MACHINE TOOLS LABORATORY

MANUAL
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
N B K R Institute of Science & Technology: Vidyanagar

CONTENTS

S.No Contents Page No.

1. Certificate
2. Evaluation of day to day performance
1 Introduction to Machine Tools

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Certificate

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 EVALAUTOINOF DAY TO DAY PERFORMANCE

Marks obtained
S.No Name of the Exercise Date
(Max.Marks 10)

Signature of Faculty

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 INTRODUCTION TO MACHINE TOOLS

LATHE
1.1 INTRODUCTION

The lathe is one of the oldest machine tools. The main function of a lathe is to remove metal
from a piece of work to give it the required shape and size. This accomplished by holding the
work securely and rigidly on the machine and then turning it against cutting tool, which will
remove, metal from the work in the form of chips. To cut the material properly the tool
should be harder than the material of the work piece, should be rigidly held on the machine
and should be fed or progressed in a definite way relative to the work.

1.2 MAIN PARTS OF A LATHE

Figure 1 Block Diagram of Lathe

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF A LATHE:

According to size, design, and method of drive, arrangement of gears, different precision
classes and purpose.

i) Speed Lathe: It is so named because of the very high speed of head stock spindle. It is a
simplest form of lathe and consists a simple head stock, a tail stock and tool post. It has no
gear box, lead screw and carriage. Tools are hand operated. Cone-pulley is the only source

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provided for the speed variation of the spindle. Mainly used for wood turnig, metal spinning
and polishing operations.

ii) Engine Lathe or Centre Lathe: It is most widely used one. Its name is derived from the
fact that early machine tools were driven by a separate engine or from a central engine with
overhead belts and shafts. The stepped cone- pulley or geared head are often used for varying
the speed of lathe spindle. A tail stock is provided to facilitate holding the work between the
centers and permit the use of tools like drills and taps etc. The cutting tools are controlled
either by hand or by power and can be fed both in cross and longitudinal directions with ref to
lathe axis with the help of a carriage feed rod and lead screw. A wide range of attachments
can be fitted on it to increase its utility. These are available in sizes to handle up to 1 m dia
jobs and 1 to 4 m long.

iii) Turret Lathe: It is a production machine used to perform a large number of operations
simultaneously. Several tools are set on a revolving turret to facilitate doing large number of
operations on a job in minimum time. An index able square tool post is provided on the cross
slide for mounting the turning and parting off tools.
The turret usually accommodates six tools for different operations like drilling counter
sinking, reaming, tapping etc, which can be successively brought in to working positions by
indexing the turret. Some special tool holders to perform simultaneous multi tool operations
are also available. They are widely used be repetitive batch production.

iv) Capstan Lathe: It is similar to turret lathe and incorporate capstan slide which moves on
an auxiliary slide and can be clamped in any position. It is best suited for fast production of
small parts because of its light weight and short stroke of capstan slide.

v) Tool room Lathe: It is the modern engine lathe which is equipped with all necessary
accessories for accurate tool room work. It is a geared head driven machine with considerable
range in spindle speeds and feeds. It is suited for production of small tools, dies, gauges etc.

vi) Bench Lathe: It is a small lathe which can be mounted on the work bench for doing small
precision and light jobs.

vii) Automatic Lathes: They are designed for all working and job handling movements of
the complete manufacturing a job are done automatically. Operator participation is not
required during the operation. In semi-automatic lathes, mounting and removal of work is
done by the operator and all other operations are performed by the machine automatically.

viii) Special purpose Lathes: These are desired to suit a definite class of work and to
perform a specific operation only. They prove to be more efficient and effective as compared
to the common engine lathe.

1.3 OPERATIONS PERFORMED IN A LATHE

A Lathe Machine consists of the following operation:

 Centering  Thread cutting
 Facing  Drilling
 Turning  Boring
 Chamfering  Reaming
 Knurling  Parting off

Before continuing any operation in lathe we have to load the job and center it on the head-
stock spindle. In lathe operations, the headstock spindle holds the job and it rotates with the
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same speed as the spindle. The carriage holding the tool on the tool post, also the carriage
gives the tool post moves longitudinally or crosswise direction to give the desired feed on the
job. These two motions (longitudinally and crosswise) help to remove the chips of the metal
and give the proper shape of the job.

1. Centering operation in the lathe:

We use this operation for producing a conical hole in the face of the job to make the bearing
support of the lathe center when the job is to hold between two centers. (Head stock and Tail-
stock).

2. Facing operation

Facing operation is for making the ends of the job produce a smooth flat surface with the
axis of operation or a certain length of a job.
In this operation
1. Hold the job on Head-stock spindle using Three or four-jaw chuck.
2. Start the machine on desire RPM to rotate the job.
3. Give a desirable feed on the perpendicular direction of the axis of the job.

3. Turning operation

The operation by which we remove the excess material from the workpiece to produce a
cone-shaped or a cylindrical surface. There are several types of turning operations, those are:

i. Straight turning:
This operation is done to produce a cylindrical surface by removing excess material from the
workpiece.

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ii. Shoulder turning

A shoulder turning is called which has a different diameter to form a step from one diameter
to another.

iii. Rough turning and Finish turning

It is a process of removal of excess material from the workpiece in minimum time by

applying a high rate of feed and heavy depth of cut. the depth of cut is around 2 to 5mm and
the rate of feed is 0.3 to 1.5mm/revolution. The finish turning operation needs high cutting
speed, minimum feed, and a very small depth of cut to generate a smooth surface. In finish
turning the depth of cut is around 0.5 to 1mm and the rate of feed is 0.1 to 0.3 mm/revolution.

iv. Taper turning

The operation by which a conical surface of the gradual reduction in diameter from a
cylindrical workpiece is produced is called taper turning.

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Types of Taper Turning Methods
 Tailstock Set over Method.  Form Tool Method.
 Compound Rest Method.  Combining Feeds Method
 Taper Turning Attachment Method.

4. Chamfering operation
Chamfering is used for beveling the end of a job to remove burrs, to look better, to make a
passage of the nut into the bolt. This operation is done after thread cutting, knurling, rough
turning.

5. Knurling operation

It is the process of producing a rough surface on the workpiece to provide effective gripping.
The knurling tool is held rigidly on the tool post and pressed against the rotating job so that
leaving the exact facsimile of the tool on the surface of the job.

6. Thread cutting operation

It is the operation that is used to produce a helical groove on a cylindrical or conical surface
by feeding the tool longitudinally when the job revolved between the two centers.

7. Drilling operation

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Drilling is an operation by which we can make holes in a job. In this operation, the job is
rotated at the turning speed on the lathe axis and the drilling tool is fitted on the tail-stock
spindle. The tail-stock is moved towards the job by hand feed.

8. Boring operation

In this operation, we can enlarge the diameter of the existing hole on a job by turning inside
with some farm tool known as a boring tool. The boring tool is also fitted on tail-stock.

9. Reaming operation

Reaming is the operation for sizing or finishing a drilled hole to the required size by a tool
called a reamer. This tool is fitted on tail-stock.

10. Parting-off operation

It is the operation of cutting off a bar-type job after completing the machining process. In this
operation a bar-type job is held on a chuck, rotates at turning speed, a parting-off tool is fed
into the job slowly until the tool reaches the center of the job.
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1.4 SPECIFICATIONS

The size of a lathe is expressed or specified by the following items and illustrated in the given
Figure 2.
1. The height of the centres measured from the lathe bed.
2. The swing diameter over bed. This is the largest diameter of work that will revolve
without touching the bed and is twice the height of the centre measured from the bed
of the lathe.
3. The length between centres. This is the maximum length of work that can be mounted
between the lathe centres.
4. The swing diameter over carriage. This is the largest diameter of work that will
revolve over the lathe saddle and is always less than the swing diameter over bed.
5. The maximum bar diameter. This is the maximum diameter of bar stock that will pass
through hole of the headstock spindle.
6. The length of bed. This indicates the approximate floor space occupied by the lathe.

Figure 2. Lathe specifications

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 2. DRILLING MACHINE

2.1. DRILLING MACHINE

The drilling machine is one of the most important machine tools in a workshop. As regards
its importance it is second only to the lathe. The hole is generated by the rotating edge of a
cutting tool known as the drill, which exerts large force on the work clamped on the table. As
the machine tool exerts vertical pressure to originate a hole it is loosely called a “drill press”.

2.2 MAIN PARTS OF A RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE

Figure 3. Radial drilling machine.

2.2 Classifications of drilling machine

1. Portable drilling Machine.

2. Sensitive or Bench drill.
3. Upright drilling Machine (Single Spindle)
4. Upright drilling Machine (Turret Type)
5. Radial drilling Machine
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6. Multiple spindles drilling Machine.
7. Deep hole drilling Machine
8. Gang drilling Machine.
9. Horizontal drilling Machine
10. Automatic drilling Machine.

1. PORTABLE DRILLING MACHINE:

It is a very small, compact and self-contained unit carrying a small electric motor inside it. It
is very commonly used for drilling holes in such components that can’t be transported to the
shop due to their size or weight. On account of the high speeds available considerable time is
saved. Another advantage is that the holes can be drilled at any desired inclination. Portable
drills have a capacity to drill holes up to max. of 18mm dia.

2. SENSITIVE OR BENCH DRILL:

This type of drill machine is used for very light work. Its construction is very simple and so is
the operation. No gears are used in the drive. It can be swung to any desired position. Vertical
movement to the spindle is given by the feed handle through a rack and pinion arrangement.
The max. dia. it can drill is 20mm dia steel.

3. UPRIGHT DRILLING MACHINE (SINGLE SPINDLE)

It is used for heavier work and has a back gearing arrangement. It differs from sensitive drill
in its weight, rigidity, application of power feed and wide range of spindle speeds. The
drilling capacity is up to 75mm in steel. The table can swung to any position with rotary
movement. It enables any part of the surface to come under the tool without disturbing work.

4. UPRIGHT DRILLING MACHINE (TURRET TYPE)

It is a production drilling machine and is very useful when a series of different size holes are
to be drilled repeatedly or number of different operations like drilling, reaming, counter
boring, counter sinking, spot facing etc are to be performed in sequence repeatedly. The turret
head which carries six, eight or ten different tool mounting positions is mounted on a ram. It
can be easily indexed to bring the proper tool in operating position over the work and can be
raised or lowered by moving the ram upwards or down wards. The required tools are
mounted in sequence in the turret head so that they automatically come in operating position
when the head is indexed. This type of machine eliminates tool changing time and a single
machine can be used to perform no. of different operations one after the other.

5. RADIAL DRILLING MACHINE

This machine is very useful because of its wider range of action. Its principal use is in drilling
holes on such work which is difficult to be handled frequently. In this the tool is moved to the
desired position instead of moving the work for drilling.

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i. Plain Radial drill

Three principal movements are possible in this type of machine. Viz. vertical movement of
the arm along the column, horizontal sliding movement of the drilling head or spindle head
along the arm and radial swinging of the arm in horizontal plane.

ii. Semi-Universal Radial drills

These machines in addition to the above three basic movements, carry provision for swinging
of spindle head about horizontal axis which is normal to the arm. Thus the head, hence the
spindle can be inclined to a suitable angle with its normal vertical position on either side,
enabling drilling of holes at desired inclination with the normal vertical position.

iii. Universal Radial drills

n this machine, the arm itself can be rotates through a desired angle along horizontal axis.
This is in addition to the four possible movements available on a semi-universal machine.
Thus this machine is highly versatile and facilitates drilling at any desired inclination and
location. It is normally provided with a geared drive.

6. MULTIPLE SPINDLES DRILLING MACHINE

These machines are mostly used in production work and are so designed that several holes of
different sizes can be drilled simultaneously increasing the production with sufficient
accuracy. In these two or more spindles are driven from a common driving shaft through
worm and worm gears or belts. Drill heads with a capacity to drive up to 50 spindles
simultaneously are available. In these heads it is possible to adjust the spindles to several
different positions to enable drilling of holes at any location within the area covered by the
head.

7. DEEP HOLE DRILLING MACHINE

Where very long holes of relatively smaller diameter are required to be drilled these machines
are used, such as in rifle barrels and long spindles. These machines can be horizontal as well
as vertical types, according to the requirements. These machines are provided with head stock
and a carriage. The work is mounted between these two and the carriage carries the drill. On
the head stock side, the work is supported on a spindle which also rotates the same as the drill
is fed slowly.
In deep hole drilling operation, the work rotates at high speed, while the drill is fed in to the
work at low speed and feed. Since the drill is quite long it is required to be supported, so is

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the case with the work piece, for which steady rests are used. Coolant is simultaneously fed to
the cutting edges through the passages and it will cool the cutting edges and takes away the
chips along with it. The drill is withdrawn each time it has cut through a length equal to its
diameter. This helps in easy removal of the chips from the hole. Horizontal designs are used
for longer jobs and vertical designs are used for relatively shorter jobs.

8. GANG DRILLING MACHINE

It is a multiple spindle drilling machine and all the spindles are arranged in a row. These
spindles are driven either separately or collectively. This machine is very useful when the
nature of work is such that a number of operations like drilling, reaming, counter boring and
tapping etc are to be performed in succession on it. The work moves from one spindle to the
other, after each operation. The number of spindles depends upon the type of production.
Four spindles are very common. One operator can perform all the operations.

9. HORIZONTAL DRILLING MACHINE

All drilling machines, except one variety of deep hole drilling machines, are of vertical type.
In these machines the spindle and the tool are in horizontal position and are mainly used for
long jobs, such as columns pipes and barrels etc which are difficult to be drilled in vertical
position. The horizontal drilling is also used for jobs of excessive weight and extraordinary
large size jobs which can’t be handled easily. The operation of drilling performed by keeping
the job stationery and moving the machine.

10. AUTOMATIC DRILLING MACHINE

These are production machines arranged in series to perform a number of different operations
in sequence at successive work stations. The work pieces, after completion of an operation at
one station, are automatically transferred to the next station for another operation. The
operation sequence, related cutting speeds, feeds, start and finish of the operation at each
station etc are so arranged and synchronized that once the work piece is loaded at the first
station, it automatically switches on to the next operation and unloaded. Several different
operations like drilling. boring, tapping, milling, honing etc can be performed on a job is
succession on these machines.

2.3 TYPES OF DRILLING OPERATIONS

The following operations that can be performed in the Drilling machine.

1. Drilling

Drilling is the most important and common drilling machine operation. In the drilling, we
usually, produce a cylindrical hole inside the workpiece and remove the material inside it.
Here, the material is removed by the rotating edge of the cutting tool. And that rotating edge
is called a drill.

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Drilling does not produce a fine hole. The internal surface of the hole is usually rough, and
the hole is always bigger than the drill size. Suppose if we have a drill of 12mm dimeter then,
the size of the hole produced by it may be 12.125 mm or greater than that.

2. Boring

Boring is a type of drilling operation in which we increase the diameter of the hole which was
previously produced. Boring is done due to the following reasons:
 It is implemented for machining the internal surface of the hole which was
produced by the casting process.
 For correcting the roundness of the hole.
 For finishing the hole correctly and for making it of the required size.

The boring tool is used for this process. The boring tool has only one cutting edge. The
boring tool is placed in a boring bar which has a tapered shank. The speed of the spindle in
the boring is usually very less than the reaming.

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3. Tapping

In tapping, a tap is used for making internal threads. That means tap works as a cutting tool
inside the tapping. Tapping in a drilling machine can be performed by hand. Or you can also
use any external power for doing this.
The metal is removed, when the tap is inserted into the hole. Tap also produces internal
threads which can be fit into the external threads of the identical size.

4. Counterboring:

In the counterboring, the end of the hole is enlarged cylindrically. A counterbore works as a
tool in the counterboring.
The counterbore consists of cutting edges. These cutting edges may be straight or spiral. The
cutting speed in the counterboring process is usually slow. Typically, this cutting speed is
25% smaller than that of the speed in the drilling.

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5. Reaming

The size of the hole after the drilling process may not be perfect. Most of the time, its internal
surface may not be finished properly. Reaming is done to obtain the desired size of the hole.
Also, the internal surface of the hole gets appropriately finished with this process. Reamer is
used for reaming. Reamer is a multi-point cutting tool. The important benefit of the reaming
is that it can remove an extremely small amount of metal approximately 0.375 mm. The
spindle speed in reaming is half of that of the drilling process.

6. Countersinking

Countersinking is usually done to make a cone-shaped enlargement at the end of the hole.
The included angle of the conical surface may be 60ۜº to 90º. A countersink has multiple
cutting edges on its conical surface.

2.4 SPECIFICATIONS

1. The size of a drilling machine varies with the type of machine being considered.
2. A portable drilling machine is specified by the maximum diameter of the drill that it
can hold.
3. The sensitive and upright drilling machines are specified by the diameter of the
largest piece that can be centered under the spindle. Thus in the case of a 600 mm size

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 upright drilling machine, the spindle placed at a distance is slightly greater than 300
mm from the front face of the column.
4. To specify a drilling machine fully further particulars such as the maximum size of
drill that the machine can operate, table diameter, the maximum spindle travel,
numbers of spindle speeds and feeds available, Morse taper number of the drill
spindle, power input floor space required, net weight of the machine etc. are all
needed.
5. The size of a radial drilling machine is specified by the diameter of the column and
length of the arm. Other particulars such as maximum drilling radius, minimum
drilling radius, spindle speeds and feeds, etc. should also be stated to specify the
machine fully.

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 3. MILLING MACHINES
3.1 INTRODUCTION

A milling machine is a machine tool that removes metal as the work fed against a rotating
multipoint cutter. The cutter rotates at a high speed and because of the multiple cutting edges
it removes metal at a very fast rate. The machine can also hold one or more cutters at a time.
This is a why a milling machine finds wide application in production work. This is superior
to other machines as regards accuracy and better surface finish, and is designed for
machining a variety of tool room work.

3.2 MAIN PARTS OF A MILLING MACHINE

(a) (b)
Figure 4. (a) Horizontal milling machine (b) Vertical milling machine.

3.3 SPECIFICATIONS

The size of the column and knee type milling machine is designated by the dimensions of the
working surface of the table and its maximum length of longitudinal, cross and vertical travel
of the table. The following are the typical size of a horizontal knee type milling machine:
Table length X width = 1100 mm x 310 mm.
Power traverse: longitudinal x cross x vertical= 650 mm x 235 mm x 420 mm.
In addition to the above dimensions, number of spindle speed, number of feed, spindle nose
taper, power available, net weight and the floor space required, etc. should also be stated in
order to specify the machine fully.

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21
Difference Between UP and DOWN Milling Machine:

UP MILLING MACHINE DOWN MILLING MACHINE

UP Milling is known as the Conventional Whereas, Down Milling is known as the
Milling process. Climb Milling process.
The cutting forces act upward in the UP Here the cutting forces act opposite to the up
Milling as you can see in the diagram. milling or you can say downward.
The UP Milling process is used for rough Down Milling or Climb Milling Process is
purposes. Whereas, used for the final or finishing operation.
Therefore, Surface finishing is not good. Here surface finishing is great.
It is used for cutting of brass, bronze, and But This one is applicable to aluminum and
ferrous materials. aluminum alloys.
The tool wear rate is more here because the The tool wear rate is less here because the
direction of the rotary cutter is against the cutter is in the same direction as that of the
feed. feed.
The tool life is not much because of toll wear Here tool life is more because there is less tool
rate is high. wear rate compared to UP Milling.
UP Milling is a traditional type of process. Down Milling is used nowadays for better
surface finish.
Here in UP Milling, The cutter rotates against But In Down milling, the cutter rotates in the
the direction of the feed. same direction of feed.
Why did we call this process is UP Milling Here The cutting chips are removed in a
Process? Because The material from the downward direction, So it is called Down
surface or cutting chips is thrown in the Milling.
upward direction.
UP Milling takes a large amount of force But it do not takes much amount of forces.
compared to climb down milling.
UP Milling is less for chip management. Down milling is more suitable for chip
management.
If the workpiece material is brittle then the UP Down Milling can not perform operation when
Milling process is followed. work piece material is brittle. But if it perform
then chances of wear and tear of tool.
In UP Milling the backlash eliminator is not But here Backlash eliminator is required,
required. especially when the machine is older.
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 4. PLANING MACHINES

4.1 INTRODUCTION

The planer like a shaper is a machine tool primarily intended to produce plane and flat
surfaces by a single point cutting tool. A planer is very large and massive compared to a
shaper and capable of machining heavy work piece which cannot be accommodated on a
shaper table. The fundamental difference between a shaper and a planer is that in a planer the
work which is supported on the table reciprocates past the stationary cutting tool and the feed
is supplied by the lateral movement of the tool, whereas in a shaper the tool which is mounted
upon the ram reciprocates and the feed is given by the crosswise movement of the table.

4.2 PLANING MACHINE PARTS

Figure 5. Principle parts of planer machine.

4.3 SPECIFICATIONS

The size of a standard planer is specified by the size of the largest rectangular solid that can
reciprocate under the tool. The size of the largest solid is known by the distance between the
two housings, the height from the top of the table to the cross rail in its uppermost position,
and the maximum length of table travel. The length of the table always almost equal to the
table travel. Double housing planers range from 750mm X 750 mm X 2.5 m at the smallest
up to 3000 mm X 3000 mm X 18.25 mm at the largest size. Usually the distance between the
housings and the height from the table to the cross rail in its highest position are equal. For
this reason a planer may be roughly specified as 750 mm planer or 3000 mm planer.
The size of an open side planer is specified by the size of the largest job that can be machined
on its table. The size of the largest job is determined by the height of the cross rail from the
top of the table, the maximum length of table travel and the planning width. The maximum
width of the job that can be machined is known as the planning width, which is determined
by the distance from the table side of the column to the tool in the outer tool head in a vertical
position. The tool head extends beyond the table width by nearly 300mm. Open side planers
range from 900mm X 1200 mm X 2.5 mm to 2500 mm X 2800 mm 18.25mm. In addition to
these basic dimensions, other particulars such as number of speeds and feeds available, power
input, floor space required, net weight of the machine, type of drive, etc. are required to be
stated in order to specify a planer fully.

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 5. SLOTTING MACHINES
5.1 INTRODUCTION

The slotting machine falls under the category of reciprocating type of machine tool similar to
a shaper or a planer. It operates almost on the same principle as that of a shaper. The major
difference between a slotter and shaper is that in a slotter the ram holding the tool
reciprocates in a vertical axis, whereas in a shaper the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a
horizontal axis. A vertical shaper and a slotter are almost similar to each other as regards to
their construction, operation, and use. The only difference being, in the case of a vertical
shaper, the ram holding the tool may also reciprocate at an angle to the horizontal table in
addition to the vertical stroke. The ram can be swiveled not more than 5° to the vertical. The
slotter is used for cutting grooves, keyways and slots of various shapes, for making regular
and irregular surface both internal and external, for handling large and awkward work pieces,
for cutting internal or external gears and many other operations which cannot be conveniently
machined in any other machine tool.

5.2 MAIN PARTS OF A SLOTTING MACHINE

Figure. 6 Main parts of slotter machine.

5.3 SPECIFICATIONS

The size of a slotter like that of a shaper is specified by the maximum length of stroke of the
ram, expressed in “mm”. The size of a general purpose or precision slotter usually ranges
from 80 to 900 mm. To specify a slotter correctly the diameter of the table in mm, amount of
cross and longitudinal travel of the table expressed in mm, number of speeds and feeds
available, h.p. of the motor, floor space required, etc. should also be stated.

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 6. SHAPER

The main function of the shaper is to produce flat surfaces in different planes. In general the
shaper can produce any surface composed of straight line elements. Modern shapers can
generate contoured surface. The shaper was first developed in the year 1836 by James
Nasmyth, an Englishman. Because of the poor productivity and process capability the shapers
are not widely used nowadays for production. The shaper is a low cost machine tool and is
used for initial rough machining of the blanks.

6.1 CLASSIFICATION OF SHAPERS:

Shapers are broadly classified as follows:

ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF MECHANISM USED

 Crank shaper.
 Geared shaper.
 Hydraulic shaper.
According to the position and travel of ram:
 Horizontal shaper.
 Vertical shaper.
 Traveling head shaper.

ACCORDING TO THE TYPE OF MECHANISM USED

CRANK SHAPER

This is the most common type of shaper in which a single point cutting tool is given a
reciprocating motion equal to the length of the stroke desired while the work is clamped in
position on an adjustable table. In construction, the crank shaper employs a crank mechanism to
change circular motion of “bull gear” to reciprocating motion of the ram.

GEARED TYPE SHAPER

The reciprocating motion of the ram is some type of shaper is effect by means of a rack and
pinion. The rack teeth which are cut directly below the ram mesh with a spur gear. The pinion
meshing with the rack is driven by a gear train. The speed and the direction in which the ram will
traverse depend on the number of gears in the gear train. This type of shaper is not very widely
used.

HYDRAULIC SHAPER

In a hydraulic shaper, reciprocating movement of the ram is obtained by hydraulic power. Oil
under high pressure is pumped into the operating cylinder fitted with a piston. The end of the
piston rod is connected to the ram. The high pressure oil first acts on one side of the piston and
then on the other causing the piston to reciprocate and the motion is transmitted to the ram. The
speed of the ram is changed by varying the amount of liquid delivered to the piston by the pump.

ACCORDING TO THE POSITION AND TRAVEL OF RAM:

HORIZONTAL SHAPER

In a horizontal shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a horizontal axis. Horizontal
shapers are mainly used to produce flat surfaces.

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VERTICAL SHAPER

In a vertical shaper, the ram holding the tool reciprocates in a vertical axis. The work table of
a vertical shaper can be given cross, longitudinal, and rotary movement. Vertical shapers are
very convenient for machining internal surfaces, keyways, slots or grooves. Large internal
and external gears may also be machined by indexing arrangement of the rotary table. The
vertical shaper which is specially designed for machining internal keyway is called as Key
seater.

TRAVELLING HEAD SHAPER

The ram carrying the tool while it reciprocates moves crosswise to give the required feed.
Heavy jobs which are very difficult to hold on the table of a standard shaper and fed past the
tool are held static on the basement of the machine while the ram reciprocates and supplies
the feeding movements.

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 7. GRINDING MACHINES

7.1 INTRODUCTION

Grinding is metal cutting operation performed by means of a rotating abrasive when that acts
as a tool. This is used to finish work pieces, which must show a high surface quality,
accuracy of shape and dimension. Mostly grinding is the finishing operation because it
removes comparatively little metal, 0.25 to 0.50 mm in most operations and the accuracy in
dimensions is in the order of 0.0000025 mm. Grinding is also done to machine materials
which are too hard for other machining methods that use cutting tools. Many different types
of grinding machines have now been developed for handling various kinds of work to which
the grinding process is applicable.

7.2 MAIN PARTS OF GRINDING MACHINES

Figure 7. Main parts of grinding machine.

7.3 SPECIFICATIONS

Grinding machine size is specified according to the size of the largest work piece that can be
amounted on the machine. The size of a cylindrical centre type grinder is usually designated
by the diameter and length both expressed in mm of the largest work piece the machine can
nominally accommodate between centers. The diameter of the work piece should not exceed
one half of the nominal capacity of the machine. The size of the internal centre type grinder is
specified by the diameter of work piece that can be swung and the maximum length of stroke
of wheel, all expressed in mm. For all types of surface grinders, particularly for a
reciprocating grinder, the size is generally expressed in terms of table area and maximum
height from table to wheel. The diameter of the chuck or table usually specifies the size of a
rotary surface grinder. In contrast to cylinder-type grinders the actual working capacity of
surface grinders is approximately equal to the nominal capacity.

The same general rules apply to tool and cutter grinders whenever applicable. In some cases,
where the machines of not make use of tables, the size is specified by the maximum size of
tool that can be sharpened or dressed.
27
7.4. Grinding wheel specifications

Figure.8 Grinding wheel specifications

28
7.5. FINISHING OPERATIONS BY GRINDING

HONING

Honing is a low abrading process which uses bonded abrasive sticks for removing stock from
metallic and non-metallic surfaces. This process is used primarily to remove the grinding or
the tool marks left on the surface by previous operations. However, it can be used for external
Cylindrical surfaces as well as flat surfaces. It is most commonly used for internal surfaces.

The advantages of honing are:

 Correction of geometrical accuracy.

 Dimensional accuracy.

Honing is a finishing process performed by a honing tool called as hone, which contains a set
of three to a dozen and more bonded abrasive sticks. The sticks are equally spaced about the
periphery of the honing tool. The sticks are held against the work surface with controlled
light pressure, usually exercised by small springs.
The honing tool is given a complex rotational and oscillatory axial motion, which combine to
produce a crosshatched lay pattern of very low surface roughness. In addition to the surface
29
finish of about 0.1 μm, honing produces a characteristic crosshatched surface that tends to
retain lubrication during operation of the component, thus contributing to its function and
service life. A cutting fluid must be used in honing to cool and lubricate the tool and to help
remove the chips. A common application of honing is to finish the holes. Typical examples
include bores of internal combustion engines, bearings, hydraulic cylinders, and gun barrels.

LAPPING

Lapping is a surface finishing process used on flat or cylindrical surfaces. Lapping is the
abrading of a surface by means of a lap, which has been charged with the fine abrasive
particles. The process is employed to get:
 Geometrically true surface.
 Extreme accuracy of dimension.
 Correction of minor imperfections in shape.
 Refinement of the surface finish, and
 Close fit between mating surfaces.

LAPPING METHODS

 Hand lapping for flat work.

 Hand lapping for external cylindrical work, (Ring lapping).
 Machine lapping.

In lapping, instead of a bonded abrasive tool, oil-based fluid suspension of very small free
abrasive grains (aluminum oxide and silicon carbide, with typical grit sizes between 300 and
600) called a lapping compound is applied between the work piece and the lapping tool. The
lapping tool is called a lap, which is made of soft materials like copper, lead or wood. The lap
has the reverse of the desired shape of the work part.
To accomplish the process, the lap is pressed against the work and moved back and forth over
the surface in a figure-eight or other motion pattern, subjecting all portions of the surface to
the same action. Lapping is sometimes performed by hand, but lapping machines accomplish
the process with greater consistency and efficiency.
The cutting mechanism in lapping is that the abrasives become embedded in the lap surface,
and the cutting action is very similar to grinding, but a concurrent cutting action of the free
abrasive particles in the fluid cannot be excluded. Lapping is used to produce optical lenses,
metallic bearing surfaces, gauges, and other parts requiring very good finishes and extreme
accuracy. Material removal in lapping usually ranges from .003 to .03 mm but many reach
0.08 to 0.1mm in certain cases.

CHARACTERISTICS OF LAPPING PROCESS

 Use of loose abrasive between lap and the work piece.

 Usually lap and work piece are not positively driven but are guided in contact with each
other.
 Relative motion between the lap and the work should change continuously so that path of
the abrasive grains of the lap is not repeated on the work piece.

30
 8. BROACHING:

8.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BROACHING

Broaching is a machining process for removal of a layer of material of desired width and
depthusually in one stroke by a slender rod or bar type cutter having a series of cutting edges
with gradually increased protrusion as indicated in Fig. In shaping, attaining full depth
requires a number of strokes to remove the material in thin layers step-by-step by gradually
infeeding the single point tool as illustrated in Fig. Whereas, broaching enables remove the
whole material in one stroke only by the gradually rising teeth of the cutter called broach.
The amount of tooth rise between the successive teeth of the broach is equivalent to the
infeed given in shaping.

Figure 9. Basic principle of broaching

Machining by broaching is preferably used for making straight through holes of various form
sand sizes of section, internal and external through straight or helical slots or grooves,
external surfaces of different shapes, teeth of external and internal splines and small spur
gears etc. Fig. schematically shows how a through hole is enlarged and finished by
broaching.

31
Figure. 10 Schematic views of finishing hole through broaching.

32
 9. UN CONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES

9.1 Introduction

Non-traditional manufacturing processes is defined as a group of processes that remove

excess material by various techniques involving mechanical, thermal, electrical or chemical
energy or combinations of these energies but do not use a sharp cutting tools as it needs to be
used for traditional manufacturing processes.
Extremely hard and brittle materials are difficult to machine by traditional machining
processes such as turning, drilling, shaping and milling. Nontraditional machining processes,
also called advanced manufacturing processes, are employed where traditional machining
processes are not feasible, satisfactory or economical due to special reasons as outlined
below.
• Very hard fragile materials difficult to clamp for traditional machining
• When the work piece is too flexible or slender
• When the shape of the part is too complex

Several types of non-traditional machining processes have been developed to meet extra
required machining conditions. When these processes are employed properly, they offer
many advantages over non-traditional machining processes. The common non-traditional
machining processes are described in this section.

9.1 Electrical Discharge Machining (EDM)

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is one of the most widely used non-traditional
machining processes. The main attraction of EDM over traditional machining processes such
as metal cutting using different tools and grinding is that this technique utilises thermoelectric
process to erode undesired materials from the work piece by a series of discrete electrical
sparks between the work piece and the electrode. A picture of EDM machine in operation is
shown in Figure 11.

Figure 11: Electrical discharge machine.

The traditional machining processes rely on harder tool or abrasive material to remove the
softer material whereas non-traditional machining processes such as EDM uses electrical
spark or thermal energy to erode unwanted material in order to create desired shape. So, the
hardness of the material is no longer a dominating factor for EDM process. A schematic of an
33
EDM process is shown in Figure 12, where the tool and the workpiece are immersed in a
dielectric fluid.

Figure 12: Schematic of EDM process.

EDM removes material by discharging an electrical current, normally stored in a capacitor

bank, across a small gap between the tool (cathode) and the workpiece (anode) typically in
the order of 50 volts/10amps.

Application of EDM

The EDM process has the ability to machine hard, difficult-to-machine materials. Parts with
complex, precise and irregular shapes for forging, press tools, extrusion dies, difficult internal
shapes for aerospace and medical applications can be made by EDM process. Some of the
shapes made by EDM process are shown in Figure 13.

Figure 13: Difficult internal parts made by EDM process.

Working principle of EDM

As shown in Figure 11, at the beginning of EDM operation, a high voltage is applied across
the narrow gap between the electrode and the workpiece. This high voltage induces an
electric field in the insulating dielectric that is present in narrow gap between electrode and
34
workpiece. This cause conducting particles suspended in the dielectric to concentrate at the
points of strongest electrical field. When the potential difference between the electrode and
the workpiece is sufficiently high, the dielectric breaks down and a transient spark discharges
through the dielectric fluid, removing small amount of material from the workpiece surface.
The volume of the material removed per spark discharge is typically in the range of 10 -6 to
10- 6 mm3.
The material removal rate, MRR, in EDM is calculated by the following foumula:
MRR = 40 I / Tm1.23 (cm3 /min)
Where, I is the current amp,
Tm is the melting temperature of workpiece in 0C

9.2 Wire EDM

The concept of wire EDM is shown in Figure 14. In this process, a slowly moving wire
travels along a prescribed path and removes material from the workpiece. Wire EDM uses
electro-thermal mechanisms to cut electrically conductive materials. The material is removed
by a series of discrete discharges between the wire electrode and the workpiece in the
presence of dieelectirc fluid, which creates a path for each discharge as the fluid becomes
ionized in the gap. The area where discharge takes place is heated to extremely high
temperature, so that the surface is melted and removed. The removed particles are flushed
away by the flowing dielectric fluids.
The wire EDM process can cut intricate components for the electric and aerospace industries.
This non-traditional machining process is widely used to pattern tool steel for die
manufacturing.

Figure 14: Wire erosion of an extrusion die.

The wires for wire EDM is made of brass, copper, tungsten, molybdenum. Zinc or brass
coated wires are also used extensively in this process. The wire used in this process should
posses high tensile strength and good electrical conductivity. Wire EDM can also employ to
cut cylindrical objects with high precision.

35
9.3 Electrochemical Machining (ECM)

Electrochemical machining (ECM) is a metal-removal process based on the principle of

reverse electroplating. In this process, particles travel from the anodic material (workpiece)
toward the cathodic material (machining tool). A current of electrolyte fluid carries away the
deplated material before it has a chance to reach the machining tool. The cavity produced is
the female mating image of the tool shape.

Figure 15: ECM process.

Similar to EDM, the workpiece hardness is not a factor, making ECM suitable for machining
difficult-to –machine materials. Difficult shapes can be made by this process on materials
regardless of their hardness. A schematic representation of ECM process is shown in Figure
8. The ECM tool is positioned very close to the workpiece and a low voltage, high amperage
DC current is passed between the workpiece and electrode. Some of the shapes made by
ECM process is shown in Figure 16.

Figure 16: Parts made by ECM.

9.4 Ultrasonic Machining (USM)

Introduction USM is mechanical material removal process or an abrasive process used to

erode holes or cavities on hard or brittle workpiece by using shaped tools, high frequency
mechanical motion and an abrasive slurry. USM offers a solution to the expanding need for
machining brittle materials such as single crystals, glasses and polycrystalline ceramics, and
increasing complex operations to provide intricate shapes and workpiece profiles. It is
therefore used extensively in machining hard and brittle materials that are difficult to
36
machine by traditional manufacturing processes. The hard particles in slurry are accelerated
toward the surface of the workpiece by a tool oscillating at a frequency up to 100 KHz -
through repeated abrasions, the tool machines a cavity of a cross section identical to its own.
A schematic representation of USM is shown in Figure 17.

Figure 17: Schematic of ultrasonic machine tool.

USM is primarily targeted for the machining of hard and brittle materials (dielectric or
conductive) such as boron carbide, ceramics, titanium carbides, rubies, quartz etc. USM is a
versatile machining process as far as properties of materials are concerned. This process is
able to effectively machine all materials whether they are electrically conductive or insulator.

Advantage of USM

USM process is a non-thermal, non-chemical, creates no changes in the microstructures,

chemical or physical properties of the workpiece and offers virtually stress free machined
surfaces.
• Any materials can be machined regardless of their electrical conductivity
• Especially suitable for machining of brittle materials
• Machined parts by USM possess better surface finish and higher structural integrity.
• USM does not produce thermal, electrical and chemical abnormal surface

9.5 Laser–Beam Machining (LBM)

Laser-beam machining is a thermal material-removal process that utilizes a high-energy,

coherent light beam to melt and vaporize particles on the surface of metallic and non-metallic
workpieces. Lasers can be used to cut, drill, weld and mark. LBM is particularly suitable for
making accurately placed holes. A schematic of laser beam machining is shown in Figure 18.

Figure 18: Laser beam machining schematic.

37
Applications

LBM can make very accurate holes as small as 0.005 mm in refractory metals ceramics, and
composite material without warping the workpieces. This process is used widely for drilling
and cutting of metallic and non-metallic materials. Laser beam machining is being used
extensively in the electronic and automotive industries.

9.6 Water Jet Cutting

Water jet cutting can reduce the costs and speed up the processes by eliminating or reducing
expensive secondary machining process. Since no heat is applied on the materials, cut edges
are clean with minimal burr. Problems such as cracked edge defects, crystalisation,
hardening, reduced wealdability and machinability are reduced in this process.
Water jet technology uses the principle of pressurising water to extremely high pressures, and
allowing the water to escape through a very small opening called “orifice” or “jewel”. Water
jet cutting uses the beam of water exiting the orifice to cut soft materials. This method is not
suitable for cutting hard materials. The inlet water is typically pressurised between 1300 –
4000 bars. This high pressure is forced through a tiny hole in the jewel, which is typically
o.18 to 0.4 mm in diameter. A picture of water jet machining process is shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19: Water jet cutting

Applications

Water jet cutting is mostly used to cut lower strength materials such as wood, plastics and
aluminum. When abrasives are added, (abrasive water jet cutting) stronger materials such as
steel and tool steel can be cut.

38
 EXPERIMENT – 1

EXTERNAL & INTERNAL TAPER TURNING

AIM: Production of internal and external taper specimens of given dimensions, to

match one another.

FIGURE:

Note : All Dimensions are in mm.

PROCEDURE: The operational sequence as given below may be followed.

External taper

S.No Name of operation Tools used

1. Centering Single point cutting tool

2. Facing Single point cutting tool

3. Plain Turning to dia 22mm, length 50mm. Single point cutting tool

4. Step turning to dia 20 mm over length 14 Single point cutting tool

mm from free end.

5. Grooving between steps Parting tool

6. Taper turning (by swivelling the Round Nose tool

compound rest)

7. Parting-off Parting tool, hacksaw

8. Chamfering the end Single point cutting tool

39
 Internal taper

S.No
Name of operation Tools used
.

1. Centering Single point cutting tool

2. Facing Single point cutting tool

3. Plain Turning to dia. 30 mm, length Single point cutting tool

18mm.

4. Drilling a central hole Drill bit 14 mm dia.

5. Taper turning (by swivelling the Boring tool

compound rest).

6. Parting-off Parting tool, hacksaw

NOTE: The components are to be maintained very carefully so that, they will
match one another.

The obtained dimensions are to be measured and tabulated.

S.No. Given Obtained Dimensions Erro %

Dimensions r Error

Specimen with external

taper

Specimen with internal

taper

PRECAUTION 1. Fix the work piece firmly in the chuck.

S: 2. Ensure the chuck key is removed from the chuck before the machine is
switched on.
3. Long hair, loose garments, full sleeves may get entangled with the
rotating parts of the machine. Hence take necessary care to avoid
accidents.
4. Long continuous, hot chips will curl around the work piece causing poor
surface finish and may injure the operator. Hence avoid.
5. Operate the machine with in the specified range of feed and depth of cut.

RESULT:

40
 EXPERIMENT – 2

EXTERNAL & INTERNAL THREAD CUTTING

AIM: Production of internal and external threaded specimens of given dimensions,

to match one another.

FIGURE:

Note :All Dimensions are in mm.

PROCEDURE: The operational sequence as given below may be followed.

External Specimen

S. No. Name of operation Tools used

1. Centering Single point cutting tool

2. Facing Single point cutting tool

3. Plain Turning to dia 23mm, length Single point cutting tool

90mm.

4. Step turning to dia 15 mm over Single point cutting tool

length 60mm from free end.

5. Chamfering the inside shoulder Single point cutting tool

6. Grooving between steps Parting tool

7. External threading Die

8. Parting-off Parting tool , hacksaw

9. Chamfering the end Single point cutting tool

41
 Internal Specimen

S.No. Name of operation Tools used

1. Centering Single point cutting tool

2. Facing Single point cutting tool

3. Plain Turning to dia 23mm, length Single point cutting tool

25mm.

4. Drilling a central hole Drill bit 12mmdia

5. Boring Boring tool

6. Thread cutting to suite external V-tool

threads (thread chasing)

7. Parting-off Parting tool , hacksaw

8. Chamfering the ends Single point cutting tool

NOTE: The component dimensions are to be maintained very carefully so

that, they will match with one another.

The obtained dimensions are to be measured and tabulated.

Given %
S.No. Obtained Dimensions Error
Dimensions Error

External threaded
specimen

Internal threaded
specimen

PRECAUTIONS: 1. Fix the work piece firmly in the chuck.

2. Ensure the chuck key is removed from the chuck before the machine is
switched on.
3. Long hair, loose garments, full sleeves may get entangled with the
rotating parts of the machine. Hence take necessary care to avoid
accidents.
4. Long continuous, hot chips will curl around the work piece causing poor
surface finish and may injure the operator. Hence avoid.
5. Operate the machine with in the specified range of feed and depth of cut.
RESULT:

42
 EXPERIMENT – 3(a)
STUDY OF TOOL GEOMETRY

Aim: To study of tool geometry of single point tool.

Figure. 10 Geometry of single point cutting tool.

Side Cutting Edge Angle: The angle between side cutting edge and the side of the tool shank is
called side cutting edge angle. It is often referred to as the lead angle.

End Cutting Edge Angle: The angle between the end cutting edge and a line perpendicular to
the shank of the tool shank is called end cutting edge angle.

Side Relief Angle: The angle between the portion of the side flank immediately below the side
cutting edge and a line perpendicular to the base of the tool.

End Relief Angle: The angle between the end flank and the line perpendicular to the base of the
tool is called end relief angle.

Back Rake Angle: The angle between the face of the tool and line perpendicular to the base of
the tool measures on perpendicular plane through the side cutting edge. It is the angle which
measures the slope of the face of the tool from the nose, towards the rack. If the slope is
downward the nose it is negative back rake.

Side Rake Angle: The angle between the face of the tool and a line parallel to the base of the
tool measured on plane perpendicular to the base and the side edge. It is the angles that measure
the slope of the tool face from the cutting edge, if the slope is towards the cutting edge it is
negative side rake angle and if the slope is away from the cutting edge, it is positive side rake
angle. If there is no slope the side rake angle is zero.

Nose Radius: The nose radius will provide long life and also good surface finish with it a sharp
point on the nose.

Shank: This is the main body of the tool. The shank is used to hold the tool (i.e tool holder).

43
Flank: The surface or surface below and adjacent to the cutting edge is called flank of the tool.

Face: The surface on which the chips slide is called the face of the tool.

Heel: It is the intersection of the flan and the base of the tool. It is a curved portion at the bottom
of the tool.

Nose: It is the point where the side cutting edge and end cutting edge intersects.

Cutting edge: It is the edge on the face of the tool which removes the material from the
workpiece. The tool cutting edge consists of side cutting edge (major cutting edge), end cutting
edge (minor cutting edge and the nose).

Figure. Nomenclature of single point cutting tool.

Result:

44
 EXPERIMENT – 3 (b)

GRINDING OF SINGLE POINT CUTTING TOOL

AIM: To grind the given single point cutting tool as per given specifications.

TOOLS & EQUIPMENT:

1. Tool and cutter grinding machine
2. Profile projector
3. Mild steel square

PROCEDURE:

1. Swing the circular slide by operating the belt.

2. Set the table and the table slides at right angles to the grinding wheel spindle.
3. Mount the universal vice on the movable table and fix the job.
4. Set the required clearance angle on the vice.
5. Grind the face of the job at that particular side with cross-slide adjustment.
6. Similarly, set the vice to given end clearance and side clearance angles and grind the
surfaces.

Figure 9. Various angles of single point cutting tool

Observations

Result:

45
 EXPERIMENT – 4

SHAPING JOB

AIM: To obtain a job of square cross section from a rod of circular cross section.

FIGURE:

SEQUENCE OF
OPERATIONS:

S.No. Operation Tools used Comments

Fix the work piece in a 3-jaw

1. Chuck key
chuck

Single point
2. Facing the two ends of a round rod
cutting tool

Fixing the work piece on a V- U-clamp &

3.
block spanner

Vernier height
Marking a square of side __ mm
gauge fixed
4. on one of the end faces of round
with scriber, try
rod
square

Punching dots along the sides of Dot punch &

5.
square marked. hammer

Fixing the work piece in the vice

6. provided on shaper table over a Spanner
parallel block.

Shaping the work piece each side

in succession with slow hand
7. Round nose tool
feeding and using automatic feed
for finish cutting.

46
PRECAUTIONS: 1. The work piece dimensions should not be measured while machine
is running.
2. The operator should not the stand against the stroke of the shaper
ram.
3. Care must be taken to avoid hot chips from falling over the body.
4. The depth of cut should not exceed 1 mm for mild steel rod.

NOTE: Observe that, the ram reciprocates in a shaper unlike the worktable in a
Planner.

Result:

47
 EXPERIMENT – 5

INDEXING USING UNIVERSAL DIVIDING HEAD

AIM: To study the universal dividing head and to divide the given disc in to the
specified number of divisions by

a) Direct indexing
b) Simple indexing
c) Angular indexing
d) Differential indexing, using the universal dividing head.

NOTE: The number of hole circles available on the two index plates and
gears supplied.

SAMPLE 1) To Divide into 8 Parts.

CALCULATIONS : Division is possible by Direct Indexing method/Rapid Indexing
Method which uses slotted disc and a locking lever.

The base fixture is provided with 24 slots and a locking lever.

No of parts required = 8.

Therefore, number of slots to be indexed each time = = 3. i.e. lock

the lever in any slot. Fix the specimen between centres, mark with
reference the fixed reference mark. Release the lock, index the base
plate through 3 slots, lock the base fixture and once again mark
with reference to the fixed reference mark. Repeat this procedure
till the circumference is completely covered.

NOTE: Universal surface gauge may be used as a guide for making

purpose.

2) To Divide into 27 Parts.

As 27 cannot divide 24 (the number of slots on the base fixture)
direct indexing is not possible.

48
 Simple indexing is tried.

Since the indexing crank is geared to the main spindle at 40:1, no of

crank rotations required to index the work through revolutions is.

= .

th
One turn of the crank presents no problem but of a turn needs
consideration. It is necessary to select a hole circle that can
th
accommodate of a turn: select 81st hole circle and of 81 holes
is 39 holes.

th
Therefore, rotation of work piece can be obtained by rotating
the indexing crank through one full revolution and 39 holes in 81 st
hole circle.

Set the index sector arms to give 39 holes of 81 hole circle so that
indexing can be done without counting the holes every time.

3) To Index the Work piece Through an Angle of

Each rotation of crank rotates the work piece through =9 .

Accordingly number of crank rotations required = =3 .

th
So the crank is rotated first 3 times and of a rotation is made
possible by selecting a 99 hole circle and rotating the crank through
88 holes

4) To Divide a Work piece Circumference into 121 Parts.

It is checked whether 121 divisions are possible by similar methods
like direct and simple indexing. Since this is not possible by the
above methods, compound are differential indexing methods may
be tried.

Differential Indexing:

th
Choose to index through of a rotation.

Crank rotation required is = = 16 holes in a 48 hole circle. If

this approximate indexing is carried out 121 times the error
involved can be calculated:

49
 X 121 = 40

i.e., indexing crank has revolved more by of a turn. The spindle

gear wheel must impart a differential motion to the index plate so
that may be removed, using suitable change gears. The
directional motion of the index plate must be opposite to that of the
crank.

= = =

So, connect the spindle and the worm shafts with these gears and
adjust number of idlers to give rotation of index plate opposite to
that of crank.

Indexing is --- 16 holes in a 48-hole circle,

Gearing is --- 72 on worm shaft & 24 on spindle shafts,

Direction of rotation of index plate – opposite to crank.

NOTE:

In general, for differential indexing, index crank movement =

Gear ratio = (A-N) x

Where A = a number that is possible by simple indexing

N = Number of divisions to be obtained

Result:

50
EXPERIMENT – 6

51
52
53
EXPERIMENT – 7

54
55
56
57
58
59
60
 EXPERIMENT – 8

Internal and External Thread Cutting

AIM: V-thread cutting on a lathe forming right hand and left hand metric threads as shown in
figure.

Figure 12. Types of threads

MATERIAL REQUIRED:

Mild steel bar of 25 mm diameter and 100 mm length

TOOLS AND EQUIPMENT:

1. H.S.S. single point cutting tool,
2. Grooving tool,
3. Threading tool thread gauge,
4. Outside caliper,
5. Chuck key,
6. Tool post key,
7. Steel rule.

SEQUENCE OF OPERATION:

1. Facing
2. Rough turning
3. Finish turning
4. Step turning
5. Grooving
6. Thread cutting
7. Chamfering

PROCEDURE:

1. The work piece and HSS single point cutting tool are fixed in chuck and tool post
respectively.
2. Operations such as facing, rough turning finish turning and step turning are performed on
the given mild steel bar one after the other in sequence up to the dimensions shown.
3. Single point cutting tool is replaced by a grooving tool and grooving operation is
performed at half of the normal spindle speed.
4. The grooving tool is replaced by a threading tool. Right hand and left hand metric threads
are cut on the work piece up to the required length at 1/4th of the normal speed of the
spindle.
5. Threading tool replaced by a single point cutting tool again and finally chamfering is
done at right end of the work piece at normal spindle speed.
61
PRECAUTIONS:

1. Low spindle speeds should be used for accurate threads in thread cutting operation.
2. Ensure correct engage and dis-engage of half-nut.
3. Plenty of oil should be flowed on the work and tool during thread cutting.

RESULT: Required specimen obtained according to specified operations (thread cutting and
under cutting) with given dimensions.

62
 EXPERIMENT – 9

TORQUE MEASUREMENT ON DRILLING MACHINE

AIM: To find out the torque required by the drilling machine for various cutting parameters.

APPARATUS REQUIRED: Drilling machine with dynamometer (Equipment)

1. Drilling Machine
2. Dynamometer

PROCEDURE:

1. Clamp the work – piece in the vice.

2. The vice along with drill dynamometer is clamped to the table.
3. Set the read cal switch at read position and switch on the instrument.
4. Adjust the zero potentiometer such that the display reads zero.
5. Turn the read-cal switch to cal. Adjust cal. Potentiometer until the display reads the range
of force.
6. Select several speeds and feeds (i.e., coarse and fine).
7. The torque is noted.

OBSERVATIONS:

Feed Torque (Kg-

S. No. Speed (rpm)
Fine Coarse m)
1
2
3
4
5

GRAPH: Torque Vs Cutting Speed.

RESULT:

63
 EXPERIMENT - 10

SPUR GEAR MILLING

AIM: To Perform Spur Gear Milling Operation on the given cast iron round.

Figure 13. Spur gear diagram.

TOOLS & ACCESSORIES REQUIRED:

1. Involute gear cutter
2. Universal dividing head
3. Arbor
4. Mandrel
5. Three jaw chuck
6. Live and dead centers
MATERIAL REQUIRED: A cast iron round of φ 81 x 20 mm thickness
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:
1. Preparation of cast iron round by turning to maintain outside diameter, internal diameter
and thickness.
2. Mounting of gear cutter on the arbor of milling machine.
3. Fixing universal dividing head on the table of milling machine.
4. Selection of number of teeth on the required spur gear.
5. Spur gear milling
6. Simple indexing to next teeth of the gear blank.

Theory:
In cutting gear on milling machine and form cutters are used, in which profile of the
cutting teeth conform to the tooth profile required on the gear, every gear cutter is specified by
diameter pitch, cutter number pressure angle and the diameter of cutting bore.

CALCULATION:

Z = No. of teeth = 23
m = module = 2 mm
Blank Diameter = (Z + 2) m = (23 + 2) 2 = 50 mm
Tooth Depth = 2.25 m = 2.25 * 2 = 4.5 mm
Indexing Calculation = 40 / Z = 40 / 23 = 1 17/23

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DIVIDING HEAD:
These heads helps in changing the angular position of the work piece in relation to the cutter.
With their use it is possible to divide the periphery of the workpiece into any number of equal
parts. These heads are generally of the following types:

a. Plain dividing head

b. Universal dividing head
c. Optical dividing head

Out of these the optical is the most precise one and used for very precise indexing work or for
checking the accuracy of the other types of dividing heads.
Plain Dividing head: These indexing head are of two types. The first type carries the indexing
plate directly mounted on its spindle and has no use of worm and worm wheel. It is the simplest
type and used in direct indexing. The indexing plate carries 12 or 24 equi spaced slots on its
periphery.
Another useful form of the plain dividing head is the one used in simple indexing. It consists of a
cast body, carrying the spindle. On the front end of the spindle are mounted the carrier arid the
center. On its rear side the mounted the index plate, which is having different hole circles on its
face and teeth on its periphery. The plate gets movement through a wo"rn cy rotating the handle.
The plate having 3 circles of 16, 42 and 60 or 24, 30 and 36 ' jies are provided on these heads.
Universal dividing head: universal dividing head is used for mostly all the operation of milling
machine. The universal dividing head performs the following operation:
1. It sets the workpiece in a desired position in relation to the machine table.
2. After each cut, it rotates the job through a desired angle and, thus, indexes the periphery
of the work.
3. It provides a continuous rotary motion to the job during milling machine of helical
grooves.
It, in conjunction with a tailstock, acts both as a holding as well as supporting device for
the work during the operation.
WORKING: Dividing head is to provide support to the work piece, hold it in position and
rotates it through a desired angle after each cut is over. The index crank is rotated to provide
rotary motion to the job and the index plate enables this rotation to take place always to the
desired angle. When the crank rotates, the worm wheel rotates which in turn rotates the worm
wheel. Since the wheel is mounted directly on the spindle the latter rotates along with the former.
The angle, through which the job will rotate, for each revolution of the crank, depends upon the
velocity ratio between the worm and worm wheel. This ratio is usually 40 to 1, i.e. for 40
revolution of worm, or the crank, the job will make one revolution.

Indexing Methods:

The following indexing methods are commonly used:

1. Direct indexing
2. Plain indexing or simple indexing
3. Compound indexing
4. Differential indexing
5. Angular indexing

Out of these the direct indexing is the simplest one, but we commonly use the plain indexing
Plain Indexing: This method of indexing is used when the direct indexing method cannot be
employed for obtaining the required number of divisions on the work. For this indexing method
universal indexing head can be used. This method of indexing involves the use of crank, worm,
worm wheel and index plate. Worm carries 40 teeth and worm is single start. The worm wheel is
directly mounted on the spindle. Since the worm has single start thread and the worm wheel 40
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teeth, with one turn of the crank the worm wheel will rotates through one pitch distance, i.e.
equal to 1/40 of a revolution. Similarly 2 turns of the crank will make the work to rotate through
1\20 and a 3 turn through 3/40 of a revolution. Thus the crank will have to rotate through 40
turns in order to rotate the work through one complete turn. For n divisions on the work piece,
the crank will make 40/n turns. Suppose that the work has to be divided into 23 equal divisions
then the corresponding crank movement will be given by: - . _ Crank movement = 40 / 23 = 1
This means that for rotating work piece into 23 equal divisions, the crank has to rotate 1
complete revolution and 17/23 of a revolution or will move further 17 holes on 23 hole circle
plate. In this fraction the numerator denotes the number of holes to be moved and the
denominator the number of holes on the circle to be used.

PROCEDURE:
1. The actual cutting of spur gear is done after determining the gear tooth proportions,
selecting the type of indexing to be performed, and finding the correct number of form
cutter.
2. The speed and feed of the machine is next set.
3. The speed should be slightly lower than the plain milling operation and the feed should
be normal.
4. The dividing head and the tailstock are next bolted on the table after setting their axis
exactly perpendicular to the machine spindle.
5. The cutter is next mounted on the arbor and it is then centered accurately with the
dividing head spindle axis by adjusting the position of the table.
6. The alignment of the cutter with the work axis is checked by raising the table where the
centerline of the cutter must touch the center point of the tailstock.
7. The gear blank is next mounted between the two centers by a mandrel and is connected
with the dividing head spindle by a carrier and a catch plate.
8. The proper index plate is next bolted on the dividing head and the positions of the crank
pin and the sector arms are adjusted.
9. For a smaller size of gear blank, the depth of cut is given equal to the full depth of the
gear tooth. For this purpose, the table is raised till the cutter just touches the periphery of
the gear blank.
10. The micrometer dial of the vertical feed screw is set to zero in this position.
11. The table is next raised to give the required depth of cut by turning the dial through the
calculated number of divisions.
12. The machine is started and the feed is applied to finish the first tooth space of the gear.
13. After the end of the cut, the table is brought back to the starting position and then the
blank is indexed for the next tooth space.
14. The operation is repeated till all the gear teeth are cut.

SPUR GEAR PROPORTIONS:

Gear tooth
Name of tooth
proportions Results
element
(pressure angle 20º)
Pitch diameter Zm
Addendum m
Dedendum 1.25 m
Working depth 2m
Tooth depth 2.25 m
Outside diameter m (Z+2)
Tooth thickness 1.5708 m
Clearance 0.25 m
Radius of fillet 0.4 m to 0.45 m
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PRECAUTIONS:

1. Mounting of the Gear cutter on the arbor should be done carefully

2. Ensure clamping of the arbor of milling machine before machining
3. Indexing of the work piece should be done carefully
4. Cutting speed, feed, depth of cut should be selected precisely as per standards

RESULT:

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 EXPERIMENT – 11
SURFACE GRINDING

AIM: To perform surface grinding operation on the given work piece.

MATERIALS REQUIRED: Mild steel specimen.
TOOLS REQUIRED:
1. Vernier calipers,
2. Micrometer.
3. Diamond point dressing block
4. Magnetic chuck
SEQUENCE OF OPERATIONS:
1. Measuring of specimen using Vernier caliper, screw gauge micrometer
2. Fix the work piece on to specimen & lock the magnetic chuck
3. Move the specimen close to the moving grinding wheel so that it touches the specimen.
4. Perform the surface grinding operation.
5. Check the final dimension using Vernier caliper, screw gauge micro- meter.
PROCEDURE:
1. Work piece is mounted on magnetic table, so that the line along face of grinding wheel
coincides with the edge of work piece.
2. Depth of cut is given to work piece by down feed hang wheel.
3. The work piece is reciprocates under wheel and the table feeds axially between passes to
produce flat surface and to get required size of work piece.
PRECAUTIONS:
1. Coolant usage is compulsory as the speeds employed are very high and continuous
application of coolant is necessary for ductile materials like steel etc.
2. The grinding tools are first dressed properly.
3. Care has to be taken so as to maintain the right feed of the material.
4. Work-wheel interface zone is to be flooded with coolant
5. Dressing of grinding wheel to be done before commencement of cutting action,
intermittent dressing also to be done if wheel is loaded.
RESULTS: Required specimen obtained according to specified operations (surface grinding
operation) with given dimensions.

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69
 EXPERIMENT – 12

MACHINING OF HEXAGON IN SHAPING MACHINE

Aim: To machine a hexagon in the given work piece to the dimensions as shown in the figure
using Shaping Machine.
Tools Required:
1. Shaping Machine,
2. Scriber,
3. Divider,
4. Steel Rule,
5. Chalk piece,
6. Bevel Protractor.
Formula:
1) Time taken for milling:
T=

2) Feed/rev:
Feed / rev = {feed per teeth} X {no. of cutter teeth}
Procedure:
1. The given workpiece is measured for its initial dimensions.
2. With the help of scriber, mark the hexagon dimensions in the workpiece.
3. Fix the workpiece in the vice of the shaping machine.
4. After fixing the workpiece and the shaping tool, allow the ram to reciprocate.
5. Start the shaping process by giving the required depth by lowering the tool.
6. Slowly increase the depth of cut and repeat the procedure to make the hexagon shape.
7. The workpiece is now checked for final dimensions.

Result: Thus, a hexagon is machined in the given workpiece to the dimensions as shown in the
figure using Shaping Machine.

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 EXPERIMENT – 13

CNC PART PROGRAMMING

AIM: To Study about the CNC part programming.

INTRODUCTION: A Part program is a set of instructions given to a Computerized Numerical
Control (CNC) machine.
If the complex-shaped component requires calculations to produce the component are done by
the programming software contained in the computer. The programmer communicates with this
system through the system language, which is based on words. There are various programming
languages developed in the recent past, such as APT (Automatically Programmed Tools),
ADAPT, AUTOSPOT, COMPAT-II, 2CL, ROMANCE, SPLIT is used for writing a computer
programme, which has English like statements. A translator known as compiler program is used
to translate it in a form acceptable to MCU.
The programmer has to do only following things:
a. Define the work part geometry.
b. Defining the repetition work.
c. Specifying the operation sequence.

Figure 14. Computerized Numerical Control (CNC) machine diagram.

STANDARD G AND M CODES:

The most common codes used when programming NC machines tools are G-codes
(preparatory functions), and M codes (miscellaneous functions). Other codes such as F, S, D, and
T are used for machine functions such as feed, speed, cutter diameter offset, tool number, etc. G-
codes are sometimes called cycle codes because they refer to some action occurring on the X, Y,
and/or Z-axis of a machine tool. The G-codes are grouped into categories such as Group 01,
containing codes G00, G01, G02, G03, which cause some movement of the machine table or
head. Group 03 includes either absolute or incremental programming. A G00 code rapidly
positions the cutting tool while it is above the workpiece from one point to another point on a
job. During the rapid traverse movement, either the X or Y-axis can be moved individually or

71
both axes can be moved at the same time. The rate of rapid travel varies from machine to
machine.
G-CODES (PREPARATORY FUNCTIONS):
Code Function
G00 Rapid positioning
G01 Linear interpolation
G02 Circular interpolation clockwise (CW)
G03 Circular interpolation counterclockwise (CCW)
G20 Inch input (in.)
G21 Metric input (mm)
G24 Radius programming
G28 Return to reference point
G29 Return from reference point
G32 Thread cutting
G40 Cutter compensation cancel
G41 Cutter compensation left
G42 Cutter compensation right
G43 Tool length compensation positive (+) direction
G44 Tool length compensation minus (-) direction
G49 Tool length compensation cancels
G53 Zero offset or M/c reference
G54 Settable zero offset
G84 canned turn cycle
G90 Absolute programming
G91 Incremental programming
M-CODES (MISCELLANEOUS FUNCTIONS):
M or miscellaneous codes are used to either turn ON or OFF different functions, which control
certain machine tool operations. M-codes are not grouped into categories, although several codes
may control the same type of operations such as M03, M04, and M05, which control the machine
tool spindle. Some of important codes are given as under with their function s:
Code Function
M00 Program stop
M02 End of program
M03 Spindle start (forward CW)
M04 Spindle start (reverse CCW)
M05 Spindle stop
M06 Tool change
M08 Coolant on
M09 Coolant off
M10 Chuck - clamping
M11 Chuck - unclamping
M12 Tailstock spindle out
M13 Tailstock spindle in
M18 Tool post rotation reverse
M30 End of tape and rewind or main program end
M98 Transfer to subprogram
M99 End of subprogram
RESULTS: Thus the Study about the CNC part programming has been completed.

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 EXPERIMENT – 14

UNCONVENTIONAL MACHINING PROCESSES (EDM)

Aim: To study about Electric Discharge Machining (EDM).

Introduction: New machining methods have been developed mainly because of the difficulties
in machining hard, high-strength, and temperature-sensitive materials. These processes have
been used for removing excess materials from the work piece to obtain the desired shape and size
and have come to be known as unconventional machining processes. Table 1 lists these
processes and indicates the types of energies and methods of material removal.

Table 1. Unconventional machining processes

ELECTRIC DISCHARGE MACHINING (EDM):
Electric-discharge machining (EDM), or spark machining, as it is also called, is based on the
eroding effect of an electric spark on both the electrodes used to produce it. It has been found
from observation that if both electrodes are made of the same material, greater erosion occurs on
the positive electrode. Hence, to obtain maximum metal removal with minimum wear on the
tool' electrode; the work is made the positive and the tool the negative electrode. The principle of
the electric-discharge machining process is illustrated by the simplified diagram in Fig. 4. The
tool is mounted on the chuck attached to the machine spindle whose vertical feed is controlled by
the servomotor through a reduction gearbox; The workpiece is placed in a tank filled with a
dielectric fluid; a depth of at least 50mm over the work surface is maintained to eliminate the
risk of fire: The tool and work piece are connected to a dc relaxation circuit fed either from a dc
generator, or more commonly, a mercury-arc or selenium-type rectifier. Dielectric fluid is
circulated under pressure by a pump, usually through a hole (or holes) in the tool electrode. A
spark gap of about 10-125 μm is maintained by the servomotor. When the power supply is
switched on, the condenser voltage Vc begins to increase exponentially toward the supply
voltage Vs and no current flows. As the voltage Vc builds, it reaches the gap breakdown voltage
Vg (determined by the gap width and the dielectric fluid); a spark is produced across the gap, the
dielectric fluid ionizes and the condenser is discharged. The surrounding dielectric then
deionizes so that it again becomes an effective insulator, and the cycle is repeated. In this way a
rapid succession of sparks is obtained, the interval between successive sparks being of the order
of 100μs.

73
Each spark generates a localized high temperature of the order of 12000 oC in its immediate
vicinity. This heat causes part of the surrounding dielectric fluid to evaporate; it "also melts and
vaporizes the metal to form a small crater on the work surface. Since the spark always occurs
between the points of the tool and work that are close together, the high spots of the work are
gradually eroded, and the form of the tool is reproduced on the work. The condensed metal
globules, formed during the process, are carried away by the flowing dielectric fluid. As the
metal is eroded, the tool is fed in by a servo controlled feed mechanism.

Figure 15. Electro discharge machine diagram.

SUMMARY OF EDM CHARACTERISTICS:
Mechanics of material removal : Melting and evaporation aided by cavitations
Medium : Dielectric fluid
Tool Materials : Cu, brass, Cu-W alloy, graphite
Maximum material removal rate : 5 x 103 mm3/min
Specific power consumption (typical) : 1.8 W/mm3/min
Material application: All conducting metals and alloys Shape application Blind complex cavities,
micro holes for nozzles, through cutting of non- circular holes, narrow slots.
Limitations: High specific energy consumption (about 150 times that in conventional
machining); when forced circulation of dielectric is not possible, removal rate is quite low;
surface tends to be rough for larger removal rates not applicable to nonconducting materials.
Result:

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