The Nature of Language

Qualities of Symbolic Communication

Our language is symbolic, meaning it is made up of symbols. A symbol is something

that stands for something else. The symbols that we use stand in for something else,
like a physical object or idea; they do not actually correspond to the thing in any direct
way. For example, there is nothing fundamental about a cat that leads to calling it a
"cat." The use of symbolic communication is uniquely human, and it allows us to have
abstract conversations about things that are not in our immediate reality. Our use of
symbolic language has three distinct qualities: it is arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract.

Symbolic Language Is Arbitrary

We use symbols to encode what is in our heads, the thoughts, emotions, concepts, etc.
so we can share them. The symbols we use are arbitrary: there is nothing inherent
about the things we are sharing and the symbols that we use to represent them. If
symbols are arbitrary, then how do we use them to communicate? Communication is
only possible because speakers of the same language have agreed on these arbitrary
meanings. We understand that when someone uses a particular word (symbol) that it
represents a specific thing. This agreement is what makes communication via language
possible. Ogden and Richards (1923) illustrated this idea with their triangle of meaning
(Figure \(\PageIndex{1}\)). In this example, the word cat  represents both the concept
of a cat and an actual cat. Communication is successful when the meaning attached to
the symbol is shared.
Symbolic Language Is Ambiguous

In addition to being arbitrary, symbols are ambiguous because they have several

potential meanings. If you are hanging out with a friend and she says “check out that
girl” and you respond, “she’s fine.” What do you mean? You could mean, she is alright.
But you might also mean that she is really good looking. In this case the symbol alone
is ambiguous; we would have to rely on the context to find meaning. Meanings also
change over time. One of our authors shares their own experience as an example:

When I was headed to college I got my first cell phone. At that time, most people
still had landline phones—so we distinguished between our “phones” and our
“cells.” These days most of us have cut the cord and now our cell phone is just
our phone. If I asked my kids to help me find my “cell” they would have no idea
what I was looking for.
You might be asking, “If symbols can have multiple meanings, then how do we
communicate and understand one another?” We are able to communicate because
there are a finite number of possible meanings for our symbols, a range of meanings
which the members of a given language system agree upon. Without an agreed-upon
system of symbols, we could share relatively little meaning with one another.

Symbolic Language Is Abstract

Finally, symbols are abstract. The verbal symbols we use are not material. Because
they are only representations of objects and ideas, a level of abstraction is inherent. In
1941, linguist S. I. Hayakawa created what is called the abstraction ladder. The
abstraction ladder starts with the most abstract at the top and then moves toward the
bottom rung ,which is the most concrete. For example, we could start with the most
abstract (animal), moving to more concrete (fox), to the most concrete (a specific
American Red Fox). As we move down the ladder, the symbol becomes more concrete
and less abstract. In addition to relying on arbitrary, ambiguous, and abstract symbols,
the language we use is also governed by rules.

Language Is Rule-Governed

Verbal communication is rule-governed. Remember in order for communication to

succeed we have to have shared meaning. One way to help facilitate shared meaning is
to follow agreed-upon rules to make sense of the symbols we use. What would happen
if there were no rules for using the symbols (letters) that make up different words?

If placing letters in a proper order was not important, then cta, tac, tca, act, or
atc could all mean cat. Even worse, what if you could use any three letters to
refer to cat? Or still worse, what if there were no rules and anything could
represent cat? (Hahn & Paynton, 2021).

As you can see, it is important to have rules to guide our use of verbal communication.
In this section we focus on three general rules: semantic, syntatic, and pragmatic.

Semantic Rules

Semantic rules are those that help us with meaning. We would not be able to
communicate with others if we did not have semantic rules. When we look a word up in
the dictionary, the definition provides the semantic rules for that symbol. The dictionary
definition is the general meaning of the word, but that meaning can also vary based on
the context in which it is used. Even though a word has a definition, its meaning can
change based on the particular context.

Take the word run  for example. Most of us would claim to know what this word means
and we could look it up in a dictionary if we needed to, but on its own we can’t know
what it means. We need to know in what context it is being used. “I’m going for a run,”
“I need to run  an errand,” “He is giving me the runaround,” or “I am feeling rundown
today,” all imply different meanings based on the context.

Syntactic Rules

Syntactic rules are those that help us with language structure and symbol arrangement.
How we combine words into sentences is governed by syntax. These rules are what
make meaning coherent and understandable.

In English, most basic syntax follows a subject–verb–direct object formula. For

example, "Charlie kicked the soccer ball." The structure of the sentence is fundamental
to how we make shared meaning. The other aspect of syntax that influences our verbal
communication is grammar. For example, a comma can make a big difference in how
people understand a message. As shown in Figure \(\PageIndex{2}\), “Let’s eat
grandma!” is quite different from saying “Let’s eat, grandma!” The first implies
cannibalism and the second a family dinner.

Pragmatic Rules

Finally, pragmatic rules help us use language appropriately. What is appropriate in one

circumstance may not be in another. While you are working, you are likely to be more formal
with your boss and customers than you are with your co-workers. Think about the terms bowel
movement, poop, crap, and shit. While all of these words have essentially the same denotative
meaning, people make choices based on context and audience regarding which word they feel
comfortable using. These differences illustrate the pragmatics of our verbal communication.

We learn pragmatic rules from our lived experience within our larger culture. A recent
anecdote that we saw on Twitter helps illustrate this idea. “In Australia we often have a meal
where people are invited to bring some food to share. It’s referred to as ‘bring a plate.’ A friend
from Scotland literally brought an empty plate and was very confused, thinking we didn’t own
enough dinnerware” (Sarah Harris @sarah_sirrah).

Language Creates Meaning

Miscommunication often occurs when individuals assign different meanings to the same symbol.
We think about communication in terms of finding the right words— but this view of language
assumes that the meaning is in the words, and it is not. Meaning is in us. We assign meaning to
the symbols we use, and there are many potential meanings that we could draw upon. As you
have learned, symbols are arbitrary and their meaning is not inherent. While dictionaries can help
us with standardized definitions—a word’s denotative meaning—shared meanings are not
always standard and vary contextually.
Language Shapes Our Worldview

Verbal communication helps us define reality. “We use verbal communication to define
everything from ideas, emotions, experiences, thoughts, objects, and people”  (Hahn &
Paynton, 2021). Think about what you are doing right now. How would you describe
this experience? Are you reading, learning, studying? Are you engaged, bored, stressed,
motivated? There are a variety of different ways we can make sense of our
experiences, and we use verbal communication to label and define our reality.

Verbal communication helps us organize complex ideas and experiences into meaningful
categories. It would be impossible for us to focus our attention on the overwhelming
stimuli that we encounter every day. Instead, we use verbal communication to help us
make sense of the world through simplified categories that help to establish meaning.

For example, think about how you organize your physical space. We organize things
based on estimates: for example, your friend's house might be close, but a favorite
hangout spot is far away. We may categorize them based on another location: for
example, perhaps you could walk to the grocery store from your house, but you have to
take the bus to get to campus. In the United States, we tend to give directions using
egocentric language and coordinates: “From our classroom you go left to the quad,
then take a right and you will see the library.” We could just as easily give these
directions using fixed geographical coordinates: “Exit the classroom and head east.
When you get to the quad turn north and you will see the library.” Both of these
directions are correct, but they vary in how the speaker categorizes their physical space
with language (Deutscher, 2010).

Verbal communication helps us think, and to engage in abstract thought. Without verbal
communication, we would not function as thinking beings. The ability most often used
to distinguish humans from other animals is our ability to reason and communicate.
Animals can communicate about what is present. Many animals have sounds used to
designate the presence of food or to warn of a threat. What they lack is the ability to
discuss complex ideas. Humans can talk not only about a visible and present threat but
also the potential for threat and how to prepare for it. It is this capacity of verbal
communication that allows humans to reflect on the past, consider the present, and
plan for the future.

Verbal communication helps us shape our attitudes about our world. The way you use
language shapes your attitude about the world around you. Edward Sapir and Benjamin
Lee Whorf developed the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis to explain that language determines
thought. People who speak different languages, or use language differently, think
differently (Whorf; Sapir; Mandelbaum; Maxwell; Perlovsky; Lucy; Simpson; Hussein).

In recent years, various experiments have shown that grammatical genders can shape
the feelings and associations of speakers toward objects around them. In the 1990s, for
example, psychologists compared associations between speakers of German and
Spanish. There are many inanimate nouns whose genders in the two languages are
reversed. A German bridge is feminine (die Brücke), for instance, but el puente is
masculine in Spanish. The same goes for clock, apartment,  fork, newspaper, pockets,
shoulders, stamps, ticket, violin, the sun, the world,  and love. Apple  is masculine for
Germans but feminine in Spanish, and so is chair, broom, butterfly, keys, mountains,
stars, table, war, rain, and garbage. When speakers were asked to grade various
objects on a range of characteristics, Spanish speakers deemed bridges, clocks, and
violins to have more "manly properties" like strength, but Germans tended to think of
them as more slender or elegant. With objects like mountains or chairs, which are
masculine in German but feminine in Spanish, the effect was reversed (Deutscher,
2010).

Those of us who speak English are entirely oblivious to this phenomenon because our
language does not create these associations; nonetheless our language still shapes our
attitudes and impacts how we perceive the world.

Language Is Impactful

One of our authors shares this example:

At the end of the day, I ask my children what they want for "supper." If it is my
husband asking, he will inquire about what they want for "dinner." If we are going
to have eggs or pancakes or the like, we might comment that we are having
"breakfast" for dinner.

The language choices we make help us make sense of our world. As we explained
earlier in the chapter, meaning is not in the words that we use, it is in the people. The
author's children know that supper and dinner both refer to the last meal of the day,
but in the case of "breakfast for dinner" they are more interested in the kind of food
and not when we are eating it. In this section we focus on how verbal communication
defines reality, shapes relationships, evolves, and conveys power.

Language Defines and Labels our Reality

Verbal communication helps us define reality. If you ever played organized sports as a
child, you know how difficult it can be to process a hard loss. It is easy to be sad and
frustrated that your team was not victorious, but a good coach will redirect those
feelings by reminding the team of how hard they tried and the fun they had playing
regardless of the outcome. We have choices in how we use verbal communication to
define our realities. We make choices about what to focus on and how to define what
we experience, and those choices shape our understanding of the world we live in.
One area of language and identity that has taken on prominence is the use of
pronouns. A pronoun is a word that can function by itself as a noun phrase and that
refers either to the participants in the discourse (e.g., I, you) or to someone or
something mentioned elsewhere in the discourse (e.g., she, it, this). Pronouns are
essential in our communication with one another. In English we have historically relied
on gendered pronouns that reference someone’s perceived gender (he/him/his or
she/her/hers). When we use gendered pronouns, we are identifying someone’s gender
and those part of their identity.