Subhasish Chandra

Basic Semiconductor
Assistant Professor
Devices & Applications Department of Physics
(Diodes, Rectifiers, Transistors, Operational Amplifiers,
Solar Cells, Photoelectric Sensors and Remote Sensing) Institute of Forensic Science, Nagpur
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Semiconductors

Intrinsic Semiconductor Band Diagram

Integrated Electronics by J. Millman & C. Halkias
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Semiconductors

P - Type Semiconductor Band Diagram

Integrated Electronics by J. Millman & C. Halkias
 4

Semiconductors

N - Type Semiconductor Band Diagram

Integrated Electronics by J. Millman & C. Halkias
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PN Junction
Due to the difference in
concentration of electrons and holes
on the two sides of the junction, the
electrons in the N-region tend to
diffuse towards the P-region and the
holes in the P-region do so towards
N-region.

This process is called as diffusion.
The diffused charge carriers
combine at the junction to
A P-N junction is a metallurgical boundary neutralize each other to form
in a semiconductor crystal in which, holes immobile positive ions in N region
are the majority carriers on one side (P- and negative ions in the P-region on
Type) and electrons are the majority
both sides of the junction.
carriers on the other side (N-Type).
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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PN Junction
A charge free space is formed near the
junction.
It’s called as depletion layer.
The diffusion continues till the
materials on both sides equalize their
Fermi levels.
An electric potential V0 develops across
the junction barrier.
This potential is called as Junction
Potential or Barrier Potential.
Zero Bias: When the P-N junction is in
P N equilibrium, the barrier potential does
not allow the carriers to cross the
junction. Hence, there is no current
Symbol flow across the junction.
Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja
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PN Junction
When the P-N junction is connected in
such a way that the positive terminal of
the battery is connected to P-region and
the negative to the N-region, the P-N
junction is said to be forward biased.
It reduces the potential barrier and the
width of depletion layer.
It results in the flow of holes and
electrons across the barrier.
Once the barrier is overcome, the
junction resistance becomes almost
zero.
This ensures the flow of current
Forward Biasing through the junction.

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PN Junction
When the P-N junction is connected
in such a way that the positive
terminal of the battery is connected
to N-region and the negative to the P-
region, the P-N junction is said to be
reverse biased.
It results in increasing the potential
barrier and the width of depletion
layer.
Under reverse bias mode, there is no
current due to the majority carriers
(holes and electrons).
Reverse Biasing Although there is a small current (in
µA) due to minority carriers.
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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PN Junction

Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja

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Rectifier
Rectification: This property of it makes it a very
good contender for rectification
The process in which harmonic a.c.
purposes.
voltage is converted into a
unidirectional voltage (d.c.) is Diodes can be joined in different
known as rectification. combinations to form different
A circuit which facilitates kinds of rectifiers.
rectification is called as a Rectifier. The three types of diode rectifiers
A P-N junction diode offers are:
negligible resistance when forward Half Wave Rectifier
biased and offers a very large
Full Wave Rectifier
resistance when reverse biased.
Bridge Rectifier
Thus, it serves as a unidirectional
device.
Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta
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Rectifier
When connected to a.c. supply, the rectifier
returns pulses of unidirectional current as
the output.
Since, this rectifier works only for the
positive half cycle, the rectifier is called as
the Half Wave Rectifier.
In the first positive half cycle of the supply
Half Wave Rectifier
er. The required circuit for a Half-wave rectifier is as voltage, diode D is forward biased.
Hence, it conducts and output voltage (V0)
When a.c. supply is connected to a is obtained on the load resistance RL.
diode it will conduct only when
In the next negative half cycle, diode D is
polarities match with forward bias. reverse biased and hence does not conduct.
For the other half-cycle, the diode There is no output obtained in this half
is reverse biased and doesn’t cycle.
conduct any current. Thus, only half cycle output is obtained.
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Rectifier

er. The negativecircuit

The required maximum voltage rectifier
for a Half-wave known isasas
the Peak Inverse Voltage (PIV) should be
less than the breakdown voltage so that
the circuit works smoothly during
negative half cycle.
The output is not exactly unidirectional.
It contains changing component called as Diode Diode
ripples. Conducts Conducts

These are removed using filter circuits.

Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja
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Rectifier
In the first positive half cycle of the
supply voltage, diode D1 is forward
biased and diode D2 is reverse biased.
D1 conducts and output voltage (V0) is
obtained on the load resistance RL.
In the next negative half cycle of the
supply voltage, diode D2 is forward
Full Wave Rectifier
biased and diode D1 is reverse biased.
Two identical diodes D1 and D2 are used in a Full-
Wave rectifier to obtain full output during D2 conducts and output voltage (V0) is
complete cycle of supply voltage.
obtained on the load resistance RL.
A centre-tapped transformer is used in this case.
During positive half cycle, D1 conducts as it is Full wave rectifier requires two diodes
forward biased and D2 is reverse biased. and a centre-tapped transformer. It
In negative half cycle vice-versa happens. Thus, a increases the cost of the circuit. The PIV
complete output is obtained. is also twice that of a Half-Wave Rectifier.

Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta

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Rectifier

Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh

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Rectifier
In the first positive half cycle of the supply
voltage, diode D4 and diode D2 are forward
biased and diode D1 and diode D3 are reverse
biased.
Hence, D4 and D2 conducts, the current takes
the path A→D4→RL→D2→B and output
voltage (V0) is obtained on the load resistance
RL.
Full Wave Bridge Rectifier
In the next negative half cycle of the supply
Four diodes are interconnected to form a bridge. voltage, diode D1 and diode D3 are forward
Two terminals are connected to the secondary of biased and diode D2 and diode D4 are reverse
the transformer while remaining two are connected biased.
to the load.
Hence, D1 and D3 conducts and the current
In this method ordinary transformers can be used takes the path B→D3→RL→D1→A and output
in place of costly centre-tapped transformer.
voltage (V0) is obtained on the load resistance
The PIV is half that of the Full-Wave rectifier. RL.
Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja
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Rectifier

Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta

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Transistor

NPN: In this a lightly doped P-type

semiconductor is sandwiched between
William Shockley invented Transistors two heavily doped N- types.
which replaced the bulky vacuum triodes
in the amplifiers. Transistors are
semiconductor devices consisting of three
regions separated by two P-N junctions.
Transistor means ‘Transfer + Resistor’
i.e. A device which transfers charge PNP: In this a lightly doped N-type
carriers from a low resistance region to a semiconductor is sandwiched between
high resistance region. two heavily doped P- types.
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Transistor
Operation of NPN Transistor:
The emitter-base junction is
forward biased by the VEE battery
and the collector-base junction is
reverse biased by VCC battery.
The potential at emitter-base
Biasing of Transistors: junction is reduced thus facilitating
For normal working of a transistor, the flow of electrons from the heavily
emitter-base junction should be forward doped emitter into the lightly doped
biased to inject the charge carriers into P-type base.
the base and the base-collector junction
has to be reverse biased to accept the The reverse biased collector-base
charge carriers in the collector region. junction draws most of the
electrons into the collector terminal.
Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja
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Transistor
Therefore, hole diffusion current is less
than that of electron diffusion current.
The total current practically consists of
electron current flowing from emitter
to base. It constitutes the emitter
current IE.

As the Emitter-Base junction is forward The base current is given as IB.

biased, the potential barrier at the As a result the concentration of
junction gets reduced and electrons
electrons near the Emitter-Base
diffuse across the junction from emitter
to the base region and holes diffuse from
junction increases considerably.
the base to the emitter region. The reverse bias across the base-
In a transistor, the base region is doped collector junction causes drift of
lightly and holes are lesser in that region. minority carriers.
Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta
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Transistor
As a result the concentration of electrons
near the Collector-Base junction
decreases considerably.
The electrons may recombine with holes
in the base and cause a large base current
but sufficient holes are not available for
recombination and the base current is
practically very small.
Holes from the collector region move
into base region and electrons from the As there is a large concentration gradient
in the base region, the electrons swiftly
base region flows into the collector
diffuse towards the collector side causing
region.
the collector current IC which is nearly
The reverse bias creates an electric equal to emitter current IE.
field which accelerates the electrons
and sweeps them into the collector Thus,
region. IE = IB + IC
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Transistor
The potential at emitter-base junction
is reduced facilitating flow of holes
from the heavily doped emitter into the
lightly doped N- type base.
The reverse biased collector-base
junction draws most of the holes into
the collector terminal.
Operation of PNP Transistor:
As the Emitter-Base junction is
The emitter-base junction is forward biased, the potential barrier at
forward biased by the VEE battery the junction gets reduced and holes
and the collector-base junction is diffuse across the junction from emitter
reverse biased by VCC battery. to the base region and electrons diffuse
from the base to the emitter region.

Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja

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Transistor
The total current practically consists of
hole current flowing from emitter to
base. It constitutes the emitter current IE.
The base current is given as IB.
As a result the concentration of holes
near the Emitter-Base junction increases
considerably.
In a transistor, the base region is The reverse bias across the base-
doped lightly and electrons are collector junction causes drift of
lesser in that region. minority carriers.
Therefore, electron diffusion Electrons from the collector region
current is less than that of hole move into base region and holes from
diffusion current. the base region flows into the collector
region.

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Transistor
The holes may recombine with
electrons in the base and cause a large
base current but sufficient electrons are
not available for recombination and the
base current is practically very small.
As there is a large concentration
gradient in the base region, the holes
The reverse bias creates an electric swiftly diffuse towards the collector
field which accelerates the holes side causing the collector current IC
and sweeps them into the collector which is nearly equal to emitter current
region. IE.
As a result the concentration of Thus,
holes near the Collector-Base
IE = IB + IC
junction decreases considerably.
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Transistor

Common-Base configuration (CB Mode)

In this mode, emitter is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and
base is the common terminal which is grounded.
The batteries VEE and VCC provide biasing to the emitter-base and collector-
base junctions respectively. The voltage across emitter-base junction is
measured as VEB and that of collector-base junction as VCB. The emitter
current, IE, and collector current, IC, are also measured.
Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja
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Transistor
Active Region: In Active region, the collector-
base junction is biased in reverse direction and
the emitter-base junction is forward biased.
When the collector voltage is increased, the
collector current is independent of collector
voltage and depends only on the emitter
current. The transistor is generally operated in
the active region.
Saturation Region: In this region both the
junctions are forward biased. There is a sharp
Output Characteristics increase of collector current even for small
Keeping emitter current (IE) constant, collector to increase of emitter current. It is the region on
base voltage (VCB) is varied and the variation in the left of the ordinate VCB= 0 and above the
collector current (IC) is measured. line IE = 0.
It is seen that IC flows even when VCB is zero. The Cut Off Region: In this region both the
output curves are all parallel to the VCB axis. Hence, junctions are reverse biased. It is the region
for a constant value of IE, IC is independent of VCB. below the line IE = 0.

Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta

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Transistor

Input Characteristics Transfer Characteristics

Keeping collector to base voltage (VCB) constant, Keeping collector to base voltage (VCB) constant,
emitter to base voltage (VEB) is varied and the emitter current (IE) is varied and the variation in
variation in emitter current (IE) is measured. collector current (IC) is measured.
The slope of the curve gives the current
The characteristics are like a forward biased amplification factor (α) for CB-mode.
diode.
Typical values of α is from 0.9 to 0.99.
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Transistor

Common-Emitter configuration (CE Mode)

In this mode, base is the input terminal, collector is the output terminal and
emitter is the common terminal which is grounded.
The batteries VBB and VCC provide biasing to the base-emitter and collector-
emitter junctions respectively. The voltage across base-emitter junction is
measured as VBE and that of collector-emitter junction as VCE. The base
current, IB, and collector current, IC, are also measured.
Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja
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Transistor
Active Region: In Active region, the
collector-emitter is biased in reverse direction
and the base-emitter junction is forward
biased.
When the collector voltage is increased, the
collector current is independent of collector
voltage and depends only on the base current.
The curves are uniform in spacing and slope.
The transistor is generally operated in the
active region.
Output Characteristics Saturation Region: In this region both the
Keeping base current (IB) constant, collector junctions are forward biased. There is no
to emitter voltage (VCE) is varied and the large change of collector current even for
small increase of base current.
variation in collector current (IC) is measured.
Cut Off Region: In this region both the
The output curves have a small slope with junctions are reverse biased. It is the region
respect to the VCE axis. below the line IB = 0.

Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta

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Transistor

Input Characteristics Transfer Characteristics

Keeping collector to base voltage (VCB) constant, Keeping collector to base voltage (VCB) constant,
emitter to base voltage (VBE) is varied and the base current (IB) is varied and the variation in
variation in emitter current (IE) is measured. collector current (IC) is measured.
The slope of the curve gives the current
The characteristics are like a forward biased amplification factor (β) for CE-mode.
diode.
Typical values of β is from 50 to 600.
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Transistor
Relationship between α and β ⇒ α I B = I C (1− α )
We know that,
IC α
I E = I B + IC ⇒ =
I B 1− α
The current amplification factor α
for CB mode is given as, ⇒β =
1− α
IC
α= β
IE or, α =
1+ β
IC
⇒α =
I B + IC
⇒ α ( I B + IC ) = IC
Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja
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Operational Amplifier
The differential amplifier is a
two-input terminal device using at
least two transistors. There are
two output terminals.
The transistors Q1 and Q2 are
matched so that their
characteristics are the same. The
collector resistors (RC1 and RC2)
are also equal.
The equality of the matched
circuit components makes the
amplifier circuit arrangement
Differential Amplifier completely symmetrical.
Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta
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Operational Amplifier
Differential Amplifier Output signal can be obtained as,
The output can be taken from one
Input signal can be applied as, of the output terminals and the
The signal is applied to one ground. In that case, it is called
input of the amplifier and the single-ended output arrangement.
other input is grounded. In that The output can be taken between
case, it is called single-ended the two output terminals. In that
input arrangement. case, it is called double-ended
output arrangement or differential
The signals are applied to both output.
inputs of the amplifier. In that 

case, it is called dual-ended or Generally, the differential amplifier
double-ended input is operated for double-ended input
arrangement. and single-ended output.
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Operational Amplifier
Differential-mode signals:
Differential Amplifier
When the input signals to a differential amplifier
The outputs of a differential amplifier are proportional are 180° out of phase and exactly equal in
to the difference between the two input signals i.e. the amplitude, they are called differential-mode signals.
circuit can be used to amplify the difference between The difference in the signals is twice the value of
the two input signals or amplify only one input signal each signal. For differential-mode signals, V1= -V2.
simply by grounding the other input.
The differential-mode signals are amplified by the
The input signals to a differential amplifier are defined differential amplifier.
as :
The differential amplifier rejects the common-mode
Common-mode signals: signals. This action is called common-mode rejection.
When the input signals (say V1 and V2) to a Most of noises and other unwanted signals are
differential amplifier are in phase and exactly equal common-mode signals. When these unwanted signals
in amplitude, they are called common-mode signals. appear on the inputs of a differential amplifier, they are
A differential amplifier amplifies the difference virtually eliminated at the output.
between the two signals and for common-mode A differential amplifier should have high differential
signals, the difference is zero. For common-mode voltage gain (ADM) and very low common-mode
signals, V1= V2. voltage gain (ACM). The ratio ADM/ACM is called
The common-mode signals are rejected (i.e. not common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR). It is of the
amplified) by the differential amplifier. range of 100 dB.

Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja

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Operational Amplifier
An operational amplifier (Op-Amp) is a circuit that can perform mathematical
operations such as addition, subtraction, integration and differentiation.
Input Intermediate
Stage Stage

Block Diagram of Operational Amplifier

1. A double-ended input and double-ended output differential amplifier having large
CMRR is the input stage of the Op-Amp. It produces most of the voltage gain of the
OP-Amp. The input impedance is very high for this amplifier.
2. The intermediate stage of the Op-Amp comprises of a double-ended input and
single-ended output differential amplifier. It is driven by the output of the input
stage. It increases the voltage gain and the CMRR.
Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta
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Operational Amplifier
Input Intermediate
Stage Stage

3. The Emitter Follower is an unity gain amplifier having low output

impedance. It acts as a buffer between the input and output stages.
4. The Level Shifter is used to shift the dc voltage to zero volt with
respect to ground. It ensures that the output of the Op-Amp is zero
with respect to ground when the input signal is at zero volt.
5. The Output Stage of an Op-Amp is a Class B Push-Pull power
amplifier. This stage increases the output voltage and the output
current owing to its low output impedance.
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Operational Amplifier
Pin no. 2 is the inverting input (V-).
The phase of the output (obtained at Pin
no. 6) of the Op-Amp is 1800 out of
phase of the signal applied to this
terminal.
Pin no. 3 is the non-inverting input
(V+). The phase of the output of the
Op-Amp is in-phase of the signal
applied to this terminal.
Pin no. 7 (+V) and Pin no. 4 (-V)
provides the dc supply voltages to the
Op-Amp.
Pin - Out of Op-Amp IC 741 Pin no. 1 and Pin no. 5 are the offset
null controls that are used to reduce
small dc offsets that can be amplified.
Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja
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Operational Amplifier
It has very low output impedance
(<200Ω). The output voltage is
practically independent of the value
of load connected to OP-amp.
It has a large open-loop voltage
gain, typically of the order of 105.
Symbol of Op-Amp IC 741 The voltage gain remains constant
Characteristics of Op-Amp over a wide frequency range.
There are two inputs; inverting and non- The common mode rejection ratio
inverting. (CMRR) is quite large (> 90 dB).
The input impedance is very high (usually
It has high slew rate i.e. the output
taken to be infinity). The OP-amp has
very small input current and there is no changes with changes in the input
loading of the preceding stage. with a very small lag.
Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta
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Operational Amplifier
Let’s assume that the input voltage is
5
1mV and the open-loop gain is 10 . Then
the output voltage will be 100 V.
Hence, an extremely small input voltage
can also drive the Op-Amp into
saturation.
With negative feedback,
Close loop gain can be set to a desired
Negative Feedback value in the linear range.
An Op-Amp is almost always operated A controlled stable gain can be
with negative feedback i.e. a part of the achieved.
output is fed back in phase opposition to The input and output impedances can be
the input. controlled as per requirement.
The open-loop voltage gain of an Op-Amp The bandwidth becomes significantly
is very high (usually greater than 100,000). wider.
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Operational Amplifier
The output voltage V0 is out of phase with
the input. Hence, the feedback is negative
and the gain is reduced. This gives rise to
the name inverting amplifier.
An Op-Amp has an infinite input
impedance. This results in zero current at
the inverting input.
If there is zero current through the input
impedance, then there should not be any
Inverting Amplifier voltage drop between the inverting and non-
The input signal Vin is applied through inverting inputs.
input resistor Ri to inverting input of This means that voltage at the inverting
the Op-Amp. The non-inverting input is input is zero because the other input is
grounded.
grounded. The output is fed back to the
inverting input through a feedback The 0V at the inverting input terminal is
resistor Rf. called as virtual ground.

Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja

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Operational Amplifier
Hence,
I f = Ii
0 − Vout Vin − 0
⇒ =
Rf Ri
−Vout Vin
⇒ =
Rf Ri
Inverting Amplifier Vout Rf
⇒ =−
The current flowing into the inverting Vin Ri
input is zero due to the virtual ground. Vout Rf Voltage
⇒ AV = =− Gain
Hence, the current Ii flowing through Vin Ri
resistor Ri flows entirely through Rf Output
feedback resistor Rf. ⇒ Vout = − Vin
Ri Voltage
Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta
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Operational Amplifier
The output voltage V0 is in-phase with
the input. This gives rise to the name
non-inverting amplifier.
The potential at the inverting input is Vin.
Current through Ri = Current through Rf
0 − Vin Vin − Vout
⇒ =
Ri Rf
Non-Inverting Amplifier ⇒ −Vin R f = Vin Ri − Vout Ri
The input signal Vin is applied to non-
inverting input of the Op-Amp.
( )
⇒ Vin R f + Ri = Vout Ri
Vout R f + Ri Rf Voltage
The output is fed back to the inverting ⇒ AV = = = 1+
Vin Ri Ri Gain
input through a a feedback circuit formed
by feedback resistor Rf and resistor Ri ⎛ R ⎞ Output
producing a negative feedback. ⇒ Vout = ⎜ 1+ f ⎟ Vin Voltage
⎝ Ri ⎠
Elements of Electronics by M. K. Bagde, S. P. Singh & K. Singh
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Operational Amplifier
Using the conditions for inverting
amplifier and Kirchoff’s voltage law,
I f = I1 + I 2 + I 3
Vout V1 V2 V3
⇒− = + +
Rf R1 R2 R3
⎛ Rf Rf Rf ⎞
⇒ Vout = − ⎜ V1 + V2 + V3 ⎟
⎝ R1 R2 R3 ⎠
Adder (Summing Amplifier)
If R1 = R2 = R3 = R
The input signals V1, V2 & V3 are applied
Rf
= − (V1 + V2 + V3 )
through input resistor R1, R2 & R3 Output
Vout Voltage
respectively to inverting input of the Op- R
Amp. The non-inverting input is grounded.
The output is fed back to the inverting If Rf = R
Output
input through a feedback resistor Rf. Vout = − (V1 + V2 + V3 ) Voltage
Basic Electronics (Solid State) by B. L. Theraja
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Operational Amplifier
At the inverting input, I2 = I1
V − Vout V1 − V
⇒ = ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ Vout V1
R2 R1 ⇒ V ⎜⎝ R R ⎟⎠ = R + R
+
2 1 2 1

At the non-inverting input, I4 = I3

V '− 0 V2 − V '
⇒ = ⎛ 1 1 ⎞ V2
R2 R1 ⇒ V '⎜ + ⎟ =
⎝ R2 R1 ⎠ R1
As the open-loop gain is very large, V ≈ V’
Subtractor Vout V1 V2
+ =
R2 R1 R1
Input voltages V1 & V2 are are applied Output
R
to the inverting and non-inverting ⇒ Vout = 2 (V2 − V1 ) Voltage
inputs through resistors of equal value, R1
R1. If R2 = R1
Output
Vout = V2 − V1 Voltage
Principles of Electronics by V. K. Mehta & R. Mehta
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Solar Cell
A solar cell also known as Principle
photovoltaic cell is an electrical Solar cell is based on the photovoltaic
device that converts the energy of effect i.e. the generation of a potential
light directly into electricity by the difference at the junction of two different
photovoltaic effect. materials in response to visible or other
radiation.
It is a form of photoelectric cell in
Basic Process
which the electrical characteristics
like current, voltage or resistance vary Generation of the charge carriers due to
when light is incident upon it. the absorption of photons in the
materials that form the junction.
When exposed to light, it can generate Subsequent separation of the photo –
and support an electric current generated charge carriers in the junction.
without being attached to any external Collection of the photo – generated
voltage source but do require an charge carriers at the terminals of the
external load for power consumption. junction.

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 45

Solar Cell
Working
Photons in sunlight hit the solar panel and are absorbed by
semiconducting materials such as silicon.
Electrons are excited from their current molecular/atomic orbital.
Once excited, the electron can either dissipate the energy and return to its
orbital or travel through the cell until it reaches an electrode.
Current starts flowing through the material to cancel the potential and
this electricity is captured.
Due to the special composition of solar cells, the electrons are only
allowed to move in a single direction.
An array of solar cells converts solar energy into a usable amount of
direct current (DC) electricity.
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 46

Solar Cell
In a PN junction solar cell, sunlight is
directly converted into electric current.
The commonly used materials to
construct solar cells are silicon and
selenium.
The metallic conductor is connected to
the P – type material and thickness of the
PN Junction Solar Cell P – type material is such that maximum
number of photons reach the junction.
A photon may collide with a valence
electron and impart sufficient energy to
leave the parent atom.
Symbol
The result is the formation of electron –
hole pairs which facilitates the
generation of electric current.
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Photoelectric Sensor Page |5

Light sources used by these sensors range

in the light spectrum from visible green to
d
invisible infrared. Light-emitting diode
(LED) and LASER sources are typically
used.
The common detectors are photo
y
e transistors, photodiodes, photomultipliers,
photovoltaic cells and charge coupled
A photoelectric
d Laser. sensorareisphoto
The common detectors a type of position
transistors, photodiodes,
devices (CCDs).
d charge coupled devices (CCDs).
sensing device. Photoelectric sensors use a
g range while reducing the effect of ambient light. Modulated light is
modulated light beam that is either broken Modulated light increases the sensing
en 5 and 30 KHz. The photoelectric sensor is able to distinguish the
or reflected
ght sources by sensors
used by these the target.
range in the light spectrum from visible range while reducing the effect of ambient
ng diode (LED) sources are typically used. light. Modulated light is pulsed at a
The control consists of an emitter (light specific frequency between 5 and 30 KHz.
source),
ate emitter a receiver
and receiver units areto detect
required for the emitted
a through lightThe
beam sensor.
and associated electronics that evaluate and
at the The photoelectric sensor is able to
pulsed
amplify the detected signal and send it to the
es the distinguish the modulated light from
ced load.
in ambient light.
ks the
g the www.automation.com/library/articles-white-papers/sensors-sensing-technologies/fundamentals-of-photoelectric-sensors
 48

Photoelectric Sensor

A. Through Beam Sensor

Separate emitter and receiver units are required for a through beam sensor. The units are aligned in
a way that the greatest possible amount of pulsed light from the transmitter reaches the receiver.
An object (target) placed in the path of the light beam blocks the light to the receiver, causing the
receiver’s output to change state. When the target doesn't block the light path, the receiver’s
output returns to its normal state.
Through-beam is suitable for detection of opaque or reflective objects. It cannot be used to detect
transparent objects. In addition, vibration can cause alignment problems. The high gain of
through-beam sensors make them suitable for environments with airborne contaminants. The
maximum sensing range is about 300 feet.
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Photoelectric Sensor

B. Retroreflective Scan
Reflective or retroreflective scan are two names for the same technique.
The emitter and receiver are in one unit.
Light from the emitter is transmitted in a straight line to a reflector and
returns to the receiver. A normal or a corner-cube reflector can be used.
When a target blocks the light path, the output of the sensor changes state.
When the target no longer blocks the light path, the sensor returns to its
normal state. The maximum sensing range is about 30 feet.
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Photoelectric Sensor

Polarized Retroreflective Scan

A variation of retroreflective scan is polarized retroreflective scan. Polarizing filters are placed in
front of the emitter and receiver lenses. The polarizing filter projects the emitter’s beam in one
plane only. This light is said to be polarized.
A corner-cube reflector is used to rotate the light reflected back to the receiver. The polarizing filter
on the receiver allows rotated light to pass through to the receiver.
In comparison to retroreflective scan, polarized retroreflective scan works well when trying to
detect shiny objects.
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Photoelectric Sensor
When no light is reflected back to
the receiver the output returns to
its original state.
In diffuse scanning, the emitter is
placed perpendicular to the target.

C.Diffuse Scan
The receiver will be at some
angle in order to receive some of
The emitter and receiver are in one
unit. Light from the emitter strikes the the scattered (diffuse) reflection.
target and the reflected light is diffused
from the surface at all angles.
Only a small amount of light will
reach the receiver. Therefore this
If the receiver receives enough
reflected light the output will switch technique has an effective range
states. of about 40”.
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Photoelectric Sensor

Dark Operate Mode Light Operate Mode

There are two operating modes, dark operate (DO) and light operate
(LO).
Dark operate is an operating mode in which the load is energized
when light from the emitter is absent from the receiver.
Light operate is an operating mode in which the load is energized
when light from the emitter reaches the receiver.
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Remote Sensing
Remote Sensing is the collection of Types
information relating to objects without Passive remote sensing involves detecting
being in physical contact with them. natural radiation emitted or reflected by the
object or surrounding area being observed.
Our eyes and ears are remote sensors,
Reflected sunlight is the most common source
and the same is true for cameras and of radiation measured by passive sensors.
microphones and for many instruments
used for all kinds of applications. Examples include Film photography, infrared,
charge-coupled devices and radiometers.
Remote sensing is the process of
In Active remote sensing, energy is emitted in
acquiring data/information about order to scan objects and areas whereupon a
objects/substances not in direct contact sensor then detects and measures the radiation
with the sensor, by gathering its inputs that is reflected or backscattered from the
using electromagnetic radiation or target.
acoustical waves that emanate from the RADAR is an example of active remote sensing
targets of interest. An aerial photograph where the time delay between emission and
is a common example of a remotely return is measured establishing the location,
sensed product. height, speeds and direction of an object.
Remote Sensing by Dr. Abdulrahman K. Ali
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Remote Sensing
Elements of Remote Sensing Systems Recording of Energy by the Sensor: After
Energy Source or Illumination: The first the energy has been scattered by or emitted
requirement for remote sensing is to have an from the target, a remote sensor is required to
energy source which illuminates or provides collect and record the electromagnetic
electromagnetic energy to the target of radiation.
interest. Transmission, Reception and Processing:
Radiation and the Atmosphere: As the The energy recorded by the sensor has to be
energy travels from its source to the target, it transmitted to a receiving and processing
will come in contact with and interact with station where the data is processed.
the atmosphere it passes through. This
Interpretation and Analysis: The processed
interaction may take place a second time as
image is interpreted, visually and/or digitally
the energy travels from the target to the
or electronically, to extract information about
sensor.
the target, which was illuminated.
Interaction with the Target: Once the
energy makes its way to the target through Application: The extracted information is
the atmosphere, it interacts with the target applied to better understand the target, reveal
depending on the properties of both the target some new information or assist in solving a
and the radiation. particular problem.
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Remote Sensing
Types of Remote Sensing Systems The rods are sensitive only to the total
light intensity. Hence, everything appears
Visual Remote Sensing System in shades of grey when there is insufficient
The human visual system is an example of light.
a remote sensing system in the general
The objects reflect/scatter the visible light
sense.
falling onto them. Part of the scattered
The sensors in this example are the two light is intercepted by the eyes, forming an
types of photosensitive cells, known as the image on the retina after passing through
cones and the rods, at the retina of the eyes. the optical system of the eyes. The signals
The cones are responsible for colour vision. generated at the retina are carried via the
There are three types of cones, each being nerves to the brain.
sensitive to one of the red, green and blue These signals are processed and
regions of the visible spectrum. interpreted at the brain. The visual system
The cones are insensitive under low light is an example of a “Passive Remote
illumination condition, when their jobs are Sensing” system which depends on an
taken over by the rods. external source of energy to operate. This
system won’t work in darkness.
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Remote Sensing
Types of Remote Sensing Systems Infrared Remote Sensing
Optical Remote Sensing Infrared remote sensing makes use of
In Optical Remote Sensing, optical infrared sensors to detect infrared
sensors detect radiation reflected or radiation emitted from the target.
scattered from the target, forming images. The middle-wave infrared and long-
The wavelength region usually extends wave infrared are within the thermal
from the visible and near infrared to the infrared region. These radiations are
short-wave infrared. emitted from warm objects such as the
Different materials such as water, soil, Earth’s surface.
vegetation, buildings and roads reflect They are used in satellite remote
visible and infrared light in different sensing for measurements of the land
ways. and sea surface temperature. Thermal
The interpretations of optical images infrared remote sensing is also often
require the knowledge of the spectral used for detection of forest fires,
reflectance signatures of the various volcanoes, oil fires and human
materials of the target. presence.
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Remote Sensing
Types of Remote Sensing Systems Radar Remote Sensing
Microwave Remote Sensing Radar works by sending out radio
The active sensors emit pulses of signals and then receives them when
microwave radiation to illuminate the they bounce back from the target. By
areas to be imaged. measuring the amount of time it takes
Images of the target are formed by for the signals to return, it is possible to
measuring the microwave energy scattered create a very accurate topographic map.
by the target back to the sensors.
Imaging radar systems are versatile
The images can thus be acquired day and sources of remotely sensed images,
night. As microwaves can penetrate providing day-night, all-weather
clouds, images can be acquired even when imaging capability.
there are clouds covering the earth surface.
Microwave remote sensing is used to Radar images are used to map
provide useful information about the landforms and geologic structure, soil
Earth’s atmosphere, lithosphere and types, vegetation and crops and ice and
hydrosphere. oil slicks on the ocean surface.
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Remote Sensing
Types of Remote Sensing Systems Airborne Remote Sensing
Satellite Remote Sensing In airborne remote sensing, downward or
sideward looking sensors are mounted on an
The remote sensing satellites are equipped aircraft to obtain images of the earth's
with sensors looking down to the earth. surface.
Orbital platforms collect and transmit data An advantage of airborne remote sensing,
from different parts of the electromagnetic compared to satellite remote sensing, is the
spectrum, which in conjunction with larger capability of offering very high spatial
scale aerial or ground-based sensing and resolution images.
analysis provides researchers with enough The disadvantages are low coverage area and
information to monitor trends. high cost per unit area of ground coverage. It
Other uses include different areas of the is not cost-effective to map a large area using
earth sciences such as natural resource an airborne remote sensing system.
management, agricultural fields such as Airborne remote sensing missions are often
land usage and conservation and national carried out as one-time operations, whereas
security and overhead ground-based and earth observation satellites offer the
stand-off collection on border areas. possibility of continuous monitoring of the
earth.
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Remote Sensing
Types of Remote Sensing Systems
Acoustic and Near-Acoustic Remote Sensing
In this type of remote sensing, sound is used as a tool.
Sonar: Sound Navigation and Ranging (SONAR) is a technique that uses
sound propagation to navigate, communicate with or detect objects on or
under the surface of the water. It’s of two types:
Passive sonar: In this type listening for the sound made by another object (a
vessel, a whale etc) is done.
Active sonar: In this type pulses of sounds are emitted and echoes are
listened. It is used for detecting, ranging and measurements of underwater
objects and terrain.
Seismograms taken at different locations can locate and measure earthquakes
(after they occur) by comparing the relative intensity and precise timing.
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Remote Sensing
Applications of Remote Sensing Systems Planning applications: Mapping ecological
Meteorology: Study of atmospheric temperature, zones, monitoring deforestation, monitoring
pressure, water vapour and wind velocity. urban land use.
Oceanography: Measuring sea surface Oil and mineral exploration: Locating natural
temperature, mapping ocean currents and wave oil seeps and slicks, mapping geological
energy spectra and depth sounding of coastal and structures, monitoring oil field subsidence.
ocean depths. Military: Developing precise maps for planning,
monitoring military infrastructure, monitoring
Glaciology: Measuring ice cap volumes, ice
ship and troop movements.
stream velocity and sea ice distribution.
Forensics: Forensic investigations concern
Geology: Identification of rock type, mapping
locating, identifying, collecting and cataloguing
faults and structure.
evidence for the purpose of presenting it in court.
Agriculture: Monitoring the biomass of land One aspect of forensic investigations concerns
vegetation. locating clandestine evidence which is often
Forest: Monitoring the health of crops, mapping concealed in the subsurface. Often such resultant
soil moisture. searches lead to excavations that destroy
evidence. Remote sensing methods, being non-
Disaster warning and assessment: Monitoring of
destructive can be applied for better results. This
floods and landslides, monitoring volcanic activity,
will save time and cost in the search for physical
assessing damage zones from natural disasters.
evidence.
Remote Sensing by Dr. Abdulrahman K. Ali
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