CONTROL AND

INSTRUMENTATION
 Direct Current Meters
VOLTMETER LOADING EFFECTS
When a voltmeter is used to measure the voltage across a
circuit component, the voltmeter is in parallel with the circuit
component. The parallel combination of two resistances will
decrease the resistance of the circuit component, resulting to
the decrease in measured voltage. The resulting error is
called Loading Error.
 Direct Current Meters
Example 1:
Two different voltmeters are used to measure the voltage
across resistor Ra in the circuit. The meters are as follows:
Meter A: S = 1 KΩ/V, Rm = 0.2 KΩ, range = 10 V
Meter B: S = 20 KΩ/V, Rm = 1.5 KΩ, range = 10 V
 Direct Current Meters
Calculate;
a) Voltage across RB without any meter connected.
b) Voltage across RB when meter A is used.
c) Voltage across RB when meter B is used.
d) Error in voltmeter reading.

Solution:
a) Voltage across RB without any meter connected.
RB
VR B = E
RA+ R𝐵
5 KΩ
VRB = (30 V) =5V
25 KΩ+ 5 KΩ
 Direct Current Meters
b) Voltage across RB when meter A is used.

RTA = S x Range = (1 KΩ/V)(10 V) = 10 KΩ

Parallel combination of RB and meter A

RTA x RB (10 KΩ) (5 KΩ)

Re1 = = = 3.33 KΩ
RTA+RB (10 KΩ)+ (5 KΩ)

Voltage reading obtained with meter A

Re1
VR B = E
Re1+ RA
3.33 KΩ
VRB = (30 V) = 3.53 V
3.33 KΩ+ 25 KΩ
 Direct Current Meters
c) Voltage across RB when meter B is used.

RTB = S x Range = (20 KΩ/V)(10 V) = 200 KΩ

Parallel combination of RB and meter B

RTB x RB (200 KΩ) (5 KΩ)

Re2 = = = 4.88 KΩ
RTB+RB (200 KΩ)+ (5 KΩ)

Voltage reading obtained with meter A

Re2
VRB = E
Re2+ RA
4.88 KΩ
VRB = (30 V) = 4.9 V
4.88 KΩ+ 25 KΩ
 Direct Current Meters
d) Error in voltmeter readings.
Yn – Xn
𝑃𝑒𝑟𝑐𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐸𝑟𝑟𝑜𝑟 = 𝑥 100%
Yn
5 V – 3.53
Voltmeter A % error = 𝑥 100% = 29.4%
5V

5 V – 4.9
Voltmeter B % error = 𝑥 100% = 2%
5V

Note: The higher the sensitivity of the instrument the lesser

the error in measurements.
 Direct Current Meters
Example 2:
Find the voltage reading and the percentage of error of each
reading obtained with a voltmeter on different range.
3-V range, 10-V range, 30-V range respectively.
The instrument has a 20 KΩ/V sensitivity and it is used to
measure the voltage across RB.
 Direct Current Meters
Solution:
The voltage drop across RB without voltmeter connected as
computed;
RB
VR B = E
RA+ RB
4 KΩ
VRB = (30 V) =3V
36 KΩ+ 4 KΩ

a) On its 3-V range

Resistance of the meter

RT = S x Range = (20 KΩ/V)(3 V) = 60 KΩ

 Direct Current Meters

Parallel combination of RB and meter

RT x RB (60 KΩ) (4 KΩ)

Re1 = = = 3.75 KΩ
RTB+RB (60 KΩ)+ (4 KΩ)

Voltmeter reading

Re1
VRB = E
Re1+ RA
3.75 KΩ
VRB = (30 V) = 2.8 V
3.75 KΩ+ 36 KΩ
Percentage of error on 3-V range

3 V − 2.8 V
Percent error = X 100 % = 6.66 %
3V
 Direct Current Meters
b) On 10-V range
RT = S x Range = (20 KΩ/V)(10 V) = 200 KΩ

RT x RB (200 KΩ) (4 KΩ)

Re2 = = = 3.92 KΩ
RTB+RB (200 KΩ)+ (4 KΩ)
Re2
VR B = E
Re2+ RA
3.92 KΩ
VRB = (30 V) = 2.95 V
3.92 KΩ+ 36 KΩ

Percentage of error on 10-V range

3 V + 2.95 V
Percent error = X 100 % = 1.66 %
3V
 Direct Current Meters
c) On a 30-V range
RT = S x Range = (20 KΩ/V)(30 V) = 600 KΩ

RT x RB (600 KΩ) (4 KΩ)

Re3 = = = 3.97 KΩ
RTB+RB (600 KΩ)+ (4 KΩ)
Re2
VR B = E
Re2+ RA
3.97 KΩ
VRB = (30 V) = 2.98 V
3.97 KΩ+ 36 KΩ

Percentage of error on 30-V range

3 V − 2.98 V
Percent error = X 100 % = 0.66 %
3V
 Direct Current Meters
AMMETER INSERTION EFFECTS
Inserting an ammeter in a circuit increases the resistance of
the circuit, therefore reduces the current.
Expected current value in a series circuit

E
Ie =
R1
 Direct Current Meters
Series Circuit with Ammeter
E E
Im = divide the equation Ie =
R1+ Rm R1
Im R1
=
Ie R1+ Rm
 Direct Current Meters
Example:
A current meter that has an internal resistance of 78 Ω is used to
measure the current through resistor Rc in the circuit.

Determine the percentage of error of reading due to ammeter

insertion.
 Direct Current Meters
Solution:

Ra Rb
RTh = Rc + = 1 KΩ + 0.5 KΩ = 1.5 KΩ
Ra+Rb
 Direct Current Meters
The ratio of meter current to the expected current
Im R1 1.5 KΩ
= == = 0.95
Ie R1+ Rm 1.5KΩ+ 78Ω

Im = 0.95Ie

Im
Insertion error = (1 - ) x 100 % = 5 %
Ie
 Direct Current Meters
THE OHMMETER
The basic d’Arsonval meter movement may used in
conjunction with a battery and a resistor to construct an
ohmmeter.

When X and Y are connected,

the circuit is a simple series.
E
Ifs =
Rz+ Rm
Direct Current Meters
 Direct Current Meters
To determine the value of the unknown resistor Rx, we
connect it between points X and Y.
The current

E
I =
Rz+ Rm+ R𝑋

The ratio of the current I to full-scale deflection current is

equal to the circuit resistances and may be expressed as

I E/(Rz+ Rm+ R𝑋) Rz+ Rm

= =
Ifs E/(Rz+ Rm) Rz+ Rm+ R𝑋
 Direct Current Meters
Let P represent the ratio of current I to the full-scale deflection
current,
I Rz+ Rm
then, P = =
Ifs Rz+ Rm+ R𝑋

This is useful when marking off the scale of the meter scale of the
ohmmeter to indicate the value of the resistor being measured.
Example 1.
A 1 mA full-scale deflection current meter movement is to be used
in an ohmmeter circuit. The meter movement has an internal
resistance Rm of 100 Ω, and a 3 V battery will be used in the
circuit. Mark off the meter face for reading resistance.
 Direct Current Meters
The value of RZ which will the full-scale deflection current
E E
Ifs = , Rz = − Rm
Rz+ Rm Ifs

3V
Rz = 1mA − 100Ω

The value of RX at 20% full-scale deflection current

Rz+ Rm Rz+ Rm
P= , R𝑋 = - (Rz+ Rm)
Rz+ Rm+ R𝑋 P

2.9 KΩ − 0.1 KΩ
RX = = - (2.9 KΩ + 0.1 KΩ)
0.2
 Direct Current Meters
3 KΩ
RX = = - 3 KΩ = 12 KΩ
0.2

The value of RX at 40% full-scale deflection current

3 KΩ
RX = = - 3 KΩ = 4.5 KΩ
0.4

The value of RX at 50% full-scale deflection current

3 KΩ
RX = = - 3 KΩ = 3 KΩ
0.5

The value of RX at 75% full-scale deflection current

3 KΩ
RX = = - 3 KΩ = 1 KΩ
0.75
 Direct Current Meters
Table of the Scale of the Ohmmeter

P (%) RX (KΩ) RZ + Rm (KΩ)

--------------------------------------------------------------------------
20 12 3
40 4.5 3
50 3 3
75 1 3
100 0 3
 Direct Current Meters
Ohmmeter Scale Showing Nonlinear Characteristics
The ohmmeter scale is very nonlinear due to high internal
resistance and at half-scale deflection, the value of the RX is
equal to the value of the internal resistance.
 Direct Current Meters
Example 2.
An ohmmeter uses a 1.5V battery and a basic 50µA meter
movement with 1kΩ internal resistance. Calculate;
a) the value of RZ required
b) the value of RX that would cause half-scale deflection.
Solution:
E 1.5V
a) Rz = − Rm , Rz = − 1KΩ = 29 KΩ
Ifs 50µA

b) RX= RZ +Rm = 1KΩ + 29 KΩ = 30 KΩ

 Direct Current Meters
Example 3.
An ohmmeter is designed around a 1mA meter movement
and a 1.5V battery. If the scale. voltage of the battery decays
to 1.3V because of aging, calculate the resulting error at
midrange on the ohmmeter.
Solution:
Internal resistance (RZ +Rm )
E 1.5V
Rin = = = 1.5 kΩ
Ifs 1mA
E 1.3V
When battery decays to 1.3V, Rin = = 1mA = 1.3 kΩ
Ifs

1.5kΩ − 1.3kΩ
Percent error = X 100% = 13.3 %
1.5kΩ
 Direct Current Meters
Multiple Range Ohmmeter
 Direct Current Meters
Example 1.
a) In figure, determine the current through the meter, Im when
a 20 Ω resistor between terminals X and Y is measured on
the R x 1 range.
b) Show that the same current flows through the meter
movement when a 200 Ω resistor is measured on the R x 10
range.
c) Show that the same current flows when a 2 KΩ resistor is
measured on the R x 100 range
 Direct Current Meters
Solution:
a) Circuit when the ohmmeter is set on the R x 1 range

The voltage across the 10 Ω which is the same with Rm + Rz

10Ω
is; V = 1.5 V x = 0.5 V
10Ω + 20Ω
0.5V
Current through the meter Im = = 16.6 µA
30Ω
 Direct Current Meters
b) Circuit when the ohmmeter is set on the R x 10 range

The voltage across the 100 Ω which is the same with Rm + Rz

100Ω
is; V = 1.5 V x = 0.5 V
100Ω + 200Ω
0.5V
Current through the meter Im = = 16.6 µA
30KΩ
 Direct Current Meters
c) Circuit when the ohmmeter is set on the R x 1 range

The voltage across the 10 Ω which is the same with Rm + Rz

1KΩ
is; V = 1.5 V x = 0.5 V
1KΩ + 2KΩ
0.5V
Current through the meter Im = = 16.6 µA
30Ω
 Direct Current Meters
Calibration of DC Instrument
Calibration means to compare a given instrument against a
standard instrument to determine its accuracy.

Calibration Circuit for DC voltmeter

 Direct Current Meters
Calibration Circuit for DC Ammeter
 Direct Current Meters
Application of DC meters aside from their purpose

1. Electrolytic Capacitor Leakage Test

A current meter may be used to measure the leakage current
of electrolytic capacitor. The leakage current depends on the
voltage rating and capacitance of the capacitor. The test
voltage applied should be near the DC rated value.

From the circuit, after the capacitor charges to the supply

voltage, the flow of current should stop, however, because of
capacitor leak, small current continues to exist.
 Direct Current Meters
Acceptable Leakage Current for Electrolytic Capacitors

1. Capacitor rated at 300 V or Higher ---- 0.5 mA

2. Capacitor rated at 100 V to 300 V ---- 0.2 mA

3. Capacitor rated less than 100 V ---- 0.1 mA

 Direct Current Meters
2. Nonelectrolytic Capacitor Leakage Test
A voltmeter may be used to check for leakage current across
the plates of nonelectrolytic capacitors. The leakage of the
capacitor may be expressed in terms of equivalent resistance.
Apply voltage across a series circuit consisting of a capacitor
suspected being leaky, and a DC voltmeter, as shown.

The applied voltage will be divided across the voltage divider

network according to the ratio of the resistance, after charging
in series with the input resistance of the voltage.
 Direct Current Meters
All the applied voltage will appear across the capacitor. If the
capacitor is leaky, a voltage reading will be obtained on the
voltmeter because the flow of current. The equivalent
resistance of the capacitor;
E−V
R = Rin Ω
V
Where:
R – capacitor’s equivalent resistance
Rin- input resistance of the voltmeter
E - applied DC voltage
V - voltmeter reading
The equivalent resistance R of nonelectrolytic capacitor
should be 100 MΩ or higher. Lower than this is suspected to
leaky capacitor.
 Direct Current Meters
3. Using the Ohmmeter for Continuity Check
Important application of the ohmmeter is to check continuity
on such component as lamps or fuses etc. when
troubleshooting. Some components may appear acceptable
upon visual inspections but may actually be faulty. A
continuity check with ohmmeter would indicate whether an
open exists.

An ohmmeter used to check for continuity is made by setting

the range to a suitable scale and placing the test probe at two
points between which continuity is being check.
 Direct Current Meters
4. Using Ohmmeter to Check Semiconductor Diode
The ohmmeter is used to make quick checks on
semiconductor diodes. If the positive lead of the ohmmeter is
connected to the anode, and the common lead to the cathode
of the diode, it should indicate low value of forward bias
resistance. If the ohmmeter lead is reversed, the ohmmeter
should indicate high value. This will distinguishes between a
good and a defective diode. A good diode will have high ratio
of reverse to forward resistance, while a low ration indicate
defective diode.
 Direct Current Meters
Summary:
The basic d’Arsonval meter movement is a current sensitive
device capable of measuring only a very small current. To
increase, the range, there is a need to add shunt or multiplier
resistor.

All ammeters and voltmeters introduce some errors because

of meter loads. It may be reduce by using a sensitivity rating
of 20KΩ/V or greater.