contribution
2012; Dennehy et al., 2020; Langos, 2015; Patchin & Hinduja, 2006; to the evidence-base on cyberbullying, it must be acknowledged that
Slonje & Smith, 2008). young people’s experiences of this contemporary and ever evolving
Systematic reviews and meta-analyses consistently demonstrate the phenomenon are embedded with a social context that cannot always be
negative impact of cyberbullying on the mental health and wellbeing of analysed objectively (Broom & Willis, 2007; Spears & Kofoed, 2013).
victims (Fisher, Gardella, & Teurbe-Tolon, 2016; John et al., 2018; Qualitative research involving young people allows researchers to step
Katsaras et al., 2018; Kowalski et al., 2014; van Geel, Vedder, & outside the bounds of adult thinking (Mishna, Antle, & Regehr, 2004). It
Tanilon, 2014). Cybervictimisation is linked with psychosomatic offers the opportunity to gain rich insights into young people’s thoughts
symptoms and internalising problems. It is associated with sleep dis- and feelings, allowing for their subjective definitions, meanings and
turbances, school avoidance, reduced confidence and self-esteem, experiences to be brought to the fore (Mishna & Van Wert, 2013).
worry, anxiety, depression, suicidal ideation, and suicidal behaviour; Qualitative studies have explored young people’s perceptions and ex-
fatal and non-fatal (Fisher et al., 2016; Hamm et al., 2015; Katsaras periences of cyberbullying as well as motivations for involvement and
et al., 2018; Kowalski et al., 2014). A number of studies report stronger coping strategies (Dennehy et al., 2020; Parris et al., 2012; Šléglová &
associations between cyberbullying and anxiety, depressive sympto- Černá, 2011; Varjas, Talley, Meyers, Parris, & Cutts, 2010). However,
mology, and suicidal ideation than traditional bullying (Bonanno & qualitative research on cyberbullying is relatively scarce (Smith, 2019).
Hymel, 2013; Bottino, Bottino, Regina, Correia, & Ribeiro, 2015; In particular, there is little qualitative research related to the mental
Campbell, Spears, Slee, Butler, & Kift, 2012; Gini & Espelage, 2014; health and psychosocial impacts of cybervictimisation and how these
Hinduja & Patchin, 2010; John et al., 2018; van Geel et al., 2014). The are experienced by young people (Kwan et al., 2020). Omitting young
reasons for the negative impact on young people’s mental health have people’s perspectives risks misinterpretation of their needs and mis-
not been clearly established. It has been suggested that the persistent, guided prevention and intervention strategies (Bennett et al., 2008;
pervasive, and sometimes anonymous nature of cyberbullying con- Cross, Lester, Barnes, Cardoso, & Hadwen, 2015; Mishna & Van Wert,
tributes to feelings of hopelessness which are in turn associated with 2013; Spears & Zeederberg, 2013). With this in mind, and with a view
anxiety, depression and suicidal behaviours (Bonanno & Hymel, 2013; to informing the development of relevant and appropriate interven-
Chu, Fan, Liu, & Zhou, 2018; Hawton, Saunders, & O'Connor, 2012; tions, a qualitative study was conducted with young people to explore
Hinduja & Patchin, 2010; John et al., 2018). their perspectives on the nature, causes, and consequences of cyber-
Seeking social support is consistently identified as an effective bullying as well as coping strategies. This paper reports study findings
strategy in response to cybervictimisation (Perren, Corcoran, Cowie, relating to young people’s perceptions of the mental health impacts of
Dehue, Garcia, Mc Guckin, & Vollink, 2012; Raskauskas & Huynh, cybervictimisation and contributes to the existing literature on the
2015). This refers to actively seeking help from other people including barriers that deter cyber victims from engaging in help-seeking beha-
family, peers, teachers, or health professionals. It involves commu- viour.
nicating with others to gain understanding, advice, information, and
support in response to a distressing experience (Rickwood, Deane, 2. Methods
Wilson, & Ciarrochi, 2005). Young people themselves have suggested
seeking support as a way of coping with cyberbullying, however, evi- 2.1. Study design
dence shows that cybervictimisation goes largely unreported (Cassidy
et al., 2013; Parris, Varjas, Meyers, & Cutts, 2012; Price & Dalgleish, In collaboration with a purposefully formed Young Person’s
2010). Further, research indicates that cyber victims are less likely than Advisory Group, a qualitative study was conducted in all four secondary
victims of traditional bullying to disclose victimisation (Dooley, schools in a large town in the Republic of Ireland (ROI). Focus groups
Gradinger, Strohmeier, Cross, & Spiel, 2012; Slonje & Smith, 2008; were used in data collection and data were analysed thematically.
Smith et al., 2008). Young people’s reluctance to report cyberbullying
has been attributed to difficulty in proving cybervictimisation, fear of 2.2. The adult research team
loss of access to cyber technology, fear of retaliation or intensification
of bullying, lack of confidence in adults’ ability to help, and a belief that The multidisciplinary adult research team comprised clinical and
little can be done to stop cyberbullying (Cassidy et al., 2013; Dennehy social researchers with experience of working with young people in
et al., 2020; Hamm et al., 2015; Parris et al., 2012; Šléglová & Černá, school and youth work settings, in mental health and suicide research,
2011). and in participatory and qualitative research methods. The research,
Young people are vulnerable to mental health difficulties as they including focus group facilitation and analysis, was led by the first
experience biological and social change during the transition from author, a Ph.D. candidate. These activities were supported by a Master
childhood to adulthood (Kessler et al., 2005). The risk to the mental of Public Health student. Engaged in reflexive research, researchers
health and wellbeing of young people exposed to cybervictimisation were mindful of their position in the research process, the complexity of
requires action to address this issue and systematic reviews of cyber- undertaking research with young people, and of the power relations
bullying interventions highlight a need for evidence-based prevention between adult researchers and the young people involved (Cahill &
and intervention strategies to tackle cyberbullying (Della Cioppa, Dadvand, 2018; Morrow & Richards, 1996; Punch, 2002). Conse-
O'Neil, & Craig, 2015; Hutson, Kelly, & Militello, 2017; Mishna, Cook, quently, and as described below, efforts were made throughout this
2
study to ensure that the research process and outputs were re- 2.5. Data collection
presentative of young people’s interests, needs, and experiences.
A topic guide developed by Mishna et al. (2016) was adapted for
this study and piloted with the Advisory Group. Focus groups were
2.3. Young Person’s Advisory Group conducted in schools in the format agreed with the Advisory Group
(Reference: undisclosed for review purposes). Members favoured focus
Authentic research with young people gives power and voice to groups, and the absence of school staff, to generate open and honest
participants and provides insights into young people’s subjective world dialogue among participants. Research supports this approach in-
(Grover, 2004). In efforts to facilitate the ethical, appropriate, and dicating that the presence of peers reduces the emphasis on the adult-
meaningful involvement of young people, as well as addressing the child relationship between the participant and the researcher (Heary &
power imbalance in the adult-child relationship, this study was con- Hennessy, 2002). As the merits of single or mixed-sex groupings are not
ducted in collaboration with a purposefully formed Young Person’s established, focus groups included participants from the same year
Advisory Group (Morrow & Richards, 1996; Punch, 2002). The group group, and were single or mixed-sex based on the population of the
comprised of 16 students (ten female, six male; all aged 16), four from respective school (Gibson, 2007; Heary & Hennessy, 2002; Shaw,
each participating school, provided a unique perspective on the design, Brady, & Davey, 2011).
conduct, and interpretation of the research. The collaborative metho- At the outset of each session, an icebreaker was conducted and a
dology, informed by Lundy’s rights based model of youth participation group contract was developed to establish the accepted conditions of
(Lundy, 2007), is described in detail elsewhere (Reference: undisclosed participation (Organisation, 2020). The remit and limits of con-
for review purposes). fidentiality were outlined, researchers reiterated that reports of the
The safety and wellbeing of participants was a priority throughout discussion would be anonymised and that participants could withdraw
the research process. Child protection and ethical guidelines were ad- from the study at any point without consequence (Hill, 2006; Morrow &
hered to at all times (Alderson & Morrow, 2011; Banks et al., 2013; Richards, 1996). Exploratory, open-ended questions centred on the
Department of Children and Youth Affairs, 2011, 2012; Felzmann, nature, causes, and consequences of cyberbullying as well as coping
Sixsmith, O'Higgins, Ni Chonnachtaigh, & Nic Gabhainn, 2010; Hill, mechanisms. In attempts to avoid socially desirable responses, partici-
2005; Mishna et al., 2004). Ethical approval was granted by the Uni- pants were not asked to share their personal experiences (Mishna, Saini,
versity Clinical Research Ethics Committee (Ref: ECM3 (uuu)). Written & Solomon, 2009). However, if participants volunteered personal ac-
consent for young people’s participation was obtained from schools, counts they were not restricted from doing so. Name-tags were pro-
parents/guardians and young people. A protocol for reporting concerns vided to all participants, and to researchers, allowing the facilitator to
regarding participant welfare was agreed with each participating school invite by name those that were less vocal than others to comment. A de-
in keeping with local standard operating procedures. briefing was conducted with participants at the end of each focus group
to ensure their wellbeing prior to cessation. Participants were reminded
that school guidance counsellors and the local youth service were
2.4. Participants available for support if needed, the first author’s contact details and
relevant helplines were also provided. Focus groups lasted an average
Supported by the local youth service, this study was conducted with of 94 min, with a range from 66 to 112 min. Discussions were audio-
all four secondary schools in a large town in (ROI). Participating recorded, transcribed verbatim, and anonymised.
schools included a non-fee-paying all-female voluntary secondary
school (School A), a non-fee-paying all-male voluntary secondary 2.6. Analysis
school (School B), a non-fee-paying co-educational vocational school in
receipt of additional supports to address educational disadvantage and An inductive thematic analysis was conducted (Braun & Clarke,
social exclusion (School C) (Department of Education and Science, 2006). This approach allowed researchers to analyse the data system-
2005), and a fee-paying co-educational private school with a mix of day atically in a manner which was accessible to the members of the Ad-
students and boarders (School D). visory Group (Braun & Clarke, 2014). Transcripts were imported to
Sampling and recruitment decisions were made in collaboration NVivo 12 (2016) and read repeatedly. The first author open-coded each
with the Advisory Group (Reference: undisclosed for review purposes). transcript to organise data into meaningful groupings and similar codes
Secondary education in ROI consists of a junior cycle (first-third year, were categorised. A second-researcher coded four transcripts. Differing
age 13–15) and a senior cycle (fourth-sixth year, age 16–18). Second interpretations and assumptions were considered through peer de-
(aged 14), fourth (aged 16), and fifth-year (aged 16–17) students were briefing (Long & Johnson, 2000), discussion, and the use of mind maps
purposively sampled. Those preparing for state examinations (third and before related categories were grouped and the multidisciplinary re-
sixth-year) were excluded due to constraints on their time. Advisory search team reached consensus on potential themes. Preliminary
group members felt that first year students new to the school would be themes were presented to the Advisory Group to assess the validity and
intimidated by the research process and so this group were also ex- reliability of the findings (Noble & Smith, 2015). Participatory enabling
cluded. The study was introduced to all students in their individual techniques were used to generate discussion among advisory group
class groups and information sheets were distributed by the first author members and researchers (Ref: undisclosed for review purposes). Dis-
and Advisory group members in their respective schools. Students were cussion focused on the extent to which the identified themes were re-
advised that the Advisory Group would not be aware of the identity of flective of young people’s experience of cyberbullying. The members
participants. Consent forms signed by young people and parents/ identified the mental health impacts of cybervictimisation as an im-
guardians were returned to the schools and collected by the first author. portant finding and a priority area for intervention. Subsequently, re-
Seventy-two students self-selected to take part. Eight of these students searchers refined the categories and themes associated with this domain
(fourth-year students in School D) were unable to participate as they which are presented here.
were undertaking work experience outside of school when focus groups
were conducted and efforts to reschedule were unsuccessful. 3. Findings
Ultimately, in Spring 2017 eleven focus groups were conducted with 64
participants across the four schools; and just over half of the partici- Thematic analysis identified two core themes: The Psychological
pants were female (53%). Nature of Cyberbullying and Barriers to Help-Seeking. Cyberbullying
was described by participants as “more psychological” in its nature and
3
Table 1
Illustrative quotes.
Themes and Sub-Themes Illustrative Quotes
Theme 1: The Psychological Nature of Cyberbullying
I would say that [cyberbullying] would definitely be worse mentally, having to put up with it like in your head (School A, female, aged 17)
Like, if someone hits you, you're obviously going to get better from that, but like, if someone like, scarred you mentally like, you’ll always be thinking about it. It’s always lingering in
the back of your mind like. (School B, male, aged 17)
It’s [cyberbullying] constantly in your head. It’s way more psychological. (School C, female, aged 16)
Like normal, well not normal, but traditional bullying is, kind of like…you can say it’s kind of, 50 physical, 50 mental, you know, and so you almost have that half-and-half… but with
cyberbullying like, they can't hurt you, so they just 100% have to go through your mind, and your mind is what controls your emotions, you know. They might break your body
[with traditional bullying], but at least you can, kind of, think straight. (School D, male, aged 14)
Trapped by the Omni-Presence of Cyber Technology I think with the old types of bullying like if you were being bullied in school you would go home and know you
were safe whereas with cyber bullying you have your phone on you all the time, like you take it to bed. So like if
someone was getting bullied like there is no way unless you turned off your phone that you can escape from it so I
think that's why it is so dangerous and it effects so many people…there is no way out like you know (School A,
female, aged 17)
If it [bullying] was happening in school, I could just move to another school but if it’s cyberbullying, then it’s going
to always be there. (School B, male, aged 14)
Like when I was in primary school, I wouldn’t say I was bullied, but I was picked on for a while, and I feel like there
was a moment where I was like I can either let this really affect me or I can just let it go over my head, whereas with
like cyberbullying, it is constantly there like. Like I can choose to interact with those people, but I can’t help it if
something pops up on my phone (School C, female, aged 16)
P2: Cyberbullying is, from my experience, an extension of traditional bullying and it’s when the person goes home,
it’s a way to still get at them.
P3: Because you always have your phone on you, really, so it’s like they’re always with you, I guess.
P2: I just think it means there's no escape, really.
P4: Yeah. For cyberbullying, it’s a lot more dangerous because…
P2: Because they’re always there, like.
P4: Now we always have, like, our phones on us or a computer or something. Like, there's always something, you
know. So, it’s a bit harder to escape.
P3: You're always going to feel like it’s there, just like it doesn’t go away. Like, even if it’s normal bullying, like,
you're going to get a chance after school or at school if that’s what the case is, but, like, with cyberbullying, it’s so
hard.
P2: As easily as you can block someone, they can make a new account. And I think that’s the worst bit of it because
you block someone and then, hey, they have a new account and they get at you from Viber, from WhatsApp and
Skype, and they just find every kind of pinprick to get at you.
P4: Like, if they want to get at you on social media, they will. Like, they’ll go for you. And, like, I've seen accounts of
people that are, like, literally making up fake identities of the person that they’re bullying, saying that’s like a new
account or something like that, and then saying just a bunch of terrible stuff. Like, if somebody really wants to
destroy you, they can. Like, if somebody has that hate in them… (School D, male and female participants, aged 14)
Negative Overthinking P8: …whenever people say things to me online like I tend to kind of like relive, I don't know like, I read the message
and I kind of relive the pain I went through like, if I read the message it just hurts…
P5: Ya over and over and over and over like overthinking about it like why did they say that about me what did I do
to make them say that stuff
P6: But like, you would be thinking like I don't even talk to them like so why would they say it
P4: And like if they were saying it face to face you could just try and avoid them and keep away from them but like
you always have your phone with you like and its always there
P8: Ya it’s there forever
P5: Ya like even though you can delete it’s still like there kind of (School A, females, aged 14)
Ya your just like 'oh it's not nothing I am overthinking it, it's making me sad but it shouldn't make me sad’ (School A,
female, aged 16)
It’s worse because you’re thinking ‘what did I do wrong’, is it something I did?’ And it’s in your brain, like you’re
distracted. (School B, male, aged 14)
You don’t have anyone really to talk to…you just think about it by yourself and like you keep thinking about it and
like you overthink everything and like you start thinking that like ‘oh, one person said this like maybe everyone is
thinking this?’ (School C, female, aged 14)
P4: Like, you're constantly thinking, like, who’s here trying to hurt me, you know? What did I do to get this person
to try and, like, ruin me?
P2: It’s the fear of the unknown (School D, male participants, aged 14)
When you don’t know who it is like you just have the worst thoughts like, oh my God, that could be say my best
friend like that’s saying that to me. You don’t know so you’re automatically thinking the worst. (School D, female,
aged 17)
(continued on next page)
4
Table 1 (continued)
The Impact of Negative Overthinking on Victims Lives I think you overthink everything like not even on the subject of bullying but even if you are in a shop and you
bought something then you are like 'oh I should have bought something else'…it's just part of your life (School A,
female, aged 14)
You probably wouldn't be able to sleep at night because you wouldn't stop thinking about it and you would be like
tired… I will just keep thinking about it and I won't sleep or anything (School A, female, 16)
If someone is saying something to you like constantly and it like is repetitive then you are going to start believing it
is true yourself so like you probably shut yourself off from everybody because you feel like that is the best thing to
do. You know you are nearly in their way or like a burden if you are around like you know (School A, female, aged
16)
Yeah, and like the person that they’re bullying is like, they’re going to feel like more insecure about themselves
because they don’t know who’s saying it about them. Like if it’s like one person or like a whole group of people and
like they might be like scared to go to like school the next day or something because they might not think that –
they might think that people might not like them and stuff (School C, male, aged 17)
Well, I guess they want to remain inconspicuous, kind of, like they don’t want to be in the spotlight. And if their
bully has been telling them that they’re, like, small and they’re not relevant and that kind of thing, like, they’re
going to believe that. Like, you're going to start eventually believing what your bully has been telling you. (School
D, male, aged 14)
Lose their self-confidence by like a huge amount and their self-image. And like they’d find it really hard to make
friends because like they’d been hurt before by people and they wouldn’t trust people. They wouldn’t really go out
of their comfort zone, I’d say. (School D, female, aged 17)
Suicide as a Means of Escape The people who have committed suicide you would see it on Facebook that they have hung themselves and killed
themselves, so like it must be from [cyber] bullying (School A, female, aged 14)
And like it's so common with suicides like and young people…if you hear that someone has died from suicide you
just automatically think that it was [cyber] bullying (School A, female, aged 16)
They’re thinking all day, oh, did he actually mean it, did he not, and then it gets stuck in your head the whole day.
It’s going around and around, and it might stay there for a week and then you might forget about it for a day and
it’ll come back and you’re just - after a while it just gets too much. (School B, male, aged 14)
Like if it was really bad, some people could commit suicide and stuff (School B, male, aged 14)
If you say like kill yourself and you don’t know he’s suffering from depression then they could actually have been
considering it before and that could reinforce that like (School B, male, aged 16)
All three of them are linked, like, the cyberbullying and depression and suicide like, because like we said,
cyberbullying, like, they don’t know when to stop and like, they say depression is like a dark tunnel with no light, so
basically, it just keeps getting worse and worse, like you can't find a way out, like and then, do you know, like, it
might get so bad that the person might just, like, worst case scenario, like is…[suicide] (School B, male, aged 17)
There are so many horrific actions like suicide and depression occurring from [cyberbullying] so we need to try and
help that, you know (School B, male, aged 17)
I’ve seen one there before, she took a picture of her in her underwear in front of the mirror and a load of the lads
started sharing it around on Facebook and her dad’s seen and then she just took her life because her dad’s seen
(School C, male, aged 16)
P3: People always say when someone dies, when something like that happens, it comes out people are saying, “Oh,
he killed himself because he was being bullied,” and they don’t look at home life, his mental state, how – they don’t
look at anything else bar what someone said on the internet. It might even have been one isolated taken out context
situation that is completely and utterly taken out of context and they blame that even though it might have been
something completely different
P6: Their dad might have been beating them, they might have been depressed, they might have had suicidal
thoughts other than that one time someone said on the internet.
P4: But they need to have blame, it’s pinned on that, and there’s the big, you know, committee “oh the internet is
evil we need to censor it”. (School C, males, aged 17)
Yeah, some people don’t even mean half the stuff online…they’ll just go at you and like basically try to say stuff to
get you rattled up, but online they keep on doing it, bit by bit, until you just burst practically. (School C, male, aged
16)
P4 (male): Like, if you're going to go out, go with a bang, I guess. Make sure everybody knows, everybody can see.
Like, see what you’ve done to me. See what you’ve made me do
P3 (female): So, really, maybe letting everyone else have a look at the pain that she’s [cyber victim] felt. Like, how
much everything’s-how mean everyone’s been to her and now she’s gone (School D, aged 14)
5
Table 1 (continued)
Theme 2: Barriers to Help-Seeking
Like I just feel like they just put it behind them and feel that they can get rid of it themselves and that there is no point in telling people because it is not really a big deal (School A,
female, age 16)
You need to tell someone but at the same time you can’t (School B, male aged 14).
That’s the scary thing though when people won’t talk to you about it and they’re scared to talk about it and then that’s when depression and you know, all that (School D, female, aged 17)
Needing Help Regarded as a Sign of Weakness P5: Because you don't want to be known that you are weak or that you have been bullied or stuff
RD: So if you admit that you are feeling hurt by it you see that as a weakness, why?
P6: Because like you can’t cope with it, you're not dealing with it, you have to get adults into it (School A, females, age 14)
I think the fear of telling someone is like what mostly stops people from coping with it. There is a fear of being
judged (School A, female, age 16)
P4: It’s like a whole weight on your shoulders until you tell someone. Like it would be really hard to tell someone.
RD: Why is it so hard?
P6: Because you’re meant to deal with it yourself. It’s almost like you’re kind of weak if you can’t sort something out
like this.
P1: It’s just the initial thing of saying ‘I am being bullied’. It’s just that initial sentence, going to your parents.
P6: It’s embarrassing as well.
P1: It kind of hurts you because it’s become like a real reality, you know (School B, male, aged 14)
Yeah, because there’s no protection. There’s nobody there – well, your parents are there but you don’t want to go to
them and say you’re being bullied because then you sound – you don’t want your parents to know you’re not
capable of defending yourself, I guess, you know. (School B, male, aged 14)
P2: Yeah, they [boys] put on a brave face, like.

RD: Why do you think boys do that?
P4: You just act the hard man, like.
P1: It’s the way we were brought up.
P4: Do not show emotion, like.
P2: It’s just you're seen as, like, weak if you do, like, it is the status of men, kind of, like…
P4: So society has looked at it for so long like that, if men show emotion like that like, it shows them as weak and
just ‘oh, he’s not really as much of a man as this person’ like that. You could go through the same thing, like. (School
B, males, aged 17)
It is kind of embarrassing with your family as well like because your brother has probably seen it as well like, and
they’re kind of awkward around you. You're embarrassed in that way as well. And they’d, like, be telling you to
stand up for yourself, like, and do something like but, if you know he’s bigger or stronger and he has more friends
that he can just bring in all this kind of stuff, like, it’s kind of… (School B, male, aged 17)
But you’ve also been putting on this face, like the big, macho person for the last how many years? And now, all of a
sudden, you just expect them to drop it and say, ‘Oh, I actually have depression’ (School B, male, aged 17)
You don’t want to be damaged…You don’t want people to think you’re small or you’re weak or you’re insecure or
you’re easy to attack. You want to look big, you want to look strong (School D, female, aged 17)
I’d say you’d tell your friends but you’d be kind of like messing. You’d be like oh, look what your man said to me
and you’d try and like make it light and make it funny but even if it’s… you wouldn’t let your friends know how
much it had hurt you. (School D, female, aged 17)
Young People Unable to Label and Express Feelings Or like a lot of people can't put into words how they feel, like express how they feel (School A, female, age 16)
Like I don't exactly know how to know if I have anxiety or how you know you have something. Like no one knows if
they have anxiety or not (School A, female, age 16)
It is very hard to put it into words like you may be feeling a certain way and it is hard to describe how you are
feeling to someone else because they are not going through what you are going through so I think that it is
important that people learn how to be able to express their feelings (School A, female, age 16)
Like, I don’t really know, like, depression, is it different, like? I don’t, like, understand, like, is it different, like, for
everyone else? I don’t even know how to ask the question, like (School B, male, age 17)
People our age don’t know what depression is (School B, male, age 17)
It’s hard to know if someone is depressed though, if there were symptoms or signs, I just wish there were, I don’t know like.
We should know, like, the symptoms or the signs of someone with depression. If a person’s hand was broken, you could see
it, like, but if their mind was, kind of, broken, you'd never see it, like. It just doesn't work like that (School B, male, age 17)
Or even like because mental health is such a huge thing at the moment, for the past few months so I think that like
even for us to learn about signs you know the signs, you know on social media, a lot of people can be like, you know,
Tweet things [about mental health] and you’re kind of like ‘oh my God’. And then you’d say to someone and they’re
like, no, I think they’re okay. It’s just probably spur of the moment. Like signs like that (School D, female, 17)
6
Table 1 (continued)
Lack of Confidence in Parents’ Ability to Provide I feel like they could nearly judge, not from their own because of how they are brought up about it and they don't
Appropriate Support understand the reality of it because OK like my mother might be on Facebook but she has like ten friends like you
know, but they don't see the reality of it whereas that is our life. My life is on social media (School A, female, aged
17)
And if you told your parents it would make them feel bad that they didn’t protect you from it like (School B, male,
age 14)
And the thing about depression, people… obviously depression is like severe depression. They don’t think about
moderate depression and mild depression. So, you could go to your parents and say, “Oh, I feel like I am depressed,”
and they’re like, “No, you’re not depressed. Depression is when you can’t get out of bed”. It’s not always! (School C,
female, aged 16)
We grew up through it all and they didn’t really. They didn't have cyberbullying when they were young. They don’t
know the extent of that, like (School B, male, aged 17)
I don’t think people have realised the effect of cyberbullying yet, like, older people, how bad it actually is. Like, we
sort of understand more because we might not have experienced it, but we've seen, like, aspects around it. I don’t
think older people realise it’s happening as bad as it actually is, because, like, every day we could just go on
Facebook and we see these things happening, but the older generation wouldn’t really, like (School B, male, aged
17)
Some parents would just be like, “Oh, just put your phone away so, like, just don’t look at it.” (School B, male, aged
17)
When it affects you, like when [parents] do something that actually has an impact on you and what people think of
you. You’re like ‘okay, no. Please don’t do this’. It’s like I don’t want my mum to like take my phone and that affect
me, I’d be bored (School C, female, aged 17)
P5: I think like even if you were to be bullied or if you were like upset about a comment or something from someone
and then like you went to sit down with your mum or whoever, your dad, whatever, and talked about it, I think like
my mum would be very like, ‘oh, you’re so stupid. Why would you be upset about something like that? Why would
that affect you?’ And then –
P3: That really makes it worse then.
P5: They wouldn’t get to the point that like they won’t realise that you’re really upset about this. They kind of
dismiss it and just be kind of like ‘why would you be so stupid enough to let that affect you?’
P5: They don’t understand.
P1: My mum would always say, ‘Oh, you should be focussing on your school and on your studies and shouldn’t be
like – ‘
P1: Take your phone then like. (School D, male and female participants, aged 14)
And you, kind of, don’t want your parents to know that you're in terrible pain. Like, no parent wants to hear that…
that their child is being bullied and is struggling mentally and it’s, like, crippling depression. Like, you know that
that would probably ruin them (School D, male, aged 14)
Yeah, like I know that like if I told my mum or something, she’d go ballistic and absolutely take my phone away
from me and all that. And I’m like no, that’s my phone (School D, female, aged 17)
Inappropriate School Interventions Because in like all these talks [in schools] they make it sound so easy like that just tell someone like it so easy but
it is not that easy (School A, female, aged 14)
It [educational talk] was like if you’re being bullied go straight to your teacher, and tell your parents. It was
misinformative like it made it seem like it was that easy…It’s not that simple (School B, male, aged 14)
P1: [Mental health] is just like an elephant in the room and no one wants to address it so they just leave it and sugar
coat it and no one sees how much of a big deal it actually is
P2: And it's becoming a big problem
P1: It's so common
P2: Everyone is talking about how bad it is but no one is doing anything about it.
RD: Who talks about how bad it is?
P1: Like even in politics and stuff you would at least hear someone say 'there is so much suicides'.
P2: On the news it would be like 'oh this person'
P1: And there's so much bullying and mental health and like people being down in themselves and so much
teenagers on anti-depressants and stuff because they are being bullied.
RD: So you are kind of hearing it in the news, in the media that mental health is a big issue but then at the same
time you feel like no one is doing anything about it?
P8: But there was like a tweet, I read it and it was like am teachers are more concerned about, because we have like
a week for World Book Day but when mental health day comes along no one did anything about it.
P2: And you have a week for like, what is it Irish week, Seachtain na Gaeilge [Irish language week] and then it's just
then there is nothing on bullying or anything
P1: All they care about is our Irish language, they are trying to get back all the 'culchies' and stuff but yet there are
people that are feeling so down in themselves and people are like 'oh you will be grand.' (School A, females, aged
16)
7
Table 1 (continued)
P3: I'd be afraid in case that [teachers] went off and told people…In case if the teachers started gossiping because
you wouldn't know like because if it was kind of serious she would obviously have to tell someone.
P1: I don't know I think the guidance counsellor in the school, she is a teacher also so
P3: Ya I feel like it should be someone outside the school.
P2: I would rather if it was someone from outside the school.
P3: It's hard to talk to a teacher who is also a guidance counsellor (School A, aged 16)
Yeah. I feel like a lot of the time [victims] keep it to themselves until it’s too bad and then you tell the teacher. Like I
feel like sometimes like teachers don’t know what to do about it. Like they just – like they tell the person stop but
like it never really stops (School C, female, aged 14)
I feel like they try to move the situation like on fast like get it over like in a day and like just say like okay, guys.
They just hear the story and honestly, it’s okay guys. You guys should be friends. They don’t really say what like
what this person should have done. They just say be friends. (School C, female, aged 14)
[Cyberbullying] is just one of those things that like is always going to happen like, that’s why it’s only going to get
worse in a way because technology’s always building, so I think coping, and like teaching people the effects of what
can help people and outcomes and what can actually happen to you (School C, female, aged 16)
You need the coping skills need to be taught, not like in the way that we were told about cyberbullying which was
basically, ‘It’s bad, don’t do it’…You need to teach people, ‘This is how you cope with it, this is how you talk to
people’ (School C, male, age 17)
P4: I want somebody to talk to me like you're [focus group facilitators] talking to us, like, you're letting us speak
and you're letting us speak maturely. Like, I don’t have to listen to you, like, giving me a whole lecture on how to,
like… we’re talking one-to-one, like, we’re in a small room. We can just talk and it’s simple (School D, male, aged
14)
P2: Yeah, we need someone to talk to us instead of someone saying, “This is Fa-ce-book. Fa-ce-book is bad.”
(Group laughing)
P4: It’s true, though. It’s true.
P3: That’s actually true (School D, male and female participants, aged 14)
P2: It was, kind of, patronising, kind of assuming that we didn’t know anything about technology, and it was going
over the basics when we already learned that when we were five, you know?
P4: Yeah, like, I knew all of that from a young age.
P3: It was the exact same one as last year.
RD: So, what would you have preferred?
P2: Something more adult.
P4: Yeah.
P2: Like, actually treat us the way we are and realise that we actually know a lot more than you think we do.
P4: Yeah, like, it’s a serious problem.
P3: It’s like they were showing us like Snapchat and Instagram and we were like we all have it so we know how to
block somebody. (School D, male and female participants, aged 14)
Like if this was a teacher here now we wouldn't say half the stuff we are saying to you now (School A, female, aged
16)
impact and more harmful than traditional bullying. While participants Participants discussed how young people, motivated by a fear of
perceived that victims of traditional bullying can recover and move on, missing out (“FOMO”) on peer interactions, use smartphones (internet
cyberbullying was viewed as a “dangerous” and “constant burden” that enabled mobile phones) “constantly” to engage with peers through
infiltrates victims’ “brains”. Core themes are presented in bold with sub- “social media” applications, primarily Instagram, Snapchat and
themes highlighted in italics. Text in italics conveys participants own Facebook. They indicated that although young people carry their
words and illustrative quotes are presented in Table 1. phones with them at all times social media is mostly used at home in the
evenings where there is free access to Wi-Fi and little restriction on
phone use. They revealed that it is in this context, at “home”, at “night”,
3.1. The psychological nature of cyberbullying and when “alone” in the “dark” that young people are most vulnerable
to cyberbullying.
3.1.1. Trapped by the omni-presence of cyber technology
A majority of participants perceived that while victims of traditional
bullying can choose to avoid perpetrators, find some respite in their 3.1.2. Negative overthinking
homes after school, or even move school if necessary, the omni-pre- Analysis indicated that young people exposed to cybervictimisation
sence of cyber technology in young people’s lives means that victims of are considered to be consumed by thoughts of their victimisation.
cyberbullying are exposed to relentless and invasive victimisation with, Participants described this as “overthinking”, an ongoing and negative
they believe, no means of “escape”. Some participants described cy- internal dialogue which intensifies when victims are alone. They ex-
berbullying as an “extension of traditional bullying” with cyber tech- plained that without the distraction of school, and in the absence of
nology allowing perpetrators to access victims even after the school day family or peers to provide perspective or a sense of protection, victims
and that for victims it feels like their abuser is always with them leaving can anguish over the causes and consequences of their victimisation
them with “no safe place to go”. and nervously anticipate the next episode of aggression.
8
Participants depicted victims being “taunt[ed]” by negative thoughts suicide”. Some participants believed that victims used suicide as a way
long after the cessation of cyberbullying, as perpetrators words and to express to others the “pain” they had experienced as a result of cy-
actions remain “stuck in [their] heads”. Further, they indicated that berbullying and to convey the damage that their perpetrators had
while young people are likely to forget the intricate details of hurtful caused.
comments made during face-to-face interactions, online content serves Many participants viewed cyberbullying as an additional burden for
as a “typed” and “constant reminder” of victimisation thereby main- young people who also struggled in other areas of their lives and that
taining its position at the forefront of victims minds. It was highlighted the accumulated impact on victims’ mental health pushed them toward
that cyber victims repeatedly read and analyse perpetrators’ dispara- suicide. Further, they believed that in some cases cyberbullying ex-
ging posts and that each engagement with the content causes victims to acerbated existing mental health problems such as anxiety and de-
“re-live the pain” experienced on initial receipt. pression thereby increasing victims’ vulnerability and reducing resi-
It was believed that perpetrators post ambiguous comments on so- lience. Participants articulated that it was common for perpetrators to
cial media with the intention of hurting a certain individual while tell victims to kill themselves, and some perceived that this had the
evading accountability. Victims were described as spending consider- potential to “reinforce” suicidal thoughts in victims already at risk of
able time “analysing” ambiguous social media content in attempts to suicide.
decipher if disparaging messages were in fact directed at them or if they On the other hand, a small minority of male participants, aged 17,
were “over-reacting” and making a “big-deal” out of nothing. Participants perceived that youth suicide is often incorrectly attributed to cyber-
highlighted that victims also agonise over anonymous messages, par- bullying. They believed that other factors contributing to suicide are
ticularly those which threaten victims or their families, in attempts to ignored while cyber technology is villainised by those looking for
discern perpetrators identity and the sincerity of their threats. They something to blame for young people’s deaths. In contrast, a majority of
indicated that, consequently, victims exist in a state of anxious ex- participants perceived that suicide among victims of cyberbullying was
pectation as without evidence to the contrary, they anticipate that common, particularly among young women. They referred to the recent
threats will be followed through. suicide of a female peer in their locality with sadness and disbelief and
The public nature of social media content serves to increase the many attributed this and the suicides of other young people to cyber-
humiliation experienced by victims and fuel negative thoughts. victimisation. Information about cyberbullying and suicide was gar-
Participants articulated that while it was unlikely that remarks made in nered from schools, the news, television talk shows, and also through
a face-to-face interaction would be brought to the attention of others, social media. Participants articulated how they had seen details of the
the often public nature of social media content means that there are motives and methods for cyberbullying-related suicide on Facebook and
almost always witnesses to perpetrators’ comments. Victims were be- they also discussed the live-streaming of suicides on this social media
lieved to be preoccupied with the possibility that perpetrators’ views platform. Some female participants in School A, aged 16, discussed the
were supported by others and that, consequently, they would be os- suicide of a young female in response to the non-consensual distribution
tracised by their peers. Participants highlighted that the ability for of her explicit images on Facebook remarking that this type of cyber-
others to engage with perpetrators’ comments, such as the ability to bullying was particularly harmful to females as “they get really badly
“like” or “comment” on a post, increases victims’ concerns regarding abused over it”. Many participants referred specifically to the well-
consensus. publicised cases of Phoebe Prince and Amanda Todd, young females
from the United States of America and Canada respectively, who ex-
3.1.3. The impacts of negative overthinking on victims lives perienced cyberbullying before taking their own lives. Some partici-
Female participants in particular discussed the impact of enduring pants perceived that the media’s tendency to focus on the more serious
victimisation and negative overthinking on young people. They ar- cases of cyberbullying, those resulting in suicide, caused victims to
ticulated that victims’ negative thought process often extended beyond question the validity of their cyberbullying experience and contributing
thoughts of cyberbullying to other aspects of their lives. Worn down by to feelings of paranoia.
negative thoughts, victims were thought to be at risk of eventually
believing perpetrators’ claims with negative consequences for their 3.2. Barriers to Help-Seeking
“confidence” and “self-esteem”. Victims were described as over-analysing
day-to-day experiences and interactions and assuming negative intent Participants highlighted that although young people are instructed
in the words and actions of others. Participants remarked that victims to “tell someone” if they are affected by cyberbullying, “it is not that easy”
“fear being judged” and worry excessively about saying or doing the to ask for help. While they demonstrated a desire among young people
wrong thing or dressing in a way that might provoke perpetrators. They to seek support, they identified a number of barriers that constrain
indicated that ultimately victims with low “self-worth” will “close them from doing so. They articulated that, therefore, victims are forced
themselves off” from their peers. to carry the burden of cyberbullying alone with negative consequences
Additionally, negative overthinking was believed to interfere with for their mental health and wellbeing.
victims’ sleep leading to chronic tiredness. Participants perceived that
fatigue and a preoccupation with thoughts of cyberbullying make it 3.2.1. Needing help regarded as a sign of weakness
difficult for victims to concentrate in school. It was noted that some Analysis indicated that victims of cyberbullying experience a deep
victims of cyberbullying avoid attending school altogether because they sense of shame which discourages them from seeking support.
fear meeting perpetrators, anticipate the next cyber-attack, and/or Participants stated that it is “embarrassing” for young people to admit
worry that their peers “might not like them” having witnessed perpe- that they have been targeted and “upset” by perpetrators of cyberbul-
trators’ public and disparaging comments. lying as this is viewed as an admission and disclosure of personal in-
securities. They remarked that in spite of being hurt, victims often make
3.1.4. Suicide as a means of escape light of perpetrators’ actions in the company of their peers in attempts
Participants believed that “omni-present” cyberbullying and in- to give the impression that they are unconcerned. Participants de-
cessant overthinking, which often continues long after the direct actions monstrated a belief that young people should be able to cope with such
of the perpetrator, generate a deepening “depression” in victims until it problems independently. Needing adult intervention to deal with cy-
becomes “too much” for victims to cope with. They emphasised that the berbullying was viewed as a sign of “weakness”.
burden of cyberbullying increases “bit by bit” until victims cannot “take Participants articulated that it was especially difficult for young
it anymore”. Participants perceived that there is “no way out” for victims males to admit that they struggled with victimisation. They indicated
and they articulated that for some, the “only escape is to just commit that young males put on a “brave face” and acted “the hard man” in
9
response to cyberbullying as they were expected to appear capable and including “sex education, mental health, and cyberbullying”. They were
“strong”. Some male participants stated that as young males were raised disillusioned that in spite of discussions about cyberbullying and sui-
to convey a “macho” persona it was unfair and unrealistic to expect cide in the “news” and in “politics”, in schools, where young people had
them to “drop it” and show emotion or admit to a struggling with their an expectation of support, mental health was the “elephant in the room”.
mental health. They specifically mentioned feeling too embarrassed to Participants expressed disbelief at their schools lack of action to support
initiate discussions about cyberbullying or mental health with male young people with their mental health particularly following the sui-
family members as they feared being perceived as “soft” or as a “pussy”. cide of their female peer. They indicated that silence on these issues
contributed to young people’s paranoia that they were “overreacting”
3.2.2. Young people unable to identify and express feelings and “making a big deal” out of nothing.
Older participants, those aged 16–17, indicated that young people Across the different schools and year groups, participants indicated
are unable to recognise or “express” the impact that cyberbullying has that the education they received on cyberbullying in school was in-
on their mental health. They admitted that they did not have the adequate and unhelpful as it focused on cyber security and covered “the
knowledge to make sense of or to articulate the negative thoughts and same boring thing over and over again”. They experienced this process as
feelings that they experienced as a result of cybervictimisation. “patronising” as it ignored young people’s proficiency in technology and
Participants revealed that they were aware of mental health terms such social media. They argued that advice to “block” perpetrators or not to
as “anxiety” and “depression” but struggled with defining them and with “add people you don’t know” was inconsistent with and ignorant of
identifying the associated “symptoms and signs”. They described how young people’s use of social media. Further, many articulated that
this lack of understanding generated fear in young people as they school efforts to address cyberbullying were “awkward” as in-class
worried whether their feelings were normal, were in fact something discussions were often delivered by teachers or by guidance counsellors
more serious, or if they were overreacting. Further, many participants who also had a teaching role. Participants indicated that they did not
expressed concern about the wellbeing of their peers, and a desire to feel comfortable discussing personal or sensitive issues with someone
offer support. However, they indicated that young people did not have who would be teaching them at another time and emphasised that their
the capacity to recognise signs of distress in others, to broach the openness in the focus group discussion was facilitated by the absence of
subject of mental health if necessary, or to respond appropriately to school staff.
peers’ requests for help. Teachers’ efforts to intervene in episodes of cyberbullying were
described as “quick-fix” and superficial. Participants expressed little
3.2.3. Lack of confidence in parents’ ability to provide appropriate support confidence in the sincerity of their offers of help or their ability to
A lack of confidence in parents’ ability to provide appropriate provide meaningful support. The majority highlighted that in attempts
support to victims was expressed. Given that parents did not have first- to “move the situation on fast” teachers were likely to encourage young
hand experience of growing up with cyber technology, it was perceived people to “be friends” in response to a disclosure of cyberbullying.
that they could not comprehend the significant role it played in young Participants emphasised that this is an unfair and unrealistic expecta-
people’s lives. Participants remarked that parents could not “empathise” tion which belittles victims’ experiences. Further, they also highlighted
with young people’s experience of cyberbullying and often dismissed that this form of intervention often results in victims being labelled as
the “reality” and “extent” of cybervictimisation and its impact on young “rats” for reporting cyberbullying to an adult and leads to an in-
people’s mental health and wellbeing. Participants indicated that in tensification of victimisation when the disclosure is brought to the at-
response to young people’s attempts to discuss cyberbullying parents tention of perpetrators.
advised young people “not to look at it” or to “just put [their] phone
away”. They also highlighted that young people fear confiscation of 4. Discussion
their mobile phones by parents in attempts to resolve cyberbullying and
that this deterred young people from disclosing to them. This study contributes to the limited qualitative research on cy-
Many participants perceived that parents were disinclined to discuss berbullying. Specifically, it gives voice to young people’s perceptions of
mental health and as a result were dismissive of young people’s at- the mental health impacts of cybervictimisation and the barriers that
tempts to voice concerns. They articulated that their parents were not prevent victims from seeking social support. Young people’s perspec-
“sympathetic” to young people’s day-to-day struggles with mental health tives on the impact of cybervictimisation vary in the literature (Cassidy
as they only considered the extremes of mental illness to be an issue. et al., 2013). This study supports the view that the unique features the
Participants attributed this “old-fashioned” approach to their parents’ of cyber world increase the severity of cyberbullying over and above
upbringing during a time when mental health struggles were “brushed that of traditional bullying and contribute to considerable psychological
over”. distress in victims (Dooley et al., 2009; Langos, 2015; Mishna et al.,
A minority of participants expressed a desire to protect their parents 2009; Nocentini et al., 2010; Smith et al., 2008; Tokunaga, 2010).
from the pain of knowing that their child was in “terrible pain” as a Cyberbullying was described by participants as more psychological in
result of cyberbullying. These participants were reluctant to report its nature and impact than traditional bullying with increased deleter-
cyberbullying to their parents as they perceived that their lack of ious effect on the mental health and wellbeing of victims. Findings
knowledge about the cyber world and inability to protect their child indicate that the negative impact of cyberbullying on young people’s
would cause them undue upset and worry. mental health manifests as a negative and enduring internal dialogue
fuelled by the omni-present, pervasive, and permanent nature of cyber
3.2.4. Inappropriate school intervention interactions. Participants reported a lack of confidence among young
Participants anticipated that cyberbullying will worsen with the people regarding their ability to cope and identified a number of per-
expansion of technology and expressed a desire to “learn how to cope” ceived barriers to seeking social support. They believed that suicide is a
and talk about their experiences and feelings “more openly”. The ma- viable escape route for cyber victims entrapped by cybervictimisation
jority of participants articulated that young people look to their school and the ensuing negative thought process. Findings are considered in
for support and guidance with regard to cyberbullying and mental the context of existing evidence and theory and recommendations are
health as this is the setting where their day-to-day lives play out; made for research, policy, and practice.
however, they did not believe that young people’s needs were being met The Transactional Theory of Stress and Coping provides a frame-
in this context. In particular, participants aged 16–17 were frustrated work to understand young people’s experience as described in this
that schools focused on topics which they perceive as irrelevant to their study (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, 1987). This theory suggests that when
lives while ignoring those considered of importance to young people faced with a stressor, such as cybervictimisation, an individual first
10
evaluates the situation to ascertain if it is a threat and second assesses 2012; Price & Dalgleish, 2010; Tokunaga, 2010). In contrast, findings
the changeability of the situation and their coping resources (Lazarus & from this study indicate that young people are unlikely to avoid social
Folkman, 1984). Decisions made at each stage determine the im- media due to their “fear of missing out” on peer interactions. Disenga-
plementation of either problem-focused or emotion-focused coping ging from social media in response to cybervictimisation was not raised
strategies (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, 1987). Problem-focused strate- as a potential coping strategy in any of the focus groups. This highlights
gies, such as seeking support, address the problem and prevent it from the integral role of cyber technology in young people’s lives and the
reoccurring while emotion-focused approaches direct the issue inward influence that it has on their health and wellbeing. This study suggests
and can take the form of avoidance, escape, or feelings of helplessness that rather than distance themselves from harmful content, cyber vic-
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, 1987; Parris et al., 2012; Raskauskas & tims revisit it obsessively in attempts to establish the causes and con-
Huynh, 2015; Völlink, Bolman, Dehue, & Jacobs, 2013). Active or sequences of their victimisation. This behaviour is facilitated by the
problem-focused strategies have been shown to mitigate the negative omni-present, pervasive, and permanent nature of cyber interactions.
impacts of cybervictimisation while passive or emotion related coping Findings indicate that cyber victims internalise their problems in the
is associated with depressive symptoms and is detrimental to victims form of both rumination and worry, unproductive and negative thought
health and wellbeing (Machmutow, Perren, Sticca, & Alsaker, 2012; processes which exacerbate and maintain negative effect (Hong, 2007;
Parris et al., 2012; Perren et al., 2012). In line with previous research, Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, 1987). Rumination involves repetitively and
findings from this study indicate that victims of cyberbullying experi- passively going over past events, wondering why they happened, and
ence hopelessness in the face of cybervictimisation. Feeling powerless trying to establish meaning; it serves to convince the individual that
to change their situation they commonly internalise problems and en- they are in a hopeless position and so they remain in a negative state
gage in ineffective emotion related coping (Völlink et al., 2013). It is of unable to take action to address the issue (Hong, 2007; Nolen-
note that young people in this study described negative emotional re- Hoeksema, Wisco, & Lyubomirsky, 2008). Rumination is considered to
actions in response to the receipt of ambiguous messages online. Due to be a significant factor in the onset and maintenance of depression. The
uncertainty regarding the intent of the sender, young people are unable literature suggests that a focus on negative thoughts prevents problem
to establish if the situation is threatening. It is possible, therefore, that solving in stressful situations and as such sustains a depressed mood
they remain stuck at the evaluation stage of the Stress and Coping (Hong, 2007). Cyberbullying is strongly associated with depression
framework and are restricted from engaging effective coping strategies (Bottino et al., 2015) and findings from this study support research with
(Lazarus & Folkman, 1984, 1987). Further, participants perceived that college-age adults which found that rumination mediates the associa-
parents, school staff, and the media are primarily concerned with ex- tion between cybervictimisation and depressive symptoms (Feinstein,
treme cases of cyberbullying and are, therefore, dismissive of episodes Bhatia, & Davila, 2014). Participants in the current study described a
considered less serious. The absence of validation appears to encourage “deepening depression” in adolescent cyber victims in response to in-
rumination in victims as they try to determine if they are right to be escapable negative thoughts fuelled by the features of cyber technology.
upset or are just overreacting. The literature supports the notion that Worry, although a similar process to rumination, is future oriented,
adults lack of validation regarding young people’s bullying experiences and is described as a negative chain of thoughts focused on anticipated
contributes to their distress (Mishna & Alaggia, 2005) negative outcomes (Nolen-Hoeksema et al., 2008); it is a defining fea-
This study indicates that cyber victims perceived inability to seek ture of anxiety disorders which are common in victims of cyberbullying
support maintains and exacerbates feelings of distress, hopelessness, (Fisher et al., 2016; Hong, 2007; Kowalski et al., 2014). Worrying un-
and entrapment. Seeking social support is consistently identified as an earths ways to avoid or cope with future negative occurrences, such as
effective strategy in response to cybervictimisation (Hellfeldt, López- the realisation of threats made by anonymous perpetrators or the po-
Romero, & Andershed, 2019; Perren et al., 2012; Raskauskas & Huynh, tential negative outcomes of seeking social support as identified in this
2015). However, in support of previous research, this study demon- study. In concurrence with established symptoms of of social anxiety,
strates cyber victims reluctance to report cyberbullying (Dooley et al., participants in the current study also indicated that cyber victims worry
2012; Slonje & Smith, 2008; Smith et al., 2008). Participants reiterated about inciting criticism by saying or doing the wrong thing and alter
a number of barriers to help-seeking behaviour previously identified in their behaviour accordingly or withdraw from their peers to avoid
the literature (Betts & Spenser, 2017; Cassidy et al., 2013; Hamm et al., making mistakes (Pabian & Vandebosch, 2016). In line with previous
2015; Jacobs, Goossens, Dehue, Völlink, & Lechner, 2015; Mishna et al., research, this study indicates cyber victims experience sleep dis-
2009; Parris et al., 2012; Šléglová & Černá, 2011; Smith et al., 2008). Of turbances, concentration difficulties, and school avoidance in victims of
note, this study’s findings indicate that embarrassment at being tar- cyberbullying (Hamm et al., 2015; Sourander, Brunstein Klomek, &
geted by cyberbullying and shame due to needing mental health sup- Ikonen, 2010). According to the evidence, sleep plays a crucial role in
port discourage young people from disclosing victimisation. Young the regulation of emotion among adolescents (Shochat, Cohen-Zion, &
males in particular were viewed as unlikely to report victimisation as Tzischinsky, 2014); it is possible, therefore, that sleep disturbances,
male expressions of vulnerability were perceived to be in contrast with caused by rumination and worry, exacerbate psychological distress in
societal ideals of masculinity. Stigma is widely reported in the literature victims of cyberbullying. It is of note that previous research demon-
as a barrier to help seeking for mental health (Gulliver, Griffiths, & strates increased suicide attempts in young people who sleep less than
Christensen, 2010; Rickwood et al., 2005). eight hours per night (McMahon et al., 2017).
An important contribution of this study is its identification that a The association between cyberbullying and suicidal behaviours is
lack of emotional competence may prevent help-seeking in victims of well established in the literature (John et al., 2018; Katsaras et al., 2018;
cyberbullying. Emotional competence is the ability to identify, describe, Kowalski et al., 2014; van Geel et al., 2014). This is a serious concern as
understand, and manage emotions in an effective way (Rickwood et al., suicide is the second most common cause of death in young people
2005). Reflecting the experience of participants in this study, young worldwide (Hawton et al., 2012). Research shows that depressive
people with low emotional competence are unlikely to have the lan- symptoms mediate the relationship between cyberbullying and suicidal
guage and skills to recognise, interpret, and disclose emotional ex- ideation, particularly in females who are more likely to internalise ne-
periences thereby restricting opportunities for the provision of support gative situations than their male peers (Medrano, Lopez Rosales, &
and maintaining negative effect (Rickwood, Deane, & Wilson, 2007). Gámez-Guadix, 2018; Mitchell et al., 2016). This study highlights young
In previous studies young people reported that they delete, avoid, or people’s perception that suicide becomes a viable option for cyber vic-
block disparaging messages as a way of coping with cyberbullying and tims who experience depression in response to internal entrapment in the
these coping strategies are recommended by young people and re- form of incessant rumination and worry and external entrapment in the
searchers alike (Cassidy et al., 2013; Jacobs et al., 2015; Parris et al., form of inescapable victimisation (Gilbert & Allan, 1998). According to
11
the integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour 4.2. Implications

(O'Connor & Kirtley, 2018) entrapment drives the emergence of suicidal
ideation and intent. Using this theory as a framework, findings from the Even though most victims of bullying do not engage in suicidal
current study suggest that defeat and humiliation in response to cyber- behaviour, and it is unlikely that cyberbullying alone leads to suicide
victimisation are maintained by the emotion focused coping strategies (Cassidy et al., 2013), the potential harm to young people necessitates
adopted by cyber victims. Relentless victimisation, facilitated by the that more be done in research, policy, and practice to protect those who
omni-presence of cyber technology, and incessant rumination and worry, are vulnerable (Hinduja & Patchin, 2019). Findings from this study
fuelled by the ambiguous, pervasive and permeant nature of cyber in- suggest that schools are not meeting young people’s needs with regard
teractions, contribute to feelings of entrapment. The sense of entrapment to cyberbullying and mental health, highlighting instead inappropriate
is bolstered by cyber victims’ sensitivity to the perceived social evalua- and ineffective cyberbullying intervention efforts. There is a need for
tion of others and their inability to seek social support. With no prospect school-based interventions which improve young people’s coping skills
of escape, cyber victims perceive suicide as the only way out. O'Connor and reduce feelings of entrapment. Interventions should focus on the
and Kirtley (2018) hypothesise that exposure to inappropriate re- removal of barriers which prevent young people from engaging in help-
presentations of suicide via traditional and new media channels may seeking behaviours. The young people involved in this study expressed
increase the likelihood that suicidal ideation will escalate to suicidal a need for mental health education, specifically, to learn more effective
behaviour. Of note, findings from this study indicate that young people ways of coping with distress. Strategies to increase young people’s
are frequently exposed to accounts of suicide in young victims of cy- emotional competence should be implemented within the school setting
berbullying via the media including news outlets, television talk shows, to empower young people to identify, describe, understand, and
and social media platforms. This may contribute to modelling or imita- manage their emotions (Rickwood et al., 2005). Further, efforts should
tion of suicidal behaviour in cyber victims (Luxton, June, & Fairall, 2012; be made to improve young people’s mental health literacy, that is their
O'Connor & Kirtley, 2018). “knowledge and beliefs about mental disorders which aid their recognition,
management, or prevention” (Jorm et al., 1997). The literature re-
4.1. Strengths and limitations commends that these skills should be taught before the need for them
arises (Rickwood et al., 2005). As findings from this study indicate that
Qualitative research on cyberbullying is relatively scarce (Smith, young people in the junior cycle are vulnerable to cyberbullying, efforts
2019). In particular, there is little qualitative research related to the should be initiated at primary school level.
mental health impacts of cybervictimisation and how these are ex- Popular anti-bullying programmes involve components delivered by
perienced by young people (Kwan et al., 2020). This study makes a school staff (Salmivalli & Poskiparta, 2012). However, in support of
valuable contribution to the literature as it provides insight into young previous research (McMahon, 2017), findings from this study indicate
people’s perception of the psychosocial impact of cybervictimisation that this approach may discourage the meaningful participation of
and identifies barriers which prevent cyber victims from seeking social young people. Future research should explore the role and impact of the
support. The involvement of young people as co-researchers is an im- facilitator in the implementation of school-based interventions. Uti-
portant and novel strength of this research. The Advisory Group pro- lising external facilitators, rather than teachers or guidance counsellors,
vided a unique perspective on the design, conduct, and interpretation of in their delivery may enhance existing efforts. In addition, young
this study thereby facilitating the appropriate and meaningful partici- people indicated a preference for non-judgemental participatory in-
pation of their peers as research participants. itiatives involving peer discussion groups, accessible language, and in
This paper reports findings from an exploratory study which ex- which young people are treated with respect.
plored post-primary school students’ perspectives on cyberbullying in Interventions should also be targeted at potential support networks
general, not their own experiences, and so we did not assess history or particularly peers, parents, and school staff to foster an environment that
frequency of cyberbullying or participants psychological state prior to encourages help-seeking and to ensure appropriate and effective re-
participation. Research indicates that depression, anxiety and low self- sponses to disclosures of cyberbullying. As noted in previous research
esteem may be both consequences of and precursors to bullying with school principals there is a need for training, resources, workshops,
(Kowalski & Limber, 2013). It is possible that pre-existing psychological and guidelines for school staff (Foody, Murphy, Downes, & O’Higgins
conditions may have influenced participant views on the mental health Norman, 2018). Additionally, parents must be empowered to understand
impacts of cybervictimisation and the experiences of those victimised. and engage with the cyber world. Focusing on emotional competence
To avoid socially desirable responses in the focus group setting, parti- and mental health literacy in schools, as mentioned above, will empower
cipants were not asked about their personal experiences of cybervicti- peers to support each other. In the knowledge that victims are currently
misation although many participants volunteered this information. It is unlikely to report victimisation, those in contact with young people must
possible that this was a direct result of the safe physical and social space be enabled to identify and take steps to remedy signs of distress. As well
created through the involvement of the Advisory Group. However, as a as peers, parents, and school personnel, this may include primary care
result it was not explicitly known if participants were victims of cy- services including general practitioners, families, youth services, com-
berbullying, therefore, findings should be interpreted as representing munities, sporting organisations, and/or other clubs or outlets in which
young people’s general perceptions of the mental health impacts of young people are involved. Findings from this study suggest that social
cybervictimisation. One-to-one interviews with cybervictims, although withdrawal, lack of concentration, school avoidance, and fatigue may
not favoured by the young involved in this study (Ref: undisclosed for indicate distress in young people. It is worth noting that participants in
review purposes), may produce different results. this study used the term “overthinking” to describe the mental health
It is important to note that participants in this study had experi- impact of cybervictimisation. Adults should be mindful that the terms
enced the suicide of a female peer in the months prior to data collec- used by young people to describe their emotions may not obviously in-
tion. It is possible that this influenced the strong focus on suicide during dicate distress. In the instance of a disclosure it is important that adults
the focus groups and so related findings should be interpreted with this listen to and validate victims’ experiences. Young people should be re-
in mind. However, the link between cybervictimisation and suicide is assured that their concerns are legitimate, significant, and deserving of
well established in the literature and this study provides insight into attention and support (Vaillancourt, Faris, & Mishna, 2017). Any course
young people’s perceptions of the pathways leading to this outcome. As of action should be developed collaboratively with the young person and,
with all qualitative studies, the generalisability of our findings is lim- importantly, acted upon.
ited. However, as the findings of this study concur with much of the Finally, it is vital that media outlets adhere to guidelines for the safe
related literature it suggests that they are not unique to this location. reporting of suicide in victims of cyberbully to reduce the likelihood of
12
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CRediT authorship contribution statement
Cross, D., Lester, L., Barnes, A., Cardoso, P., & Hadwen, K. (2015). If It's about me, why do
it without me? Genuine student engagement in school cyberbullying education.
Rebecca Dennehy: Conceptualization, Methodology, Investigation, Retrieved from International Journal of Emotional Education, 7(1), 35–51. http://0-
search.ebscohost.com.library.ucc.ie/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eric&AN=
Data curation, Formal analysis, Writing - original draft, Visualization.
EJ1085606&site=ehost-live.
Sarah Meaney: Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing. Mary David-Ferdon, C., & Hertz, M. F. (2007). Electronic media, violence, and adolescents: An
Cronin: Methodology, Formal analysis, Writing - review & editing. Ella emerging public health problem. Journal of Adolescent Health, 41(6 Suppl 1), S1–5.
Arensman: Formal, Analysis, Writing - review & editing, Supervision. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jadohealth.2007.08.020.
Della Cioppa, V., O'Neil, A., & Craig, W. (2015). Learning from traditional bullying in-
terventions: A review of research on cyberbullying and best practice. Aggression and
Declaration of Competing Interest Violent Behavior, 23, 61–68. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2015.05.009.
Dennehy, R., Meaney, S., Walsh, K. A., Sinnott, C., Cronin, M., & Arensman, E. (2020).
Young people's conceptualizations of the nature of cyberbullying: A systematic re-
The authors declare that they have no known competing financial view and synthesis of qualitative research. Aggression and Violent Behavior, 101379.
interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influ- https://doi.org/10.1016/j.avb.2020.101379.
ence the work reported in this paper. Department of Children and Youth Affairs (2011). Children first: National guidance for the
protection and welfare of children. Dublin: Government Publications.
Department of Children and Youth Affairs (2012). Guidance for developing ethical research
Acknowledgements projects involving children. Dublin: Department of Children and Youth Affairs.
Department of Education and Science (2005). DEIS (Delivering Equality Of Opportunity
In Schools): An action plan for educational inclusion. Retrieved from https://www.
We would like to thank the school staff involved in the facilitation of
education.ie/en/Publications/Policy-Reports/deis_action_plan_on_educational_
this research. We would particularly like to acknowledge the Young inclusion.pdf.
Person’s Advisory Group for their valuable contribution to the design, Deschamps, R., & McNutt, K. (2016). Cyberbullying: What's the problem? Canadian Public
Administration, 59(1), 45–71. https://doi.org/10.1111/capa.12159.
conduct, and interpretation of this study. We would like to thank the
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young people who participated in the focus groups for their candid theoretical and conceptual review. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie/Journal of Psychology,
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Mahony MPH for her much appreciated support in data collection and Dooley, J. J., Gradinger, P., Strohmeier, D., Cross, D., & Spiel, C. (2012). Cyber-victimi-
sation: the association between help-seeking behaviours and self-reported emotional
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Children and Youth Services Review 111 (2020) 104872

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Children and Youth Services Review

The psychosocial impacts of cybervictimisation and barriers to seeking T

A RT ICLE INFO ABSTRACT

Theme 1: The Psychological Nature of Cyberbullying

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Themes and Sub-Themes Illustrative Quotes

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Themes and Sub-Themes Illustrative Quotes

Theme 2: Barriers to Help-Seeking

P2: Yeah, they [boys] put on a brave face, like.

(continued on next page)

Themes and Sub-Themes Illustrative Quotes

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Themes and Sub-Themes Illustrative Quotes

the integrated motivational–volitional model of suicidal behaviour 4.2. Implications

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