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AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT -I Heavy Business Jet

Technical Report · April 2014

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 AIRCRAFT DESIGN PROJECT - I
Heavy Business Jet

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

VIGNESH. M
VINCENT KEVIN MORRIS

ARAVIND. C
in partial fulfillment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
in

AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

RAJALAKSHMI ENGINEERING COLLEGE, THANDALAM

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

APRIL 2014
 ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE

Certified that this project report “DESIGN OF HEAVY BUSINESS JET” is

the bonafide work of VIGNESH. M (211611101053), VINCENT KEVIN

MORRIS (211611101056) and ARAVIND. C () who carried out the project

work under my supervision.

SIGNATURE SIGNATURE

Mr. Yogesh Kumar Sinha Mr. Surendra Bogadi

HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT SUPERVISOR

Assistant Professor

Aeronautical Engineering Aeronautical Engineering

Rajalakshmi Engineering College, Rajalakshmi Engineering College,

Thandalam, Chennai – 602 105 Thandalam, Chennai- 602 105

Internal Examiner External Examiner

 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We owe a debt of gratitude to Mr. Yogesh Kumar Sinha, Head of the

Department, Department of Aeronautical Engineering, for being a source of

constant encouragement and a pillar of support in all that we do, be it academic

or extracurricular.

We would like to extend our heartfelt thanks to Mr. Surendra Bogadi for his

constant help, erudite guidance and immense passion which enthused us to do

the project better.

A warm token of appreciation to the management at Rajalakshmi Engineering

College, Thandalam for providing us with the amenities and a congenial

atmosphere to work in.

 ABSTRACT

The aim of this project is to design and conceptualize a heavy

corporate/business jet that can cater to a wide range of clientele ranging from

business conglomerates to private organizations and individual parties. Business

jet, private jet or, colloquially bizjet is a term describing a jet aircraft, usually of

smaller size, designed for transporting groups of business people or wealthy

individuals. The project involves the design of a heavy business jet that can

accommodate about 40 passengers at full seating layout, providing the

amenities and level of comfort that a business jet is expected to provide while

incorporating the design specifications and performance parameters of a long

range commercial airliner. The aircraft allows for long range transport with

better efficiency and reduced fuel consumption and noise levels owing to a state

of the art engine and design features.

iv
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER NO. TITLE PAGE NO.

ABSTRACT iv
LIST OF TABLES vii
LIST OF FIGURES viii
LIST OF SYMBOLS AND x
ABBREVIATIONS

1. INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN 1

1.1 Defining a new design 5

1.1.1 Aircraft Purpose 6

1.2 Design Motivation 7

1.3 Design Process 9

1.4 Conceptual Design 11

1.5 Design Process Breakdown 12

2. INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS 13

2.1 Classification of Business Jets 14

2.2 Need for Business Jets 16

3. COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY 19

4. COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET 20

5. COMPARATIVE GRAPHS 22

v
 6. WEIGHT ESTIMATION 32

7. WING LOADING 38

8. AIRFOIL SELECTION 42

9. DRAG ESTIMATION 54

10. POWERPLANT SELECTION 58

11. LANDING GEAR DESIGN 64

12. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS 68

13. CENTRE OF GRAVITY ESTIMATION 73

14. STABILITY AND CONTROL 83

15. 3-VIEW DIAGRAM 92

16. FINALIZED DESIGN PARAMETERS 94

17. CONCLUSION 95

18. REFERENCES 96

vi
List of Tables Page no.
1. Design Process breakdown 12

2. Common Comparative study 19

3. Comparative Data Sheet (Business Jets) 20

4. Gross Weight Iteration Table 36

5. Wing Parameters 53

6. Comparison of Turbofan Engines 58

7. Performance Parameters 72

8. Approximate Group Weights Method 75

9. Wing Location and c.g. of the Airplane 81

10. Finalized Design Parameters 94

vii
List of Figures Page no.
1. Design Process flow chart 10

2. Cruise Speed vs. Range 22

3. Cruise speed vs. Altitude 23

4. Cruise Speed vs. Wing Loading 24

5. Cruise Speed vs. Gross Weight 25

6. Cruise Speed vs. Aspect Ratio 26

7. Range vs. Aspect ratio 27

8. Wing loading vs. Aspect ratio 28

9. Wing Loading vs. Takeoff run 29

10. Wing Loading vs. R/Cmax 30

11. Aspect ratio vs. R/Cmax 31

12. Mission Profile 32

13. Weight Distribution Chart 37

14. Wing loading 41

15. Airfoil Geometry 42

16. Angle of Attack 42

17. NACA 63A-514 (Root airfoil) 45

18. NACA 63-512 (Midspan airfoil) 46

viii
19. NACA 63-310 (Tip airfoil) 47

20. Maximum Thickness 48

21. Taper Ratio 49

22. Wing Sweep 50

23. Effective Mach no. 51

24. Winglets 52

25. Pratt & Whitney PW1000G 60

26. Landing Gear System 65

27. Performance Characteristics

a. climbing flight 69

b. gliding flight 71

28. Static Longitudinal Stability 82

29. Longitudinal stability 84

30. Fuselage directional stability coefficient 87

31. Directional stability 89

32. Lateral stability 91

33. 3 View Diagram 92

ix
List of Symbols and Abbreviations

 - Angle of attack

 - Climb angle

 - Density factor

 - Density of air

 - Dihedral angle

 - Glide angle

 - Turn angle

 - Turn rate

 - Wing thickness ratio correction factor

 - Yaw angle

1/4 - Quarter chord sweep angle

Cm/e - Elevator control power

Cn/r - Rudder control power

fuel - Density of fuel

(L/D)cruise - Lift-to-drag ratio at cruise

(L/D)loiter - Lift-to-drag ratio at loiter

ac - Aerodynamic centre

APU - Auxiliary Power Unit

AR - Wing aspect ratio

x
at - Lift curve slope of tail

av - Lift curve slope of vertical tail

aw - Lift curve slope of wing

b - Wing span

c - Chord length

ĉ - Mean chord

c.g. - Centre of gravity

CAEP - Committee of Aviation Environmental Protection

CD - Drag coefficient

CD0 - Zero lift drag co-efficient

Cfe - Skin friction coefficient

Cl - Rolling moment coefficient

Clf - Function of airfoil chord over which the flow in laminar

CLmax - Maximum Lift coefficient

Cm - Pitching moment coefficient

Cn - Yawing moment coefficient

cR - Root chord

cT - Tip chord

D - Drag force

d - Tire diameter

xi
E – Endurance

e - Oswald efficiency factor

g - Acceleration due to gravity

Ktf - Factor allowed for trapped fuel

L - Lift force

LE - Leading edge of wing

lf - Length of fuselage

Lt - Load on tyre

lv - Aerodynamic centre of vertical tail to the airplane’s centre of gravity

M - Mach number

MTOW - Maximum Takeoff Weight

N0 - Neutral point

Ne - Number of engines located on top surface of wing

q - Dynamic pressure

R - Turn radius

R/C - Rate of climb

Rr - Rolling radius of tyre

S - Wing area

SFC - Specific Fuel Consumption

SLO - Takeoff run distance

xii
Sref - Wing reference area

STD - Landing run distance

Swet - Wing wetted area

T - Thrust force

t/c - Wing thickness ratio

T/W - Thrust loading

Tf - A factor which is unity for streamlined shape

V - Velocity of air/aircraft

Vcruise - Velocity at cruise

Vf - Volume of fuel

Vstall - Velocity at stall

w - Tyre width

W/S - Wing loading

W0 - Gross weight of aircraft

Wcrew - Crew weight

We - Empty weight of aircraft

Wf - Weight of fuel

Wpayload – Aircraft payload weight

xlew - Distance of location of wing from nose of the aircraft

λ - Taper ratio of wing

xiii
 1. INTRODUCTION TO DESIGN
Modern aircraft are a complex combination of aerodynamic performance,

lightweight durable structures and advanced systems engineering. Air

passengers demand more comfort and more environmentally friendly aircraft.

Hence many technical challenges need to be balanced for an aircraft to

economically achieve its design specification. Aircraft design is a complex and

laborious undertaking with a number of factors and details that are required to

be checked to obtain optimum the final envisioned product. The design process

begins from scratch and involves a number of calculations, logistic planning,

design and real world considerations, and a level head to meet any hurdle head

on.

Every airplane goes through many changes in design before it is finally built in

a factory. These steps between the first ideas for an airplane and the time when

it is actually flown make up the design process. Along the way, engineers think

about four main areas of aeronautics: Aerodynamics, Propulsion, Structures and

Materials, and Stability and Control.

Aerodynamics is the study of how air flows around an airplane. In order for an

airplane to fly at all, air must flow over and under its wings. The more

aerodynamic, or streamlined the airplane is, the less resistance it has against the

air. If air can move around the airplane easier, the airplane's engines have less

1
work to do. This means the engines do not have to be as big or eat up as much

fuel which makes the airplane more lightweight and easier to fly. Engineers

have to think about what type of airplane they are designing because certain

airplanes need to be aerodynamic in certain ways. For example, fighter jets

maneuver and turn quickly and fly faster than sound (supersonic flight) over

short distances. Most passenger airplanes, on the other hand, fly below the

speed of sound (subsonic flight) for long periods of time.

Propulsion is the study of what kind of engine and power an airplane needs. An

airplane needs to have the right kind of engine for the kind of job that it has. A

passenger jet carries many passengers and a lot of heavy cargo over long

distances so its engines need to use fuel very efficiently. Engineers are also

trying to make airplane engines quieter so they do not bother the passengers

onboard or the neighborhoods they are flying over. Another important concern

is making the exhaust cleaner and more environmentally friendly. Just like

automobiles, airplane exhaust contains chemicals that can damage the earth's

environment.

Structures and Materials is the study of how strong the airplane is and what

materials will be used to build it. It is really important for an airplane to be as

lightweight as possible. The less weight an airplane has, the less work the

engines have to do and the farther it can fly. It is tough designing an airplane

that is lightweight and strong at the same time. In the past, airplanes were

2
usually made out of lightweight metals like aluminum, but today a lot of

engineers are thinking about using composites in their designs. Composites look

and feel like plastic, but are stronger than most metals. Engineers also need to

make sure that airplanes not only fly well, but are also easy to build and

maintain.

Stability and Control is the study of how an airplane handles and interacts to

pilot input and feed. Pilots in the cockpit have a lot of data to read from the

airplane's computers or displays. Some of this information could include the

airplane's speed, altitude, direction, and fuel levels as well as upcoming weather

conditions and other instructions from ground control. The pilot needs to be

able to process the correct data quickly, to think about what kind of action needs

to be taken, and to react in an appropriate way. Meanwhile, the airplane should

display information to the pilot in an easy-to-read and easy-to-understand way.

The controls in the cockpit should be within easy reach and just where the pilot

expects them to be. It is also important that the airplane responds quickly and

accurately to the pilot's instructions and maneuvers.

“A beautiful aircraft is the expression of the genius of a great engineer who is

also a great artist.”

Neville Shute,

British Aeronautical Engineer and Novelist,

From, No Highway, 1947.

3
When you look at aircraft, it is easy to observe that they have a number of

common features: wings, a tail with vertical and horizontal wing sections,

engines to propel them through the air, and a fuselage to carry passengers or

cargo. If, however, you take a more critical look beyond the gross features, you

also can see subtle, and sometimes not so subtle, differences. This is where

design comes into play. Each and every aircraft is built for a specific task, and

the design is worked around the requirement and need of the aircraft. The

design is modeled about the aircraft role and type and not the other way around.

Thus, this is why airplanes differ from each other and are conceptualized

differently. Aircrafts that fall in the same category may have similar

specifications and performance parameters, albeit with a few design changes.

Design is a pivotal part of any operation. Without a fixed idea or knowledge of

required aircraft, it is not possible to conceive the end product. Airplane design

is both an art and a science. In that respect it is difficult to learn by reading a

book; rather, it must be experienced and practiced. However, we can offer the

following definition and then attempt to explain it. Airplane design is the

intellectual engineering process of creating on paper (or on a computer screen) a

flying machine to (1) meet certain specifications and requirements established

by potential users (or as perceived by the manufacturer) and/or (2) pioneer

innovative, new ideas and technology. An example of the former is the design

of most commercial transports, starting at least with the Douglas DC-1 in 1932,

4
which was designed to meet or exceed various specifications by an airplane

company. (The airline was TWA, named Transcontinental and Western Air at

that time.) An example of the latter is the design of the rocket-powered Bell X-

1, the first airplane to exceed the speed of sound in level or climbing flight

(October 14, 1947). The design process is indeed an intellectual activity, but a

rather special one that is tempered by good intuition developed via experience,

by attention paid to successful airplane designs that have been used in the past,

and by (generally proprietary) design procedures and databases (handbooks, etc)

that are a part of every airplane manufacturer.

1.1 Defining a new design

The design of an aircraft draws on a number of basic areas of aerospace

engineering. These include aerodynamics, propulsion, light-weight structures

and control. Each of these areas involves parameters that govern the size, shape,

weight and performance of an aircraft. Although we generally try to seek

optimum in all these aspects, with an aircraft, this is practically impossible to

achieve. The reason is that in many cases, optimizing one characteristic

degrades another.

There are many performance aspects that can be specified by the mission

requirements. These include:

 The aircraft purpose or mission profile

5
  The type(s) and amount of payload

 The cruise and maximum speeds

 The normal cruise altitude

 The range or radius with normal payload

 The endurance

 The take-off distance at the maximum weight

 The purchase cost

1.1.1 Aircraft Purpose

The starting point of any new aircraft is to clearly identify its purpose. With

this, it is often possible to place a design into a general category. Such

categories include combat aircraft, passenger or cargo transports, and general

aviation aircraft. These may also be further refined into subcategories based on

particular design objectives such as range (short or long), take-off or landing

distances, maximum speed, etc. The process of categorizing is useful in

identifying any existing aircraft that might be used in making comparisons to a

proposed design. With modern military aircraft, the purpose for a new aircraft

generally comes from a military program office. For example, the mission

specifications for the X-29 pictured in figure 1.1 came from a 1977 request for

proposals from the U.S. Air Force Flight Dynamics Laboratory in which they

were seeking a research aircraft that would explore the forward swept wing
6
concept and validate studies that indicated such a design could provide better

control and lift qualities in extreme maneuvers. With modern commercial

aircraft, a proposal for a new design usually comes as the response to internal

studies that aim to project future market needs. For example, the specifications

for the Boeing commercial aircraft (B-777) were based on the interest of

commercial airlines to have a twin-engine aircraft with a payload and range in

between those of the existing B-767 and B-747 aircraft. Since it is not usually

possible to optimize all of the performance aspects in an aircraft, defining the

purpose leads the way in setting which of these aspects will be the “design

drivers.” For example, with the B-777, two of the prominent design drivers

were range and payload.

1.2 Design Motivation

Fundamentally, an aircraft is a structure. Aircraft designers design structures.

The structures are shaped to give them desired aerodynamic characteristics, and

the materials and structures of their engines are chosen and shaped so they can

provide needed thrust. Even seats, control sticks, and windows are structures,

all of which must be designed for optimum performance. Designing aircraft

structures is particularly challenging, because their weight must be kept to a

minimum. There is always a tradeoff between structural strength and weight.

A good aircraft structure is one which provides all the strength and rigidity to

7
allow the aircraft to meet all its design requirements, but which weighs no more

than necessary. Any excess structural weight often makes the aircraft cost more

to build and almost always makes it cost more to operate. As with small

excesses of aircraft drag, a small percentage of total aircraft weight used for

structure instead of payload can make the difference between a profitable

airliner or successful tactical fighter and a failure. Designing aircraft structures

involves determining the loads on the structure, planning the general shape and

layout, choosing materials, and then shaping, sizing and optimizing its many

components to give every part just enough strength without excess weight.

Since aircraft structures have relatively low densities, much of their interiors are

typically empty space which in the complete aircraft is filled with equipment,

payload, and fuel. Careful layout of the aircraft structure ensures structural

components are placed within the interior of the structure so they carry the

required loads efficiently and do not interfere with placement of other

components and payload within the space. Choice of materials for the structure

can profoundly influence weight, cost, and manufacturing difficulty. The

extreme complexity of modern aircraft structures makes optimal sizing of

individual components particularly challenging. An understanding of basic

structural concepts and techniques for designing efficient structures is essential

to every aircraft designer

8
1.3 Design Process

The process of designing an aircraft and taking it to the point of a flight test

article consists of a sequence of steps, as illustrated in the figure. It starts by

identifying a need or capability for a new aircraft that is brought about by (1) a

perceived market potential and (2) technological advances made through

research and development. The former will include a market-share forecast,

which attempts to examine factors that might impact future sales of a new

design. These factors include the need for a new design of a specific size and

performance, the number of competing designs, and the commonality of

features with existing aircraft. As a rule, a new design with competitive

performance and cost will have an equal share of new sales with existing

competitors. The needs and capabilities of a new aircraft that are determined in

a market survey go to define the mission requirements for a conceptual aircraft.

These are compiled in the form of a design proposal that includes (1) the

motivation for initiating a new design and (2) the “technology readiness” of new

technology for incorporation into a new design. It is essential that the mission

requirements be defined before the design can be started. Based on these, the

most important performance aspects or “design drivers” can be identified and

optimized above all others. Following the design proposal, the next step is to

produce a conceptual design. The conceptual design develops the first general

size and configuration for a new aircraft. It involves the estimates of the weights

9
and the choice of aerodynamic characteristics that will be best suited to the

mission requirements stated in the design proposal.

Research, Development and Market Analysis

Mission Requirements

Conceptual Design

No

Requirements Satisfied

Yes
Preliminary Design

Stop

Final Evaluation

Go
Detailed Design

Test Article Fabrication

Flight Test

Design Process flow chart

10
The conceptual design is driven by the mission requirements, which are set in
the design proposal. In some cases, these may not be attainable so that the
requirement may need to be relaxed in one or more areas. This is shown in the
iterative loop in the flow chart. When the mission requirements are satisfied, the
design moves to the next phase, which is the preliminary design.

1.4 Conceptual Design

This article deals with the steps involved in the conceptual design of an aircraft.
It is broken down in to several elements, which are followed in order. These
consist of:

1. Literature survey
2. Preliminary data acquisition
3. Estimation of aircraft weight
a. Maximum take-off weight
b. Empty weight of the aircraft
c. Weight of the fuel
d. Fuel tank capacity
4. Estimation of critical performance parameters
a. Wing area
b. Lift and drag coefficients
c. Wing loading
d. Power loading
e. Thrust to weight ratio
5. Engine selection
6. Performance curves
7. 3 View diagrams

11
1.5 Design Process Breakdown

• Conceptual Design:

- Competing concepts evaluated What drives the design?

- Performance goals established Will it work/meet requirement?

- Preferred concept selected What does it look like?

• Preliminary Design:

- Refined sizing of preferred concept Do serious wind tunnel tests

tests

- Design examined data/establish parameters Make actual cost estimate

- Some changes allowed

• Detail Design:

- Final detail design Certification process

- Drawings released Component/systems tests

- Detailed performance Manufacturing

- Only “tweaking” of design allowed Flight control system design

12
 2. INTRODUCTION TO BUSINESS JETS

A business jet is a jet that is owned by a private company or individual that is

used primarily for transporting the people who own the aircraft. That being said

a lot of planes that were developed to be used as business jets are also used for

other purposes. In addition there are also companies that are set up exclusively

to operate business jets. Therefore the lines between a business aircraft and a

commercial one have become somewhat blurred.

Over the last few years business jets have become a very popular way to travel.

They offer great comfort of travel and service, with the option of having the

aircraft at your beck and call whenever you require it. A private business jet

trumps regular commercial transport in a number of areas. Nowadays,

organizations and individuals who can afford the heavy expenses that a private

jet entails are willing to invest in one. Greater ease of travel, ease of access,

faster and hassle free transit and high comfort levels are some of the advantages

of business jet transport.

In most cases a business jet will be quite a bit smaller than a commercial jet.

The most common ones carry fewer than twenty passengers since this allows

them to operate under a different set of rules from the ones that are required for

airliners. There are however now quite a few business jets that are the size of

13
airliners and in many cases they are airliners that have been adapted for the

purpose. Nevertheless most business jets are quite small and only carry a small

number of people.

Business jets have a much more luxurious interior, with a number of amenities

and services that a normal airliner would not have. Airliners are designed to

carry large numbers of people, most of who are looking for the lowest cost

possible. Business jets on the other hand are designed to carry people in a much

higher level of comfort. The people who travel by business jet are almost

always quite well off and expect this level of comfort when they travel.

2.1 Classification of Business Jets

The business jet industry groups these jets into four loosely-defined classes

Mid-sized jets

Combining flight distance, speed and comfort, these mid-sized jets are ideal for

intimate trips.

Number of Passengers: 8 - 10

Sample Aircraft:

Gulfstream 200, Embraer Legacy 450, Cessna Citation X, Bombardier

Challenger 605

14
Large-cabin jets

These aircraft are fast, comfortable, and can accommodate a medium-sized

group.

Number of Passengers: 8 - 15

Sample Aircraft:

Gulfstream 550, Embraer Legacy 650, Dassault Falcon 7X

Light jets

Light jets have been a staple of the business jet industry since the advent of

the Learjet 23 in the early 1960s. They provide access to small airports and the

speed to be an effective air travel tool.

Number of Passengers: 3 – 10

Sample Aircraft:

Learjet 40, Cessna Citation CJ1, Dassault Falcon 10, Beechcraft Premier I

VIP business jets / Heavy airliners

With a variety of potential configurations, jets in this category have the capacity

for dining rooms, bedrooms and offices.

Number of Passengers: 18 - 40/50 – 250

15
These heavy airliners are an ideal choice for larger groups, corporate meetings

and special events.

Sample Aircraft:

Boeing BBJ, Airbus AGJ, Embraer Lineage 1000

2.2 Need for Business Jets

The following list details some of the primary reasons companies utilize

business aviation as a solution to some of their transportation challenges:

 Accessing communities with little or no airline service

Business aviation serves ten times the number of communities (more than 5,000

airports) served by commercial airlines (about 500 airports). This means

business aviation can allow companies to locate plants or facilities in small

towns or rural communities with little or no commercial airline service. With

nearly 100 communities having lost airline service, this is important.

 Reaching multiple destinations quickly and efficiently.

Companies that need to reach multiple destinations in a single day may elect to

use business aviation because that type of mission could be hard or impossible

to complete with other modes of transportation.

16
  Supporting the travel needs of many types of company employees.

An NBAA survey revealed that 72 percent of passengers aboard business

airplanes are non-executive employees. Companies often send teams of

employees to a given destination because it is the most cost-effective means of

transport.

 Moving equipment.

When companies need to immediately move sensitive or critical equipment,

business aviation is often the best solution.

 Ensuring flexibility.

Businesses don’t always know in advance where or when opportunities will

present themselves. In today’s business environment, companies need to be

nimble enough to move quickly. Business aviation provides flexibility for

companies that need to ensure employees can respond to changing demands and

circumstances

 Increasing employee productivity and providing security.

Business aviation is a productivity tool – when traveling aboard business

aircraft, employees can meet, plan and work en route. Business aviation also

allows employees to discuss proprietary information in a secure environment

without fear of eavesdropping, industrial espionage or physical threat.

17
  Keeping in contact.

Many aircraft have technologies that allow employees to remain in

communication throughout the duration of their flight. This can be critical for

companies managing a rapidly changing situation.

 Providing a return to shareholders.

Studies have found that businesses which use business aviation as a solution to

some of their transportation challenges return more to shareholders than

companies in the same industry that do not utilize business aviation.

 Schedule Predictability.

More than 3 percent of all commercial airline flights are cancelled. Nearly one

quarter are delayed. Today, because of record load factors on commercial

airlines, if your flight is cancelled or a delay causes you to miss your

connection, the odds of you getting on the next flight are significantly reduced.

When the future of a company and its employees is dependent upon you

arriving on time, business aviation is an important tool.

18
 3. COMMON COMPARATIVE STUDY

Parameters Lancair IV Boeing 777 Antonov Gulfstream F-16

An-70 G550

Dimensions

Length 7.62 m 63.7 m 40.7 m 29.39 m 15.06 m

Height 2.44 m 18.51 m 16.38 m 7.87 m 4.88 m

Wing span 9.93 m 60.93 m 44.06 m 28.50 m 9.96 m

Aspect ratio 9.3 8.7 8.2 7.7 3.2

Wing area 9.1 m2 427.8 m2 394 m2 105.63 m2 27.86 m2

Specifications

Empty weight 907 kg 134800 kg 66230 kg 17917 kg 8570 kg

MTOW 1610 kg 247200 kg 145000 kg 41277 kg 19200 kg

Fuel weight 703 kg 94210 kg 38000 kg 18819 kg 7797 kg

Performance

Max. speed 595 kph 950 kph 780 kph 1086kph 2120 kph

Range 2494 km 9700 km 6600 km 12501 km 4220 km

Max. (R/C) 13.2 m/s 26.33 m/s 24.9 m/s 21 m/s 254 m/s

Max. (W/S) 176.9kg/m2 536.5kg/m2 498 kg/m2 390.8kg/m2 431 kg/m2

Service ceiling 8840 m 13140 m 12000 m 15545 m 15240 m

Takeoff run 457 m 2440 m 1800 m 1801 m -

19
4. COMPARATIVE DATA SHEET (BUSINESS JETS)

Parameters Airbus A340 Boeing B777 Embraer Lineage

Prestige VIP 1000

Type Long range Wide body Long range

corporate jet business jet business jet

Dimensions

Length 63.68 m 73.86 m 36.24 m

Height 16.74 m 18.49 m 10.28 m

Wing span 60.3 m 60.9 m 28.72 m

Aspect ratio 10.1 8.7 8.9

Wing area 361.6 m2 427 m2 92.5 m2

Wing

Sweep angle 300 31.60 250

Root chord 10.6 m 9.57 m 4.76 m

Tip chord 2.6 m 2.29 m 1.22 m

Mean chord 7.26 m 7.01 m 3.22 m

Flaps Single slotted Double slotted Double slotted

Taper ratio 0.25 0.24 0.25

Wing loading 760.5 m2 699.8 m2 594.6

m2

20
 Weights

Payload 50900 kg 59422 kg 12400 kg

Empty weight 130900 kg 167800 kg 28080 kg

MTOW 275000 kg 299370 kg 55000 kg

Fuel weight 114615 kg 135845 kg 21871 kg

Powerplant

Name CFM56-5C3 GE90-115B GE CF34-

10E

Thrust rating 145 kN (x4) 514 kN (x2) 82.3 kN (x2)

SFC 0.58 0.55 0.65

Dry weight 3990 kg 8283 kg 1700 kg

Performance

Max speed 914 kph 927 kph 890 kph

Cruise speed 880 kph 895 kph 847 kph

Max R/C 23 m/s 24.38 m/s 16.19 m/s

Service ceiling 12500 m 13140 m 12496 m

Range 14300 km 18700 km 8334 km

Takeoff run 3125 m 3045 m 1852 m

21
5. COMPARATIVE GRAPHS

1. Cruise Speed vs. Range

22
2. Cruise speed vs. Altitude

23
3. Cruise Speed vs. Wing Loading

24
4. Cruise Speed vs. Gross Weight

25
5. Cruise Speed vs. Aspect Ratio

26
6. Range vs. Aspect ratio

27
7. Wing loading vs. Aspect ratio

28
8. Wing Loading vs. Takeoff run

29
9. Wing Loading vs. R/Cmax

30
10. Aspect ratio vs. R/Cmax

31
 6. WEIGHT ESTIMATION

MISSION PROFILE

Gross weight W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload + Wfuel + Wempty

Wcrew = 800 kg ( 2 pilots + 6 cabin crew)

Wpayload = 4000 kg (40 passengers max)

Gross weight W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload  [1 – (WfW0) – (WeW0)]

32
Estimation of empty weight fraction (WeW0)

WeW0 = A W0c

= 1.0595 x W0-0.0598

Estimation of fuel fraction (WfW0)

WfW0 = Ktf x (1 -WnW0)

WnW0 = W1W0 x W2W1 x …. x Wn-1wn-2 x WnWn-1

Fuel fraction for warm up, taxing and take-off (W1W0) = 0.98

Fuel fraction for climb (W2W1) = 0.98

Fuel fraction for cruise (W3W2)

From Breguet range equation:

W3W2 = exp { -R x TSFC / (3.6 x V x L/D) }

To calculate L/D

(L/D)max = 1/ (4 Cd0 k)

Cd0 = 0.005  Rw Tf S-0.1 {1- (Clf/Rw)} [1- 0.2M + 0.12{M (cos1/4)1/2/ Af -

t/c}20]

We have,

M= 0.79

33
AR= 9.45

t/c = 0.14

Taper ratio,  = 0.25

Sweep angle, 1/4 = 250

Ne = 0 (no. of engines located on top of the wings)

Clf = 0 (assuming no laminar flow over the wing in cruise)

Rw = Swet/S = 5.5

Tf = 1.1 (a factor which is unity for streamlined shape)

Af = 0.93 (airfoil factor)

 = 1.013 (wing thickness ratio correction factor)

f () = 0.00592

Substituting,

Cd0 = 0.01875 [0.8868]

Cd0 = 0.0166

To calculate K

K = 1/πAR { 1+ 0.12M6 [((1+ {0.142 + f()A(10 t/c)0.33})/ (cos1/4 )2 ) +{0.1

(3Ne + 1)/ (4+ AR)0.8 }]

K = 0.03368 {1.029 [1.249 + 0.0125]}

34
K = 0.04372

(L/D)max = 1 / (4Cd0k)

(L/D)max = 18.56

(L/D)cruise =86.6 % (L/D)max

(L/D)cruise = 16.07

W3W2 = exp { -R x TSFC / (3.6 x V x L/D) }

= exp { - 11000 x 0.51 / (3.6 x 236.67 x 16.07)

W3/W2 = 0.663

Fuel fraction for loiter (W4/W3)

W4/W3 = exp { - E x TSFC / (L/D)}

= exp { - 0.5 x 0.41 / 18.56 }

W4/W3 = 0.989

Fuel fraction for descent, landing and taxing (W5/W4) = 0.98

35
W5/W0 = W1W0 x W2W1 x W3/W2 x W4/W3 x W5/w4

= 0.98 x 0.98 x 0.663 x 0.989 x 0.98

W5/W0 = 0.617

WfW0 = Ktf x (1 -WnW0)

Wf/W0 = 1.06 x 1 – (0.617)

Wf/W0 = 0.406

Gross Weight, W0 = Wcrew + Wpayload  [1 – (WfW0) – (WeW0)]

W0 = 4800 / [1 – 0.406 – 1.0595(W0)-0.0598]

W0 Guessed (kg) We/W0 W0 Calculated (kg)

80000 0.539 87272

85000 0.537 84210

84500 0.5377 85257

84800 0.5375 84995

84900 0.53746 84907

36
The estimated Gross weight (W0) is 84907 kg

 Wf = 0.406 x 84907

= 34472 kg is the maximum fuel weight onboard.

Maximum fuel capacity,

Vf = Wf / fuel

= 34472 / 0.809; fuel = 0.809 kg/l, (value obtained from Jane’s All the World

Aircraft)

Vf = 42610 L (in wings + 3-9 belly tanks)

40% Empty weight

Paylod
Fuel weight
54%

6%

Weight Distribution Chart

37
 7. WING LOADING

THRUST LOADING (T/W)

T/W0 = AMmaxC

= 0.267 (0.82)0.363

(T/W)takeoff = 0.248

(T/W)cruise = 1/(L/D)cruise

(T/W)cruise= 0.0622

WING LOADING (W/S)

Stall:

Vstall = Vapproach / 1.3

= 72.5 / 1.3

Vstall = 55.77 m/s

CLmax = CL =0 cos 1/4

= 3.4 cos 250

= 3.08

38
W/S = (Vstall2 CLmax )/2

= (1.225 x 55.772 x 3.08) / 2

W/S = 598.12 kg/m2 (at sea level)

Landing:

Ground roll distance, S = 80 (W/S) / (CLmax )

(W/S) = S (CLmax )/ 80

= 662 x 0.82 x 3.08 / 80

(W/S)landing = 21 kg/m2

Cruise:

Skin friction coefficient, Cfe = 0.003 (subsonic)

Assuming Swet/S = 5.5

Parasite drag CDo = Cfe (Swet / Sref)

CDo = 0.0165

Oswald efficiency factor,

1/e = 1/ewing + 1/efuselage + 0.05

39
ewing = 0.84 for an unswept wing of A = 9.45 and λ = 0.25

ewing for a swept wing is,

ewing = ewing=0 cos (-5)

= 0.84 cos (25-5)

= 0.7893

1/efuselage = 0.1

1/e = 1.267 + 0.1+ 0.05

Therefore, e = 0.707

At 10 km altitude, V= 236.67,  = 0.41 kg/m2

q0 = ℓ V2 / 2 = 1170.5 kg/m2

(W/S)optimum cruise = q0 (πeARCD0 /3)0.5

= 1170.5 ( 0.432)

(W/S)optimum cruise = 506.2 kg/m2

(W/S)takeoff = (W/S)opt cruise x (W1/W0)-1 x (W2/W1)-1

= 506.2 x 0.98-1 x 0.98-1

(W/S)takeoff = 527 kg/m2

40
600

500

400

300 W/S

200

100

0
takeoff cruise landing stall

Wing loading

41
 8. AIRFOIL SELECTION

AIRFOIL GEOMETRY

An airfoil is a surface designed to obtain a desirable reaction from the air

through which it moves.

Chord line: Straight line connecting leading edge and trailing edge.

Thickness: Measured perpendicular to chord line as a % of it.

Camber: Curvature of section – perpendicular distance of section mid-points

from chord line as a % of it.

ANGLE OF ATTACK ()

42
Angle of attack () is the angle between the free stream and the chord line.

Aerofoil Selection is based on the factors of Geometry & definitions,

design/selection, families/types, design lift coefficient, thickness/chord ratio, lift
curve slope, characteristic curves.

The following are airfoil categories:

Early on, airfoil selection was based on trial & error.

NACA 4 digit was introduced during the 1930’s.

NACA 5-digit is aimed at pushing position of max camber forwards for

increased Clmax.

NACA 6-digit is designed for lower drag by increasing region of laminar flow.

The modern airfoil is mainly based upon need for improved aerodynamic
characteristics at speeds just below speed of sound.

NACA 4 Digit:

– 1st digit: maximum camber (as % of chord).

– 2nd digit (x10): location of maximum camber (as % of chord from

leading edge (LE)).

43
– 3rd & 4th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 5 Digit:

– 1st digit (x0.15): design lift coefficient.

– 2nd & 3rd digits (x0.5): location of maximum camber (as % of chord
from LE).

– 4th & 5th digits: maximum section thickness (as % of chord).

NACA 6 Digit:

– 1st digit: identifies series type.

– 2nd digit (x10): location of minimum pressure (as % of chord from

leading edge (LE)).

– 3rd digit: indicates acceptable range of CL above/below design value

for satisfactory low drag performance (as tenths of CL).

– 4th digit (x0.1): design CL.

– 5th & 6th digits: maximum section thickness (%c)

It becomes necessary to use high speed airfoils, i.e., the 6x series, which have
been designed to suit high subsonic cruise Mach numbers.

44
NACA 63A-514 (Root airfoil)

Max thickness 14%

Max camber 3.2%

45
NACA 63-512 (Midspan airfoil)

Max thickness 12.5%

Max camber 2.2%

46
NACA 63-310 (Tip airfoil)

Max thickness 10%

Max camber 1.1%

(JavaFoil – airfoil generator)

47
MAXIMUM THICKNESS (T/C)

Maximum thickness of the airfoil desired to produce max Cl is 14%

With a wing sweep angle of 250, the max lift coefficient can be obtained from

Clmax = Cl=0 cos 1/4

= 3.4 cos 250

= 3.08 (at 400 flap settings)

Clcruise = 2W/ (V2S)

= 2 x 598 x 9.81 / 0.41 x 236.672)

= 0.511

Clreq,takeoff = 1.5 (at 120 angle of attack) ….. (From the plots above)

48
.

Wing area, S = 84907 / 598.12 = 142 m2

Wing span, b = (9.45 x 142) = 36.63 m

Root chord, cR = 2 x 142 / [36.63 x (1 + 0.25)] …. ( = 0.25)

= 6.2 m

Tip chord, cT = 0.25 x 6.2

= 1.55 m

Mean aerodynamic chord (mac) = (2/3) [(1++2)/(1+)] c = 4.34 m

49
LE = c/4 + [(1-) / AR (1+)]

= 250 + 0.75 / (9.45 x 1.25)

= 25.060

Meff = McosLE

= 0.79 cos25.060

= 0.715

Wing sweep reduces effective Mach number over the wing.

 = (1-M2eff)

= 0.7

50
Dihedral () is the angle of the wing with respect to the horizontal plane when
seen in the front view. Dihedral of the wing affects the lateral stability of the
airplane. A value of Γ = 50 is chosen.

Wing sweep effect on dCL/d

dCL/d = 2.π.AR / [2+ {4+(AR.)2. (1+tan2t/c / 2)}]

= 2 x π x 9.45 / [2+ {4+(9.45 x 0.7)2 x (1+tan225 / 0.72)}]

= 59.376 / 5.269

= 11.27

51
WINGLETS

Blended winglets are used in this heavy business jet.

A blended winglet is attached to the wing with smooth curve instead of a sharp
angle and is intended to reduce interference drag at the wing/winglet junction.

These winglets which stand 2.5m tall each offers 5 to 7% reduction in cruise
drag (induced drag) and increase in wing area and aspect ratio without
geometrically increasing the wing span which results in 8 to 10% increase in
range.

52
WING PARAMETERS:

Design Parameters Values

Wing loading (W/S) 598 kg/m2

Wing area (S) 142 m2

Aspect ratio (AR) 9.45

Wing span (b) 36.63 m

Taper ratio () 0.25

Root chord (cR) 6.2 m

Tip chord (cT) 1.55 m

Mean chord (cm) 4.34 m

Design CL 0.511

Sweepback angle () 250

Dihedral angle () 50

53
 9. DRAG ESTIMATION

The drag polar is expressed as

CD = CD0 + KCL2

Where K = 1 / πAe

e = Oswald efficiency factor

Parasite drag CDo = Cfe (Swet / Sref)

Where, Cfe = equivalent skin friction drag coefficient ;

Swet = Wetted area of the airplane.

Swet/Sref = 5.5

The estimation of K is carried out next and then the value of CD0 is deduced
using the earlier calculation that (L/D)max = 18.56

ESTIMATION OF K:

Oswald efficiency factor,

1/e = 1/ewing + 1/efuselage + 0.05

ewing = 0.84 for an unswept wing of A = 9.45 and λ = 0.25

ewing for a swept wing is,

54
ewing = ewing=0 cos (-5)

= 0.84 cos (25-5)

= 0.7893

1/efuselage = 0.1

1/e = 1.267 + 0.1+ 0.05

Therefore, e = 0.707

K = 1 / πAe

= 1 / π x 9.45 x 0.707

= 0.0476

(L/D)max = 1 / 2(CD0 K)

CD0 = 1 / 4K (L/D)2max

= 1 / 4 x 0.0476 x 18.562

= 0.0165

Cfe = 0.0165 / 5.5

= 0.003

The drag polar is:

CD = 0.0165 + 0.0476 CL2 Drag, D = (1/2) V2SCD

55
Takeoff:

 = 1.225 kg/m3

V = 1.15 Vstall

= 1.15 (55.77)

= 64.13 m/s

S = 142 m2

Drag, D = 0.5 x 1.225 x 64.132 x 142 x (0.0165 + 0.0476 x 1.52)

Dtakeoff = 44.21 kN

Landing:

 = 1.225 kg/m3

V = 1.3 Vstall

= 72.5 m/s

Drag, D = 0.5 x 1.225 x 72.52 x 142 x (0.0165 + 0.0476 x 3.082 )

DLanding = 213.9 kN

Cruise:

 = 0.466 (at 10 km altitude)

56
V = 236.67 m/s

S = 142 m2

Drag, D = 0.5 x 0.41 x 236.672 x 142 x (0.0165 + 0.0476 x 0.5112 )

Dcruise = 47.17 kN

also, (T/W)cruise = 1 / (L/D)cruise

T/W = 0.0622

T = 0.0622 x (84907 x 9.81 )

Tcruise = 51.81 kN

In straight and level flight, D ~ T

Here, Dcruise and Tcruise calculated are almost equal.

57
 10. POWERPLANT SELECTION

COMPARISON OF TURBOFAN ENGINES:

Engine Length Diameter Thrust Weight Bypass Pressure Sfc

T/W
(m) (m) (kN) (kg) ratio ratio (hr-1)

CFM56-
7B
2.5 1.55 86.7 2366 3.7 5.5:1 32.8:1 0.56

PW6000 2.74 1.44 99-106 2289 4.7 5:1 28.2:1 0.68

CFM leap 123.5-

-1A 133.4
3.5 1.9 3762 3.6 11:1 40:1 0.44

110 - 10:1 -
150
PW1000G 3 2.1 3796 4 12:1 38:1 0.39

ENGINE SELECTION:

The thrust loading based on sea level static thrust is:

T/W = 0.248 ……. (from thrust loading calculation)

Thus, the thrust required is,

Treq = 0.248 x 84907 x 9.81 = 206.57 kN

58
It is observed that the maximum thrust requirements occurs from Vmax
consideration i.e. Tmax = 206.57 kN.

As a twin engine configuration has been adopted, the above requirement implies
a thrust per engine of 103.28 kN.

The above comparison of high bypass turbofan engines shows the competition
between CFM LEAP-1C and PW1000-G in various parameters. Unlike fighter
aircraft, business jets or any airliner in that case looks for an important
parameter which is lowest specific fuel consumption. Though LEAP-1C gives a
pressure ratio higher than PW1000-G, it contains more number of stages which
adds weight to the aircraft. On the other hand, PW1000G has a lowest TSFC of
0.39/hr.

PW1000-G will be designed with a variable inlet duct and a Gearing system
(Geared turbofan), that will allow changes in bypass ratio by controlling the
rpm of the fan, whenever required as per the flight phase. In addition to the
geared turbofan, the current design includes a variable-area nozzle, which offers
reduction in noise. It also offers 15% reduction in CO2 emission and 55%
reduced NOx margin in accordance with CAEP/6.

Taking these advantages in consideration, PW1000-G is selected.

Selected Engine series of PW1000G family:

PW1124G

PW1127G

PW1133G

59
DETAILS OF THE SELECTED ENGINE:

PRATT & WHITNEY PW1000G

The Pratt & Whitney PW1000G is a high-bypass geared turbofan engine family,
currently selected as the exclusive engine for the Bombardier CSeries,
Mitsubishi Regional Jet (MRJ), Embraer's second generation E-Jets, and as an
ultra efficient option for the Airbus A320neo.

60
FAN:

A large, light-weight fan moves well over 90% of air around the core, delivering
a very quiet engine with very low fuel burn.

COMPRESSORS AND TURBINES:

A compact, high-speed low-pressure system accomplishes the same work in

fewer stages. That means fewer airfoils, fewer life-limited parts, and ultimately
lower maintenance costs.

CORE:

The supercharged low-pressure system allows the advanced PurePower engine

core – optimized for high-cycle durability – to run cooler than the closest
competition, with fewer stages, and without expensive materials. That means
longer time on wing and lower maintenance costs

61
PW1000G

COMPONENTS:

COMPRESSOR: Axial flow, 1-stage geared fan, 3-stage LP, 8-stage HP

COMBUSTORS: Annular combustion chamber

TURBINE: Axial, 2-stage HP, 3-stage LP

62
GEARED TURBOFAN:

In a conventional turbofan engine, a single shaft (the "low-pressure" or LP

shaft) connects the fan, the low-pressure compressor and the low-pressure
turbine. A second concentric shaft connects the high-pressure compressor and
high-pressure turbine.

In this configuration, the maximum tip speed for the fan limits the rotational
speed for the LP shaft and thus the LP compressor and turbine. At high bypass
ratios (and thus high radius ratios) the tip speeds of the LP turbine and LP
compressor must be relatively low, which means extra compressor and turbine
stages are required to keep the average stage loadings and, therefore, overall
component efficiencies to an acceptable level.

In a geared turbofan, a reduction gearbox between the fan and the LP shaft
allows the latter to run at a higher rotational speed thus enabling fewer stages to
be used in both the LP turbine and the HP compressor, increasing efficiency and
reducing weight. Also the weight saved on turbine and compressor stages is
offset to some extent by the mass of the gearbox.

The Pure Power engine allows for a more efficient arrangement: a big, slow fan
shoving air into a small, fast turbine. The result is a shorter, lighter engine that
can produce the same amount of power as a larger conventional turbofan, while
burning 15 percent less fuel and emitting 15 percent less carbon dioxide.

63
 11. LANDING GEAR DESIGN

The landing gear supports the aircraft when it is not flying, allowing it to take
off, land and usually to taxi without damage. Landing gear placement is
essential for ground stability and controllability. A good landing gear position
must provide superior handling characteristics and must not allow over-
balancing during takeoff or landing.

Landing gear arrangement:

Landing gears normally come in two types: conventional or "taildragger"

landing gear, where there are two main wheels towards the front of the aircraft
and a single, much smaller, wheel or skid at the rear; or tricycle landing gear,
where there are two main wheels (or wheel assemblies) under the wings and a
third smaller wheel in the nose.

To decrease drag in flight some undercarriages retract into the wings and/or
fuselage with wheels flush against the surface or concealed behind doors; this is
called retractable gear.

With a tricycle landing gear, the c.g is ahead of the main wheels, so the aircraft
is stable on the ground. It improves forward visibility on the ground and permits
a flat cabin floor for passengers and cargo loading.

Thus retractable tricycle landing gear system is selected.

64
Tyre sizing:

The “wheel” is the circular metal object upon which the rubber “tyre” is
mounted. The “brake” inside the wheel slows the aircraft by increasing the
rolling friction. However, the term “wheel” is frequently used to mean the entire
wheel/brake/tyre assembly.

The tyres are sized to carry the weight of the weight of the aircraft. Typically
the main tyres carry about 90% of the total aircraft weight. Nose tyres carry
only about 10% of the static load but experience higher dynamic loads during
landing.

65
The nose gear is of double‐bogey type with two wheels. The main gear consists
of two sets of wheels (wing‐retracted) each of multi‐bogey type with 4 wheels
each.

Nose gear:

Load on nose gear = 0.1W0

= 8490.7 kg

Load per tyre, Lt = 4245.35 kg = 9359.4 lb

Wheel diameter = 2.69Lt0.251 ………..(from Raymer)

= 21.9 in = 0.56 m

Wheel width = 1.17Lt0.216 ………(from Raymer)

= 7.11 in = 0.18 m

Tyre size, 27 x 7.75

Tyre diameter, d = 27 in = 0.686 m

Tyre width, w = 7.75 in = 0.197 m

Rolling radius, Rr = 11.5 in = 0.3 m

Pavement contact area, Ap = 2.3 x(wd) x (0.5d – Rr)

= 66.54 in2

Tyre pressure = 9359.4 / 66.54 = 140.6 psi

66
Main gear:

Load on main gear = 0.9 W0

= 76416.3 kg

Load per tyre, Lt = 19104 kg = 42117.3 lb

Wheel diameter = 2.69Lt0.251 ………..(from Raymer)

= 31.94 in = 0.81 m

Wheel width = 1.17Lt0.216 ………(from Raymer)

= 9.83 in = 0.25 m

Selecting Goodrich tyre of size 40x14.5

Tyre diameter d = 40 in = 1 m

Tyre width, w = 14.5 in = 0.37 m

Rolling radius, Rr = 16.3 in = 0.414 m

Pavement contact area, Ap = 2.3 x(wd) x (0.5d – Rr)

= 205 in2

Tyre pressure = 42117.3 / 205 = 205 psi

Wheel base = 17.17 m

Wheel track = 5.71 m (incl. shock struts)

67
 12. PERFORMANCE CHARACTERISTICS

TAKEOFF PERFORMANCE:

Distance from rest to clearance of obstacle in flight path and usually considered
in two parts:

- Ground roll - rest to lift-off (SLO)

- Airborne distance – lift off to specified height of 50ft

The aircraft will accelerate up to lift-off speed (VLO = about 1.2 x Vstall) when it
will then be rotated.

Ground roll take-off distance is given by

SLO = 1.21W / gSCLmax(T/W) ….. (from ‘Aircraft Performance & Design’

by John. D Anderson)

= 1.21 x 84907x9.81 / (9.81 x 1.225 x 142 x1.5 x 0.248)

…(CLmax for takeoff = 1.5, from airfoil selection)

SLO= 1587.67 m

CLIMBING:

Consider aircraft in a steady unaccelerated climb with vertical climb speed of Vc

𝐿=𝑊 𝑐𝑜𝑠𝛾C

𝑇=𝐷+𝑊 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝛾C

68
VC = (T - D)Vstall / W

R/Cmax = VC = (2x206570 – 44210) x 55.77 / (84907 x 9.81)

R/Cmax = 24.7 m/s

LEVEL TURN:

In the case of a commercial transport aircraft, it is capable of performing only a

constant altitude banked turn and not any vertical pull-up or pull-down
manoeuvres.

In steady condition: T = D

Force balance gives:

W = Lcos

Fr = mV2 / r = Lsin

 tan  = V2 / Rg

So for given speed and turn radius there is only one correct bank angle for a co-
ordinate (no sideslip) turn.

69
In the turn, n = L/W = sec > 1 and is therefore determined by bank angle.

Turn radius (R) and turn rate () are good indicators of aircraft
manoeuvrability.

V2 / (Rg) = tan = (sec2 - 1) = (n2 - 1)

 R = V2/ (g (n2 - 1))

And  = V/R = (g (n2 - 1)) / V

W = Lcos

Let  = 600

n = 𝐿/𝑊 = 2

R = V2/ (g (n2 - 1))

= 236.672 / (9.81 x (22 – 1))

R = 3296.5 m

 = V/R

= 236.67 / 3296.5

 = 0.072 rad/s

70
GLIDING:

The thrust can be assumed to be zero while the aircraft is gliding.

 = tan-1 [1/ (L/D)]

= tan-1 [ 1 / 18.57]

 = 3.080 is the glide angle.

LANDING PERFORMANCE:

APPROACH & LANDING:

- Airborne approach at constant glide angle (around 30 ) and at constant

speed.

- Flare - transitional maneuver with airspeed reduced from about 1.3 Vstall
down to touch-down speed.

- Ground roll - from touch-down to rest.

71
Ground roll distance (STD):

STD = 1.69 W2 / 𝑔𝜌𝑆𝐶𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 [D + r (W-L)]

r is higher than for take-off since brakes are applied - use r = 0.4 for paved
surface.

STD = 1.69 x (84907 x 9.81)2 / (9.81 x 1.225 x 142 x 3.08 x [213976 +

0.4(832937.67 – 0.8 x 832937.67)]

Landing distance is STD = 795 m

Performance Values Units

Parameters

Takeoff distance 1587.67 m

(R/C)max 24.7 m/s

Turn radius 3296.5 m

Turn rate 0.072 rad/s

Glide angle 3.08 deg

Landing distance 795 m

72
 13. CENTRE OF GRAVITY ESTIMATION

The weight of an airplane changes in the flight due to consumption of fuel and
dropping off / release of armament or supplies. Further, the payload and the
amount of fuel carried by the airplane may vary from flight to flight.

These factors lead to change in the location of the centre of gravity (c.g.) of the
airplane. The shift in the c.g location affects the stability and controllability of
the airplane.

The weight of entire airplane can be sub divided into empty weight and useful

load. The empty weight can be further subdivided into:

(i) structures group

(ii) propulsion group and

(iii) equipment group.

The structures group consists of the following components:

- wing
- horizontal tail /canard
- vertical tail
- fuselage
- landing gear - main and nose/tail wheel
- nacelle, engine pod and air intake

73
The propulsion group consists of the following components:

- engine as installed
- reduction gear
- propeller for piston and turboprop engines
- cooling provisions
- engine controls
- fuel system and tanks

The equipment group consists of the following items:

- flight controls
- auxiliary power unit (APU)
- instruments
- hydraulic, pneumatic, electrical, armament, air conditioning, anti-icing
- avionics
- furnishings in passenger airplanes

The useful load consists of:

(i) Crew

(ii) Fuel - usable and trapped

(iii) Oil

(iv) Payload - passengers, cargo and baggage in transport airplane;

ammunition, expendable weapons and other items in military airplanes .

74
Approximate group weights method:

(Reference: “Aircraft design: A Conceptual Approach” by Daniel P. Raymer)

The aim of estimating the weights of individual components and their c.g. is to
obtain the location of the c.g. of the airplane. Then, the shift in the airplane c.g.
is examined under various conditions.

At this stage of preliminary design, the weights of individual components are

estimated using simpler method like using the table above.

The gross weight of the airplane estimated is 84907 kg

The weights and c.g. locations of various components are estimated below:

75
Wing:

S = 142 m2

b = 36.63 m

bsemi = (36.63/2) – (3.76/2) = 16.435 m

cR = 6.2 m

cT = 1.55 m

Fuselage width = 3.76 m

mac = 4.34 m

Location of L.E of mac from L.E of wing = 0.45 m

S(exposed)wing = 142 – (6.2x3.76) = 118.7 m2

From the table, the weight of the wing is,

Wwing = 118.7 x 49 = 5816.3 kg

Wwing / W0 = 6.8%

From the table, c.g of the wing is at 40% of mac

Hence, the location of the c.g. of wing from the leading edge of the root chord
is, 0.45 + 0.4x4.34 = 2.186 m

Horizontal tail:

btail = 14.35 m

76
Stail = 32.8 m2

cR ,h.tail = 3.38 m

cT, htail = 1.18 m

mac, htail = 2.29 m

S(exposed)tail = 27.88 m2

From the table,

Weight of Horizontal tail = 27 x 27.88 = 752.76 kg

Wht / W0 = 0.887%

From the table, c.g of the h.tail is at 40% of mac.

Hence, the location of the c.g. of h.tail from the leading edge of the root chord
of h.tail is, 0.45 + 0.4 x 2.29 = 1.37 m

Vertical tail:

The contribution of dorsal fin to the weight of v.tail is ignored at this stage of
preliminary design.

Sv.tail = 26.40 m2

From the table,

Weight of vertical tail = 27 x 26.40 = 712.8 kg

77
Wvt/W0 = 0.84%

From the table, c.g of the v.tail is at 40% of mac.

Mean aerodynamic chord of v.tail = 3.7 m

Hence, the location of the c.g. of v.tail from the leading edge of the root chord
of v.tail is 1.45 + 0.4 x 3.7 = 2.93 m

Engine:

The weight of each engine is 3796 kg

From the table, the installed weight of two engines is,

Wengine = 1.3 x (2 x 3796) = 9869.6 kg

Wengine / W0 = 11.62 %

For gas turbine engines the location of c.g. from the engine inlet is between 30
to 45% of engine length.

In the present case the engine length is 3 m.

The engines are located at 3.06 m from the wing root and the inlet is at 2.5 m
from wing leading edge.

78
Hence, the location of c.g of engine from L.E of the wing is,

= -2.5 + (0.4 x 3) = -1.3 m i.e., 1.3 m ahead of the L.E of root chord of wing.

Landing gear:

From the table, the weight of the nose wheel plus the main landing gear is 4.3%
of W0. i.e., 0.043 x 84907 = 3651 kg

Out of this total weight, the nose wheel and main wheel account for 15% and
85% respectively.

Hence, nose wheel weighs 0.15 x 3651 = 547.65 kg

And the main wheels weigh 0.85 x 3651 = 3103.35 kg.

With regard to the locations of the c.g.’s of nose wheel and main wheels, it is
recalled that the nose wheel and main wheels share respectively 10 % and 90 %
of the airplane weight.

Wheel base is 17.17 m.

Hence, the c.g. of the nose wheel is 0.9 x 17.17 = 15.45 m ahead of the c.g. of
the airplane.

The c.g. of the main wheels, as a group, is:

= 0.1 x 17.17 = 1.717 m behind the c.g. of the airplane.

79
Fuselage:

An approximate estimation of fuselage wetted area is,

= 0.75 x perimeter of fuselage x length of fuselage

= 0.75 x π x 3.76 x 42

= 372.1 m2

(Wfuse + Wsyst)/ W0 = (Wempty/W0) – [(Ww/W0) + (Wht/W0) + (Wvt/W0) + (We/W0)

+ (Wlg/W0)]

(Wfuse + Wsyst)/ W0 = 0.5375 – (0.068 + 0.00887 + 0.0084 + 0.1162 + 0.043)

(Wfuse + Wsyst) = 0.2932 x 84907 = 24894.73 kg

From the table, the c.g of fuselage and systems is, 0.45 x length of fuselage

= 0.45 x 42 =18.9 m from the nose of the fuselage.

Wing location and c.g. of the airplane:

The wing is chosen such that the c.g. of the entire airplane with the gross weight
is at 25% of the mean aerodynamic chord of the wing.

The distance of the leading edge of the root chord of the wing from the nose of
the fuselage is denoted by xlew. The 25% of the mean aerodynamic chord (mac)
of wing is 1.5 m behind xlew.
80
Hence, the chosen location of the c.g. of the entire airplane is at (xlew + 1.5) m
from the nose of fuselage.

Item W (kg) x (m) W.x (kg.m)

5816.3xlew +
12714.43
Wing 5816.3 xlew +2.186

752.76xlew
+1031.28
H.tail 752.76 xlew+1.37

712.8xlew +
2088.5
V.tail 712.8 xlew + 2.93

9869.6xlew –
12830.48
Engines 9869.6 xlew - 1.3

547.65xlew –
8461.2
Nose wheel 547.65 xlew – 15.45

3103.35xlew
+5328.45
Main wheel 3103.35 xlew + 1.717

Fuselage & syst 24894.73 18.9 470510.4

20800.9xlew +
512964.34
 45696.89

81
The location of wing from nose of airplane is,

45696.89(xlew + 1.5) = 20800.9xlew + 512964.34

 xlew = 17.85 m

Hence, the c.g. of the airplane is at 17.85 + 1.5 = 19.3 m from nose of fuselage.

Since, c.g lies at a.c of wing, aerodynamic centre also lies at 19.3 m from nose
of fuselage.

82
 14. STABILITY & CONTROL

STATIC LONGITUDINAL STABILITY:

For the aircraft configuration adopted,

xc.g = 1.5/4.34 = 0.3456ĉ;

ĉ = 4.34 m

(Cm/CL)fuse,nac = 0.042 ;

/ = 0.4

vHT = 0.48 ;

t = 0.9

For the wing, airfoil selected is NACA 63A-514

CL/ = 0.125 deg-1 ….. (refer lift curve plot in airfoil selection)

xac = 0.25ĉ

83
For the tail, airfoil selected is NACA 0012

CL/ = 0.1 deg-1

For the longitudinal stick‐fixed static stability of the aircraft, we have

(Cm/CL)stickfixed = (xcg – xac) + (Cm/CL)fuse,nac – [(at vHT t/aw) (1- /)]

= (0.3456 – 0.25) + 0.042 – 0.20736

(Cm/CL)stickfixed = - 0.06976

The negative value of (Cm/CL)stickfixed indicates that the airplane has

longitudinal stick-fixed static stability.

Longitudinal stability

(Ref: “Airplane Performance Stability & Control” by Perkins)

84
Stick fixed Neutral point:

When the value of (Cm/CL)stickfixed reduces to zero, the location of the

C.G is called the Neutral Point.

N0 = (xac/ĉ) - (Cm/CL)fuse,nac + [(at vHT t/aw) (1- /)]

= 0.25 – 0.042 + 0.20736

N0 =0.41536

Static margin, = N0 – (xcg/ĉ)

= 0.41536 – 0.3456

Static margin = 0.07

STICK FIXED LONGITUDINAL CONTROL:

e = 0.4

vHT = 0.48

t = 0.9

The rate at which the pitching moment coefficient of the aircraft changes with
change in elevator deflection is called the Elevator control power.

(Cm/e) = - at vHT t e

= - 0.1 x 0.48 x 0.9 x 0.4 (Cm/e) = - 0.01728 deg-1

85
DIRECTIONAL STABILITY:

Directional stability of the airplane is a measure of its tendency to produce

restoring moments when disturbed from an equilibrium angle of sideslip –
usually taken as zero. It is measured quantitatively by the variation of yawing
moment coefficient with sideslip angle.

Cn = N / q S b

In general Cn /  should be negative for the airplane to have static directional
stability. All the components of the aircraft contribute to the stability coefficient Cn /
.

Contribution from Wing:

The wing contribution to directional stability is quite small, as the cross wind
effects on the wing are very small. The critical factor is the sweepback () of
the wing.

(Cn / )wing = - 0.00006

For the aircraft,  = 250

(Cn / )wing = - 0.0003 deg-1

Contribution from Fuselage and Nacelle:

(Cn / )fuse,nace = (0.96K / 57.3) (Sf/Sw) (Lf/b) (h1/h2)1/2 (w2/w1)1/3

where, K is an empirical constant which is obtained from the graph below,

K = 0.12

86
Sf = 157.92 m2 = Projected area of fuselage

h1, w1 : Height and width of fuselage at Lf /4 in m

h2, w2 : Height and width of fuselage at 3Lf /4 in m

h1 = h2 = 3.76 m

w1 = w2 = 3.76 m

(Cn / )fuse,nace = (0.96K / 57.3) (Sf/Sw) (Lf/b) (h1/h2)1/2 (w2/w1)1/3

(Cn / )fuse,nace = 0.00256 deg-1

Thus the fuselage is destabilizing the aircraft.

(Reference: “Airplane Performance Stability & Control” by Perkins)

87
Contribution of Vertical Tail:

The vertical tail is the stabilizing component in the aircraft as far as directional
stability is concerned.

(Cn / )v.tail = - av vv v (1 - )

(Cn / )v.tail = (Cn / )v.t + (Cn / )slipstream interference

For the vertical tail,

av = 0.1 deg-1

vv = 0.05

v = 0.9

(Cn / )v.t = - 0.0045

(Cn / )slipstream interference = -0.0003 (Perkins)

(Cn / )v.tail = -0.0048 deg-1

(Cn / )airplane = (Cn / )wing + (Cn / )fuse,nace + (Cn / )v.tail

(Cn / )airplane = - 0.00254 deg-1

Directional Control:

The rate at which the yawing moment coefficient of the aircraft changes with
change in rudder deflection is called the Rudder control power.

(Cn/r) = - av vv v r

For rudder, r = 0.4

 (Cn/r) = - 0.0018 deg-1

88
 Directional stability

(Reference: “Airplane Performance Stability & Control” by Perkins)

LATERAL STABILITY:

When a small vertical disturbance causes the aircraft to roll to one side, as such,
the airplane will continue to roll at the same constant velocity. As such, the
airplane is neutrally stable in roll. However, due to the development of sideslip,
the lift distribution over the wings is altered, tending to produce restoring
moments which restore the aircraft to its original state. This effect is generally

89
called the Dihedral Effect. Lateral stability of the airplane is a measure of this
tendency to produce restoring moments when disturbed in roll.

The rolling moment coefficient is:

Cl = L / (q s b)

In general, Cl /  should be positive for the airplane to have static lateral
stability. All the components of the aircraft contribute to the stability coefficient
Cl / .

Contribution from Wing:

The wing dihedral angle has a linear variation with the stability coefficient.
There is also an additional component due to the tip shape. The stability
coefficient is given by

(Cl / )wing = 0.0002 + (Cl / )tip-shape + (Cl / )sweepback

where  - dihedral angle in degrees = 50

(Cl / )tip-shape = 0.0002 deg-1 (Perkins)

(Cl / )sweepback = -0.5 (Cn / )wing

= 0.00015 deg-1

 (Cl / )wing = 0.00135 deg-1

Since the wing configuration is low‐wing,

(Cl / )interference = - 0.0008 deg-1 (Perkins)

90
Contribution of Vertical Tail:

The vertical tail is stabilizing as far as directional stability is concerned.

(Cl / )v.tail = av vv v (Zv/lv)

For the vertical tail,

Zv = 4.78 m

lv = 17.75 m

(Cl / )v.tail = 0.00121183

Since the wing configuration is low‐wing,

(Cl / )interference = 0.00016 deg-1

(Cl / )airplane = (Cl / )wing + (Cl / )v.tail + (Cl / )interference

(Cl / )airplane = 0.001922

Lateral stability

(Reference: “Airplane Performance Stability & Control” by Perkins)

91
15. 3-VIEW DIAGRAM

92
 All dimensions are in m

93
 16. FINALIZED DESIGN PARAMETERS

Parameters Values

Seating capacity 12 - 40

Length 43.1 m

Height 12.5 m

Wing span 36.63 m

Wing area 142 m2

Wing sweep angle 250

Cabin width 3.53 m

Fuselage width 3.76 m

Empty weight 45634 kg

Max. Takeoff weight 84907 kg

Max. Fuel capacity 42610 L

Max. speed 0.82 M

Cruise speed 0.79 M

Range 11000 km

Service ceiling 12500 m

Wing loading 598 kg/m2

Engines (x2) PW1000G geared turbofan

94
 17. CONCLUSION

The preliminary design of a heavy business jet is done and the various design
considerations and performance parameters required are calculated and found
out. The obtained design values are not necessarily a definite reflection of the
airplane's true and conceptualized design, but the basic outlay of development
has been obtained.

The final design stays true to the desired considerations of a long range aircraft
that can provide high fuel efficiency as well. There is no ideal design as such
and continuous changes, improvements and innovations serve to make the
design as ideal as possible, while always looking to achieve optimum
performance.

The challenges we faced at various phases of the project made clear the fact that
experience plays a vital role in successful design of any aircraft or aircraft
component. A lot of effort has been put into this project and as much as we have
worked, we have learnt in turn.

95
 18. REFERENCES

1. Anderson, John D. Jr., (1999) Aircraft Performance and Design,

McGraw-Hill, New York
2. Anderson, John D. Jr., (2001) Introduction to Flight, McGraw-Hill ,
New York
3. Perkins, C. and Hage, R. (1949) Airplane Performance, Stability and
Control, Wiley, New York
4. Raymer, Daniel P. (1992) Aircraft Design: A Conceptual Approach,
AIAA Education series, Washington, DC
5. Roskam, J. (1985) Airplane Design, Roskam Aviation and Engineering
Corp., Ottawa, Kansas
6. Taylor, J. (2004) Jane’s All the World’s Aircraft, Jane’s, London, UK

WEBSITES

1. Boeing technical characteristics, viewed 2 March 2014

http://www.boeing.com/boeing/commercial/737family/specs.page
2. Engine selection and technical Information, viewed 25 March 2014
www.purepowerengine.com
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pratt_%26_Whitney_PW1000G
3. JavaFoil – Analysis of airfoil, viewed 29 March 2014
http://www.mhaerotools.de/aerofoils/javafoil.htm

96

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