0% found this document useful (0 votes)
73 views105 pages

Ch4 PDF

This document provides an overview of Chapter 4 from the textbook Microelectronic Circuits by Sedra and Smith. The chapter covers diodes and their characteristics, including: the ideal diode model and its I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias; the constant voltage drop model of real diodes; techniques for analyzing diode circuits including dc biasing and small-signal models; applications of diodes in rectifiers and voltage regulators. It introduces the concept of a rectifier circuit to convert AC voltages to DC and provides an example calculation of the output of a diode rectifier circuit.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
0% found this document useful (0 votes)
73 views105 pages

Ch4 PDF

This document provides an overview of Chapter 4 from the textbook Microelectronic Circuits by Sedra and Smith. The chapter covers diodes and their characteristics, including: the ideal diode model and its I-V characteristics in forward and reverse bias; the constant voltage drop model of real diodes; techniques for analyzing diode circuits including dc biasing and small-signal models; applications of diodes in rectifiers and voltage regulators. It introduces the concept of a rectifier circuit to convert AC voltages to DC and provides an example calculation of the output of a diode rectifier circuit.
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 105

Chapter

 #4:  Diodes  
from  Microelectronic  Circuits  Text  
by  Sedra  and  Smith  
Oxford  Publishing  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
IntroducLon  

§  IN  THIS  CHAPTER  WE  WILL  LEARN  


§  the  characteris:cs  of  the  ideal  diode  and  how  to  analyze  and  
design  circuits  containing  mul:ple  ideal  diodes  together  with  
resistors  and  dc  sources  to  realize  useful  and  interes:ng  
nonlinear  func:on  
§  the  details  of  the  i-­‐v  characteris:c  of  the  junc:on  diode  (which  
was  derived  in  Chapter  3)  and  how  to  use  it  to  analyze  diode  
circuits  opera:ng  in  the  various  bias  regions:  forward,  reverse,  
and  breakdown  
§  a  simple  but  effec:ve  model  of  the  diode  i-­‐v  characteris:c  in  
the  forward  direc:on:  the  constant-­‐voltage-­‐drop  model  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
IntroducLon  

§  a  powerful  technique  for  the  applica:on  and  modeling  of  the  
diode  (and  in  later  chapters,  transistors):  dc-­‐biasing  the  diode  and  
modeling  its  opera:on  for  small  signals  around  the  dc-­‐opera:ng  
point  by  means  of  the  small-­‐signal  model  
§  the  use  of  a  string  of  forward-­‐biased  diodes  and  of  diodes  
opera:ng  in  the  breakdown  region  (zener  diodes),  to  provide  
constant  dc  voltages  (voltage  regulators)  
§  applica:on  of  the  diode  in  the  design  of  rec:fier  circuits,  which  
convert  ac  voltages  to  dc  as  needed  for  powering  electronic  
equipment  
§  a  number  of  other  prac:cal  and  important  applica:ons  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.1.1.  Current-­‐Voltage  
CharacterisLc  of  the  
Ideal  Diode  

§  ideal  diode  –  most  


fundament  nonlinear  
circuit  element  
§  two  terminal  device  
§  circuit  symbol  shown  
to  right  
§  operates  in  two  modes  
§  on  and  off   Figure  4.1:  Diode  characteris:cs  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.1.1.  Current-­‐Voltage  
CharacterisLc  

§  cathode  –  nega:ve  terminal,  from  which  current  


flows  
§  anode  –  posi:ve  terminal  of  diode,  into  which  
current  flows  
§  voltage-­‐current  (VI)  behavior  is:  
§  piecewise  linear  for  rated  values  
§  nonlinear  beyond  this  range    
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.1.1:  Current-­‐Voltage  
Characteris:c  of  the  Ideal  
Diode   mode  #2:  reverse   mode  #1:  
bias  =  open  ckt.   forward  bias  =  
short  ckt  
§  ideal  diode:  is  most  fundament  
device  scircuit  
nonlinear   ymbol   element  
with   two  
§  two   nodes  
terminal   device  with  circuit  
symbol  to  right  
§  operates  in  two  modes  forward  
and  reverse  bias  

figure  4.1.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.1.1.  Current-­‐
Voltage  
CharacterisLc  

§  External  circuit  should  be  


designed  to  limit…  
§  current  flow  across  
conduc:ng  diode  
§  voltage  across  blocking  
diode  
Figure  4.2:  The  two  modes  of  
§  Examples  are  shown  to   opera:on  of  ideal  diodes  and  the  
right…   use  of  an  external  circuit  to  limit  
(a)  the  forward  current  and    
 
Oxford  University  Publishing   (b)  the  reverse  voltage.  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.1.2:  A  Simple  
ApplicaLon  –  The  
RecLfier  

§  One  fundamental  


applica:on  of  this  
piecewise  linear  behavior  
is  the  rec:fier.  
§  Q:  What  is  a  recLfier?  
§  A:  Circuit  which  
converts  AC  waves  in   Figure  4.3(a):  Rec:fier  Circuit  
to  DC…ideally  with  no  
loss.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.1.2:  A  Simple  
ApplicaLon  –  The  
RecLfier  

§  This  circuit  is  composed  


of  diode  and  series  
resistor.  
§  Q:  How  does  this  circuit  
operate?  
§  A:  The  diode  blocks  
reverse  current  flow,   Figure  4.3(a):  Rec:fier  Circuit  
preven:ng  nega:ve  
voltage  across  R.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Example  4.1:  
Diode  Rec:fier  

§  Consider  the  circuit  of  Figure  4.4.    


A  source  (vS)  with  peak  amplitude  
of  24V  is  employed  to  charge  a  
12V  dc-­‐ba\ery.  
§  Q(a):  Find  the  frac:on  of  each  
cycle  during  which  the  diode  
conducts.  
§  Q(b):  Find  peak  value  of  diode  
current  and  maximum  
reverse-­‐bias  voltage  that  
appears  across   the  diode.   Figure  4.4:  Circuit  and  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing   Waveforms  for  Example  4.1.  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.1.3.  Another  
ApplicaLon,  
Diode  Logic  Gates  

§  Q:  How  may  diodes  be  


used  to  create  logic  
gates?  
§  A:  Examples  of  AND  /  
OR  gates  are  shown  
right.  
§ Refer  to  next  slide.   Figure  4.5:  Diode  logic  gates:  (a)  
OR  gate;  (b)  AND  gate  (in  a  
posi:ve-­‐logic  system).  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
OR  GATE   AND  GATE  

IF  vA  =  5V  THEN  diodeA  will   IF  vA  =  0V  THEN  diodeA  will  
conduct  AND  vY  =  vA  =  5V   conduct  AND  vY  =  vA  =  0V  

IF  all  diodes  block  


THEN  vY  =  5V   +  
5V  
-­‐  
+  
5V
-­‐  
IF  any  diode  conducts    
THEN  
Microelectronic   vbYy    A=del    5S.  SV  
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Circuits   edra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Example  4.2:   To  apply  nodal  /  mesh  
techniques,  one  must  have  
More  Diodes  
knowledge  of  all  component  
impedances.  

§  Q:  What  difficul:es  are  


associated  with  mul:-­‐diode  

Figure  4.4:  Circuit  and  Waveforms  for  Example  4.1.  


circuits?  
§  A:  Circuit  cannot  be  
solved  without  
knowledge  of  diodes’  
statuses.    Yet,  statuses  
are  dependent  on  the   Figure  4.6:  Circuits  for  Example  4.2.  
solu:on.  
 
IF  vB  <  0  THEN  ZD1  =  0ohms        
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
ELSE  ZD1  =  open  circuit  
Example  4.2:  
More  Diodes  

§  Q:  How  does  one  solve  these  circuits?  


§  A:  One  must  use  the  following  steps…  
§ 1)  assume  the  status  of  all  diodes  
§ 2)  solve  via  mesh  /  nodal  analysis  
§ 3)  check  for  coherence  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Example  4.2:   If  answer  to  either  of  these  is  no,  
More  Diodes then  the  solu:on  is  not  physically  
 

realizable.  

§  Q:  How  does  one  check  for  coherence?  


§  A:  One  must  ask  the  following  ques:ons…  
§  1)  Are  calculated  voltages  across  all  “assumed  conduc:ng”  
diodes  forward-­‐biased?  
§  2)  Are  the  calculated  currents  through  all  “assumed  
blocking”  diodes  zero?  
§  Q:  What  does  one  do,  if  the  solu:on  is  not  coherent?  
§  A:  One  must  change  one  or  more  of  these  
assump:ons  and  solve  as  well  as  check  for  coherence  
again.    
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.2.  Terminal   discon:nuity  caused  by  
CharacterisLcs   differences  in  scale  
of  JuncLon  Diodes  

§  Most  common  


implementa:on  of  a  
diode  u:lizes  pn  junc:on.  
§  I-­‐V  curve  consists  of  three  
characteris:c  regions  
§  forward  bias:  v  >  0  
§  reverse  bias:  v  <  0  
§  breakdown:  v  <<  0    
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.2.1.  The  
Forward-­‐Bias  Region  
IS =!constant!for!diode!at!given
temperature!(aka.!saturation!current)
!###"###$
§  The  forward-­‐bias   v/VT
(eq4.1)(i = IS (e −1)
region  of  opera:on  is   VT =!thermal!voltage

entered  when  v  >  0.   k=!Boltzmann's!constant!(8.62E!5#eV/K)


q=!magnitude!of!electron!charge!(1.6E!19$C)
!####"####$
§  I-­‐V  rela:onship  is   kT
(eq4.2)!VT = = 25.8mV
%# &# '
closely  approximated   q at#room
by  equa:ons  to  right.   temperature
IS =!constant!for!diode!at!given
temperature!(aka.!saturation!current)
!##"##$
(4.3)  is  a  simplifica:on   v/V
(eq4.3)$i = IS e T
suitable  for  large  v  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.2.1.  The  
Forward-­‐Bias  
Region  

§  Equa:on  (4.3)  may  be  


reversed  to  yield  (4.4).   IS =!constant!for!diode!at!given
temperature!(aka.!saturation!current)
!###"### $
§  This  rela:onship   !i$
applies  over  as  many   (eq4.4)'v =VT ln## &&
as  seven  decades  of   " IS %
current.  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.2.1.  The   step%#1:%consider%two%cases%(#1%and%#2)
! ####"####$
Forward-­‐Bias   V1 /VT
I1 = IS e !and!!I2 = IS e
V2 /VT

Region   step%#2:%divide%I2 "by"I1


!#"#$
V2 /VT
I2 IS e
§  Q:  What  is  the  rela:ve   = V /V
I1 IS e 1 T
effect  of  current  flow  (i)   step%#3:%combine%two%exponentials
!#"#$
on  forward  biasing  
I2
voltage  (v)?   (V −V )/V
=e 2 1 T
I1
§  A:  Very  small.   step%#4:%invert%this%expression
! ## #"### $
§  10x  change  in  i,  effects  
60mV  change  in  v.  
V2 −V1 =VT ln I2 / I1 ( )
step%#5:%convert%to%log%base%10
!### #"#### $
V2 −V1 = 2.3VT log I2 / I1
%##&##
( '
)
 
Oxford  University  Publishing   60mV ≈2.3VT log(10/1)
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.2.1:  The  
Forward-­‐Bias  
Region  

§  cut-­‐in  voltage  –  is  


voltage,  below  which,  
minimal  current  flows  
§  approximately  0.5V  
§  fully  conducLng  region  –  
is  region  in  which  Rdiode  is  
approximately  equal  0  
§  between  0.6  and  0.8V  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
fully  conduc:ng  region  
Example  4.3  

§  Refer  to  textbook…  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.2.2.  The  Reverse-­‐
Bias  Region  
this&expression
applies&for
negative&voltages
!#"#$
§  The  reverse-­‐bias  region  of   − v /VT
opera:on  is  entered   i = −IS e
when  v  <  0.   action:!invert!exponential
!# #"## $
§  I-­‐V  rela:onship,  for   " 1 %
i = −IS $$ v /V ''
nega:ve  voltages  with  |
e T&
#!"#
v|  >  VT  (25mV),  is  closely  
approximated  by  
≈0$for$larger
voltage
magnitudes
equa:ons  to  right.  
i = −IS
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.2.2.  The  Reverse-­‐
Bias  Region  

§  A  “real”  diode  exhibits  reverse-­‐bias  current,  


although  small,  much  larger  than  IS  .  
§  10-­‐9  vs.  10-­‐14Amps  
§  A  large  part  of  this  reverse  current  is  a\ributed  to  
leakage  effects.  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.2.3.  The  
Breakdown  Region  

§  The  breakdown  region  


of  opera:on  is  
entered  when  v  <  VZK.  
§  Zener-­‐Knee  Voltage  
(VZK)  
§  This  is  normally  non-­‐
destruc:ve.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
breakdown  region  
v / VT
i = IS (e − 1)

i << −IS i = −IS i = IS e − v / VT

V  =  10VT  
V  =  -­‐VZK  

V  =  -­‐VT  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.  Modeling  the  
Diode  Forward  
CharacterisLc  

§  The  previous  slides  define  a  robust  set  of  diode  models.  
§  Upcoming  slides,  however,  discuss  simplified  diode  
models  be\er  suited  for  use  in  circuit  analyses:  
§  exponen:al  model  
§  constant  voltage-­‐drop  model  
§  ideal  diode  model  
§  small-­‐signal  (lineariza:on)  model  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.1.  The  
ExponenLal  Model  

§  exponenLal  diode  model  


§  most  accurate  
§  most  difficult  to  employ  in  circuit  analysis  
§ due  to  nonlinear  nature  
V /V
(eq4.6)((ID = IS e D T
!## #"### $
VD =!voltage!across!diode
ID =!current!through!diode

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.1.  The  
ExponenLal  Model  

§  Q:  How  does  one  solve  


for  ID  in  circuit  to  right?  
§  VDD  =  5V  
§  R  =  1kOhm   Figure  4.10:  A  simple  circuit  used  
§  ID  =  1mA  @  0.7V   to  illustrate  the  analysis  of  
circuits  in  which  the  diode  is  
§  A:  Two  methods  exist…   forward  conduc:ng.  
§  graphical  method  
§  iteraLve  method   VDD − VD
(eq4.7)  ID =
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
R
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.2.  Graphical  
Analysis  Using  
ExponenLal  Model  

§  step  #1:  Plot  the  


rela:onships  of  (4.6)  and  
(4.7)  on  single  graph  
§  step  #2:  Find  intersec:on  
of  the  two…  
§  load  line  and  diode  
characteris:c  intersect   Figure  4.11:  Graphical  analysis  of  
the  circuit  in  Fig.  4.10  using  the  
at  operaLng  point  
exponen:al  diode  model.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.2.  Graphical  
Analysis  Using  
ExponenLal  Model  

§  Pro’s  
§  Intui:ve  
§  b/c  of  visual  nature  
§  Con’s  
§  Poor  Precision  
§  Not  Prac:cal  for   Figure  4.11:  Graphical  analysis  of  
Complex  Analyses   the  circuit  in  Fig.  4.10  using  the  
§  mul:ple  lines  required   exponen:al  diode  model.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.3.  IteraLve  
Analysis  Using  
ExponenLal  Method  

§  step  #1:  Start  with  ini:al   §  step  #4:  Repeat  these  
guess  of  VD.   steps  un:l  VD(k+1)  =  VD(k).  
§  VD(0)   §  Upon  convergence,  the  
§  step  #2:  Use  nodal  /  mesh   new  and  old  values  of  
analysis  to  solve  ID.   VD  will  match.  
§  step  #3:  Use  exponen:al  
model  to  update  VD.  
§  VD(1)  =  f(VD(0))  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.3.  IteraLve  
Analysis  Using  
ExponenLal  Method  

§  Pro’s  
§  High  Precision  
§  Con’s  
§  Not  Intui:ve  
§  Not  Prac:cal  for  Complex  Analyses  
§ 10+  itera:ons  may  be  required  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.  Modeling  the  
Diode  Forward  
CharacterisLc  

§  Q:  How  can  one  analyze  


these  diode-­‐based  circuits  
more  efficiently?  
§  A:  Find  a  simpler  model.  
§  One  example  is  
assume  that  voltage  
drop  across  the  diode  
is  constant.  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.5.  The  
Constant  Voltage-­‐
Drop  Model  

§  The  constant  voltage-­‐


drop  diode  model  
assumes  that  the  slope  of  
ID  vs.  VD  is  ver:cal  @  0.7V  
§  Q:  How  does  example  4.4  
solu:on  change  if  CVDM  
is  used?  
§  A:  4.262mA  to  4.3mA   Figure  4.12:  Development  of  the  
diode  constant-­‐voltage-­‐drop  
  model:  (a)  the…  
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.6.  Ideal  
Diode  Model  

§  The  ideal  diode  model  


assumes  that  the  slope  of  
ID  vs.  VD  is  ver:cal  @  0V  
§  Q:  How  does  example  4.4  
solu:on  change  if  ideal  
model  is  used?  
§  A:  4.262mA  to  5mA  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.1.1:  Current-­‐Voltage  
Characteris:c  of  the  Ideal  
Diode   mode  #2:  reverse   mode  #1:  
bias  =  open  ckt.   forward  bias  =  
short  ckt  
§  ideal  diode:  is  most  fundament  
device  scircuit  
nonlinear   ymbol   element  
with   two  
§  two   nodes  
terminal   device  with  circuit  
symbol  to  right  
§  operates  in  two  modes  forward  
and  reverse  bias  

figure  4.1.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
When  to  
use  these  models?  

§  exponenLal  model   §  ideal  diode  model  


§  low  voltages   §  high  voltages  >>  0.7V  
§  less  complex  circuits   §  very  complex  circuits  
§  emphasis  on  accuracy  over   §  cases  where  a  difference  in  
prac:cality   voltage  by  0.7V  is  
§  constant  voltage-­‐drop  mode:   negligible  
§  medium  voltages  =  0.7V   §  small-­‐signal  model  
§  more  complex  circuits   §  this  is  next…  
§  emphasis  on  prac:cality  
over  accuracy  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.7.  Small-­‐Signal  
Model  

§  small-­‐signal  diode  model  


§  Diode  is  modeled  as  variable  resistor.  
§  Whose  value  is  defined  via  lineariza:on  of  
exponen:al  model.  
§  Around  bias  point  defined  by  constant  voltage  
drop  model.  
§ VD(0)  =  0.7V  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.7.  Small-­‐Signal   Neither  of  these  circuits  
Model   employ  the  exponen:al  
model  –  simplifying  the  
“solving”  process.  
§  Q:  How  is  the  small-­‐signal  diode  model  defined?  
§  A:  The  total  instantaneous  circuit  is  divided  
into  steady-­‐state  and  :me  varying  
components,  which  may  be  analyzed  
separately  and  solved  via  algebra.  
§ In  steady-­‐state,  diode  represented  as  CVDM.  
§ In  :me-­‐varying,  diode  represented  as  resistor.  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
CVDM  
DC   DC  
Total   Steady-­‐State  
Instantaneous   = Solu:on             +
Solu:on  
AC   (vD.)   (VD.)  

Time-­‐Varying  
AC  
Solu:on              
(vd.)  

Figure  4.14:  (a)  C   ircuit  for  Example  4.5.  (b)  Circuit  for  calcula:ng  the  
Microelectronic  Cdc  
ircuits  o
by  pera:ng   point.  C.  Smith  ((c)  Small-­‐signal  equivalent  circuit.  
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth   0195323033)  
4.3.7.  Small-­‐Signal  
Model  

§  Q:  How  is  the  small-­‐signal  diode  


model  defined?  
§  step  #1:  Consider  the  conceptual  
circuit  of  Figure  4.13(a).  
§ DC  voltage  (VD)  is  applied  to  
diode  
§ Upon  VD,  arbitrary  :me-­‐varying  
signal  vd  is  super-­‐imposed  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.7.  Small-­‐Signal  
Model  

§  DC  only  –  upper-­‐case  w/  upper-­‐


case  subscript  
§  Lme-­‐varying  only  –  lower-­‐case  
w/  lower-­‐case  subscript  
§  total  instantaneous  –  lower-­‐case  
w/  upper-­‐case  subscript  
§  DC  +  :me-­‐varying  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.7.  Small-­‐Signal  
Model  

§  step  #2:  Define  DC   V /VT


(eq4.8)((ID = IS e D
current  as  in  (4.8).  
§  step  #3:  Define  total   (eq4.9)(( vD (t) =VD +vd (t)
!##"##$
instantaneous  voltage   vD (t)=!total!instantaneous
!!!!!voltage!across!diode
(vD)  as  composed  of  VD   VD =!dc!component
!!!!!of!vD (t)
and  vd.   vd (t)=!time!varying
!!!!!component!of!vD (t)
§  step  #4:  Define  total   v /V
instantaneous  current  (iD)   (eq4.10))) iD (t) = IS e D T
!# #"## $
as  func:on  of  vD.   note%that%this%is
different%from%(4.8)

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.7.  Small-­‐Signal  
Model  

§  step  #5:  Redefine  (4.10)  


as  func:on  of  both  VD  and   (eq4.11)((iD (t) = IS e
(VD +vd )/VT

vd.   action:!split!this!exponential
using!appropriate!laws
§  step  #6:  Split  this   !## #"### $
V /V v /V
exponen:al  in  two.   (eq4.11))) iD (t) = IS e D T e d T
!"#
§  step  #7:  Redefine  total   ID

instant  current  in  terms   (eq4.12)))iD (t) = ID e D


v /VT

of  DC  component  (ID)  and  


:me-­‐varying  voltage  (vd).  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.7.  Small-­‐Signal  
Model  

§  step  #8:  Apply  power   x x2 x3 x 4


example:((e = 1+ x + + + +…
series  expansion  to   2! 3! 4!

(4.12).   !####### action:!apply!power!series!expansion!to!(4.12)!

!
#"########
because*vd /VT <<1,#these#terms
$
$
are#assumed#to#be#negligible
!####"####$ &
§  step  #9:  Because  vd/
#
# '! $2 * '! $3 * &
# v v 1 v 1 &
(eq4.12a)"" iD (t) = ID #1+ d + )## d && , + )## d && , +…&
VT  <<  1,  certain  terms   #
VT )" VT % 2!, )" VT % 3!,
( + ( + &
may  be  neglected.   ##
"%######&######'%
&&

vd /VT
power#series#expansion#of#e
action:!eliminate
negligible!terms!
!##"##$
! v $
(eq4.14)!! iD (t) = ID ##1+ d &&
" VT %
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.7.  Small-­‐Signal  
Model  
!I $
iD (t) = ID + ## D &&vd
§  small  signal  approximaLon   VT %
"!"#
§  Shown  to  right  for  exponen:al   id

diode  model.   iD (t) = ID + id


§ total  instant  current  (iD)   1
id = v d
§ small-­‐signal  current  (id.)   rd
§ small-­‐signal  resistance  (rd.)   VT
§  Valid  for  for  vd  <  5mV   rd =
ID
amplitude  (not  peak  to  peak).  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.7.  Small-­‐Signal  
Model  

§  This  method  may  be  used  to  approximate  any  


func:on  y  =  f(x)  around  an  opera:ng  point  (x0,  
y0).  

$ !#"Δx #
$
−1
! ∂y
y(t) = y0 + #
# ∂x (
& x(t)− x
& )
0
" y=Y %

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.3.7:  Small-­‐Signal  
Model  

§  Q:  How  is  small-­‐signal  resistance  rd  defined?  


§  A:  From  steady-­‐state  current  (ID)  and  thermal  voltage  
(VT)  as  below.  
§ Note  this  approxima:on  is  only  valid  for  small-­‐
signal  voltages  vd  <  5mV.  

VT
rd =
ID
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Example  4.5:  
Small-­‐Signal  Model  

§  Consider  the  circuit  shown  in  Figure  4.14(a)  for  the  case  
in  which  R  =  10kOhm.  
§  The  power  supply  V+  has  a  dc  value  of  10V  over  which  is  
super-­‐imposed  a  60Hz  sinusoid  of  1V  peak  amplitude  
(known  as  the  supply  ripple)  
§  Q:  Calculate  both  amplitude  of  the  sine-­‐wave  signal  
observed  across  the  diode.  
§ A:  vd.(peak)  =  2.68mV  
§  Assume  diode  to  have  0.7V  drop  at  1mA  current.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Figure  4.14:  (a)  c   ircuit  for  Example  4.5.  (b)  circuit  for  calcula:ng  the  
Microelectronic  Cdc  
ircuits  o pera:ng   point.  C.  Smith  ((c)  small-­‐signal  equivalent  circuit.  
Oxford  University  Publishing  
by  A del  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth   0195323033)  
4.3.8.  Use  of  Diode  
Forward  Drop  in  
Voltage  RegulaLon  

§  Q:  What  is  a  voltage   §  Q:  What  characteris:c  of  


regulator?   the  diode  facilitates  
§  A:  Circuit  whose   voltage  regula:on?  
voltage  output  remains   §  A:  The  approximately  
stable  in  spite  of   constant  voltage  drop  
changes  in  supply  and   across  it  (0.7V).  
load.  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Example  4.6:  
Diode-­‐Based  Voltage  
Regulator  

§  Consider  circuit  shown  in  Figure  


4.15.    A  string  of  three  diodes  is  
used  to  provide  a  constant  voltage  
of  2.1V.      
§  Q:  What  is  the  change  in  this  
regulated  voltage  caused  by  (a)  a  
+/-­‐  10%  change  in  supply  voltage   Figure  4.15:  Circuit  
and  (b)  connec:on  of  1kOhm   for  Example  4.6.  
load  resistor.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
ny means without the publisher's prior permission. Use (other than qualified fair use) in violation of the law or Terms of
osecuted to the full extent of the law.

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.4.  OperaLon  in  the  
Reverse  Breakdown  
Region  –  Zener  Diodes  

§  Under  certain  circumstances,  diodes  may  be  


inten:onally  used  in  the  reverse  breakdown  
region.  
§  These  are  referred  to  as  Zener  Diodes.  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
prosecuted to the full extent of the law.

Example  4.7  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Example  4.7  (cont.)  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Prob.  4-­‐56  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Prob.  4-­‐56  (cont.)  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.  RecLfier  Circuits  

§  One  important  


applica:on  of  diode  is  the  
recLfier  –    
§  Electrical  device  which  
converts  alterna:ng  
current  (AC)  to  direct  
current  (DC)  
§  One  important   Figure  4.20:  Block  diagram  of  a  
dc  power  supply  
applica:on  of  rec:fier  is  
dc  power  supply.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
step  #1:  increase  /  decrease  rms  magnitude  of  
AC  wave  via  power  transformer  
step  #2:  convert  full-­‐wave  AC  to  half-­‐wave  DC  
(s:ll  :me-­‐varying  and  periodic)  
step  #3:  employ  low-­‐pass  filter  to  reduce  wave  
amplitude  by  >  90%  
step  #4:  employ  voltage  regulator  to  eliminate  
ripple  
step  #5:  supply  dc  
load                                                                                                        .    

Figure  4.20:  Block  diagram  of  a  dc  power  supply  


Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.1.  The  Half-­‐
Wave  RecLfier  

§  half-­‐wave  recLfier  –    


u:lizes  only  alternate  
half-­‐cycles  of  the  input  
sinusoid  
§  Constant  voltage  drop  
diode  model  is  
employed.  

Figure  4.21:  (a)    Half-­‐wave  rec:fier  (b)  Transfer  characteris:c  of  the  
rec:fier  circuit  (c)  Input  and  output  waveforms  
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.1.  The  Half-­‐
Wave  RecLfier  

§  current-­‐handling  capability  –  what  is  maximum  


forward  current  diode  is  expected  to  conduct?  
§  peak  inverse  voltage  (PIV)  –  what  is  maximum  
reverse  voltage  it  is  expected  to  block  w/o  
breakdown?  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.1.  The  Half-­‐
Wave  RecLfier  

§  exponenLal  model?    It  is  possible  to  use  the  


diode  exponen:al  model  in  describing  rec:fier  
opera:on;  however,  this  requires  too  much  work.  
§  small  inputs?    Regardless  of  the  model  
employed,  one  should  note  that  the  rec:fier  will  
not  operate  properly  when  input  voltage  is  small  
(<  1V).  
§ Those  cases  require  a  precision  recLfier.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.2.  The  
Full-­‐Wave  RecLfier  

§  Q:  How  does  full-­‐wave  


rec:fier  differ  from  
half-­‐wave?  
§  A:  It  u:lizes  both  
halves  of  the  input  
§ One  poten:al  is  
shown  to  right.   Figure  4.22:  Full-­‐wave  rec:fier  
u:lizing  a  transformer  with  a  
center-­‐tapped  secondary  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
winding.  
The  key  here  is  center-­‐tapping  of  the  transformer,  
allowing  “reversal”  of  certain  currents…  

Figure  4.22:  full-­‐wave  rec:fier  u:lizing  a  transformer  with  a  center-­‐


tapped  secondary  winding:  (a)  circuit;  (b)  transfer  characteris:c    
assuming  a  constant-­‐voltage-­‐drop    
model  for  the  diodes;  (c)  input  
Oxford  University  Publishing  
and  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth   C.  Smith  o utput  waveforms.  
(0195323033)  
When  instantaneous  source  voltage  is  posiLve,  D1  
conducts  while  D2  blocks…  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
when  instantaneous  source  voltage  is  negaLve,  D2  
conducts  while  D1  blocks  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.2.  The  Full-­‐Wave  
RecLfier  

§  Q:  What  are  most  important  observa:on(s)  from  


this  opera:on?  
§  A:  The  direc:on  of  current  flowing  across  load  
never  changes  (both  halves  of  AC  wave  are  
rec:fied).    The  full-­‐wave  rec:fier  produces  a  
more  “energe:c”  waveform  than  half-­‐wave.  
§ PIV  for  full-­‐wave  =  2VS  –  VD  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.3.  The  Bridge  
RecLfier  

§  An  alterna:ve  
implementa:on  of  the  
full-­‐wave  rec:fier  is  
bridge  recLfier.  
§  Shown  to  right.  

Figure  4.23:  The  bridge  rec:fier  


circuit.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
when  instantaneous  source  voltage  is  posiLve,  D1  
and  D2  conduct  while  D3  and  D4  block  

Figure  4.23:  The  bridge  rec:fier  circuit.  


 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
when  instantaneous  source  voltage  is  posiLve,  D1  
and  D2  conduct  while  D3  and  D4  block  

Figure  4.23:  The  bridge  rec:fier  circuit.  


 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.3:  The  Bridge  
RecLfier  (BR)  

§  Q:  What  is  the  main  advantage  of  BR?  


§  A:  No  need  for  center-­‐tapped  transformer.  
§  Q:  What  is  main  disadvantage?  
§  A:  Series  connec:on  of  TWO  diodes  will  reduce  
output  voltage.  
§  PIV  =  VS  –  VD    

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

§  Pulsa:ng  nature  of  


rec:fier  output  makes  
unreliable  dc  supply.  
§  As  such,  a  filter  
capacitor  is  employed  
to  remove  ripple.  
Figure  4.24:  (a)  A  simple  circuit  used  to  illustrate  the  effect  of  a  
filter  capacitor.     (b)  input  and  output  waveforms  assuming  an  ideal  
Oxford  University  Publishing   diode.  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

§  step  #1:  source  voltage  is  


posi:ve,  diode  is  forward  
biased,  capacitor  charges.  
§  step  #2:  source  voltage  is  
reverse,  diode  is  reverse-­‐
biased  (blocking),  capacitor  
cannot  discharge.  
§  step  #3:  source  voltage  is  
posi:ve,  diode  is  forward  
biased,  capacitor  charges  
(maintains  voltage).  

Figure  Oxford  
4.24   (   a)  Publishing  
University   A  simple  circuit  used  to  illustrate  the  effect…  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

§  Q:  Why  is  this  example  unrealis:c?  


§  A:  Because  for  any  prac:cal  applica:on,  the  
converter  would  supply  a  load  (which  in  turn  
provides  a  path  for  capacitor  discharging).  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

§  Q:  What  happens  


when  load  resistor  is  
placed  in  series  with  
capacitor?    
§  A:  One  must  now  
consider  the  
discharging  of  
capacitor  across  
load.    
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

§  The  textbook  outlines  


how  Laplace  Transform  
may  be  used  to  define   circuit  state  #1  
behavior  below.  
output%voltage%for%state%#1
! ##"##$
() ()
vO t = vI t −vD
t

v (t ) =V e
O peak
RC

%##&##'
output%voltage%for%state%#2
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
circuit  state  #2  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Q:  What  happens  when  
load  resistor  is  placed  in  
series  with  capacitor?    

§  step  #1:  Analyze  circuit  


state  #1.  
§  When  diode  is  forward   circuit  state  #1  
biased  and  conduc:ng.   vO
iL =
§  step  #2:  Input  voltage  (vI)   R
will  be  applied  to  output  
(vO),  minus  0.7V  drop   iD = iC + iL
across  diode.   action:  define  capacitor
current  differentially
6 44 7 4 48
dvI
iD = C + iL
dt
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Q:  What  happens  when  
load  resistor  is  placed  in  
series  with  capacitor?  

§  step  #3:  Define  output  


voltage  for  state  #1.  

output%voltage%for%state%#1
!#"#$
vO = vI −vD
circuit  state  #1  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Q:  What  happens  when  
load  resistor  is  placed  in  
series  with  capacitor?  

§  step  #4:  Analyze  circuit  


state  #2.  
§  When  diode  is  blocking  
and  capacitor  is  
discharging.  
§  step  #5:  Define  KVL  and  
KCL  for  this  circuit.   circuit  state  #2  
§  vO  =  RiL  
§  iL  =  –iC    
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Q:  What  happens  when  
load  resistor  is  placed  in  
series  with  capacitor?  

§  step  #6:  Use  combina:on  of  circuit  and  Laplace  


Analysis  to  solve  for  vO(t)  in  terms  of  ini:al  
condi:on  and  :me…  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

action:"take"Laplace"transform
! ## #"### $ !#### #"#####
action:"eliminate"RC !from!both!sides
$
(* dvO ,* " 1 %
vO = RiL L )vO + RC
dt
= 0-
# RC &
()
RC $ s + 'VO s = RCVO 0 ()
action:"replace
*+ *.
iL !with!&iC action:"solve"for"VO ( s )
!#"# $ !#### action:"take"Laplace"transform
#"##### $ !###"### $
vO = −RiC VO s + RC /0sVO s −VO 0 12 = 0
() () () 1
action:"define"iC %##&##' ()
VO s =VO 0 () 1
!##"##$differentially
transform)of)
dvO s+
dt
" dv % action:"seperate"disalike"/"collect"alike"terms RC
action:"take"inverse"Laplace
vO = −R $$C O '' !#### #"##### $ !#### #"##### $
dt & V s + RCsV s = RCV 0 ( ,
#%&
# # ' %O
## & ## O
'
() ! O () () * 1 *
iC ()
L−1 )VO s =VO 0 () -
action:"change"sides
!##"## $
(1+RCs)VO (s) initial
condition *+ ( )
s +1 / RC *.
action:"pull"out"RC
dvO !### #"#### $ !### "###$
action:"solve

vO + RC = 0 1+ RCs V s = RCV 0( ) () ()
dt %##&## O
' O

t

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
" 1 %
RC $$ s+ ''VO (s)
()
vO t =VO 0 e () RC

# RC &
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

§  Q:  What  is  VO(0)?  


§  A:  Peak  of  vI,  because  the  transi:on  between  
state  #1  and  state  #2  (aka.  diode  begins  
blocking)  approximately  as  vI  drops  below  vC.  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

§  step  #7:  Define  output  


voltage  for  states  #1  and  
#2.   circuit  state  #1  

output%voltage%for%state%#1
! ##"##$
() ()
vO t = vI t −vD
t

v (t ) =V e
O peak
RC

%##&##'
output%voltage%for%state%#2
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
circuit  state  #2  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
output%voltage%for%state%#1
!#"#$
() ()
vO t = v I t
t

v (t ) =V e
O peak
RC

%##&##'
output%voltage%for%state%#2

Figure  4.25:  Voltage  and  Current  Waveforms  in  the  Peak  Rec:fier  
Circuit   W  
ITH  RC  >>  T.    The  diode  is  assumed  ideal.  
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
A  Couple  of  
ObservaLons  

§  The  diode  conducts  for  a  brief  interval  (Δt)  near  the  peak  
of  the  input  sinusoid  and  supplies  the  capacitor  with  
charge  equal  to  that  lost  during  the  much  longer  
discharge  interval.    The  la\er  is  approximately  equal  to  
T.  
§  Assuming  an  ideal  diode,  the  diode  conduc:on  begins  at  
:me  t1  (at  which  the  input  vI  equals  the  exponen:ally  
decaying  output  vO).    Diode  conduc:on  stops  at  :me  t2  
shortly  auer  the  peak  of  vI  (the  exact  value  of  t2  is  
determined  by  se\ling  of  ID).    
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
A  Couple  of  
ObservaLons  

§  During  the  diode  off-­‐interval,  the  capacitor  C  discharges  


through  R  causing  an  exponen:al  decay  in  the  output  
voltage  (vO).  At  the  end  of  the  discharge  interval,  which  
lasts  for  almost  the  en:re  period  T,  voltage  output  is  
defined  as  follows  –  vO(T)  =  Vpeak  –  Vr.  
§  When  the  ripple  voltage  (Vr)  is  small,  the  output  (vO)  is  
almost  constant  and  equal  to  the  peak  of  the  input  (vI).    
the  average  output  voltage  may  be  defined  as  below…  
1
(eq4.27)  avg (VO ) = Vpeak   − Vr     ≈ Vpeak  if  Vr  is  small
Oxford  University  Publishing  
2
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor   t

()
vO t =Vpeak e RC

T !is!discharge!interval
! ##"##$
§  Q:  How  is  ripple  voltage  (Vr)  defined?   Vpeak −Vr = vO (T)
§  step  #1:  Begin  with  transient   $ −T '
response  of  output  during  “off   Vpeak −Vr ≈ Vpeak × && e RC ))
interval.”   %!(
§  step  #2:  Note  T  is  discharge   because'RC>>T ,
we$can$assume...
interval.   e

T
RC !≈!1−
T
RC
§  step  #3:  Simplify  using   action:"solve"for
ripple"voltage"Vr
assump:on  that  RC  >>  T.   !##"## $
$T '
§  step  #4:  Solve  for  ripple  voltage   (eq4.28)))Vr ≈ Vpeak & )
Vr.   RC (
%!
  T
Oxford  University  Publishing  
1− −1
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
RC
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

§  step  #5:  Put  expression  in  


terms  of  frequency  (f  =  1/T).   Vpeak
§  Observe  that,  as  long  as  Vr   }R
<<  Vpeak,  the  capacitor   Vpeak IL
(eq4.29)    Vr ≈ =
discharges  as  constant   fRC fC
current  source  (IL).  
§  Q:  How  is  conducLon  
interval  (Δt)  defined?  
§  A:  See  following  slides…   expression  to  define  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
ripple  voltage  (Vr)  
cos(0O)  
Q:  How  is  conducLon  
interval  (Δt)  defined?  

§  step  #1:  Assume  that  


diode  conduc:on  stops  
(very  close  to  when)  vI  
approaches  its  peak.  
!####"####
( )
Vpeak cos ωΔt =Vpeak −Vr
$
§  step  #2:  With  this   note%that%peak%of%vI%represents%cos(0O ),
( )
therefore%cos ωΔt !represents!variation
assump:on,  one  may   around!this!value!

define  expression  to  the  


right.   (eq4.30)!! ωΔt = 2Vr /Vpeak
!## #"### $
§  step  #3:  Solve  for  ωΔt.   as#assumed,#conduction
interval#Δt !will!be!small
  when!Vr <<Vpeak
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  
Capacitor  
Vpeak

§  Q:  How  is  peak-­‐to-­‐peak   !R


ripple  (Vr)  defined?   Vpeak IL
(eq4.29)))Vr ≈ =
fRC fC
§  A:  (4.29)  
§  Q:  How  is  the  conduc:on  
interval  (Δt)  defined?  
(eq4.30))) ωΔt = 2Vr /Vpeak
§  A:  (4.30)   !## #"### $
as#assumed,#conduction
interval#Δt !will!be!small
when!Vr <<Vpeak

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.5.4.  The  RecLfier  
with  a  Filter  Capacitor  

§  precision  recLfier  –  is  a  device  which  facilitates  


rec:fica:on  of  low-­‐voltage  input  waveforms.  

Figure  4.27:  The    


“Superdiode”  Precision  Half-­‐Wave  Rec:fier  and  
its  almost-­‐ideal  transfer  characteris:c.  
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.6:  LimiLng  and  
Clamping  Circuits  

§  Q:  What  is  a  limiter  


circuit?    
§  A:  One  which  limits  
voltage  output.  

Figure  4.28:  General  transfer  


characteris:c  for  a  limiter  circuit  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.6.  LimiLng  and  
Clamping  Circuits   ! !
over%linear%range
#
# KvI
vO = "
§  passive  limiter  circuit   # constant'value(s)
!##"### $
#$ outside'linear'range
§  has  linear  range  
§  has  nonlinear  range  
! L−
§  K  <  1   # L vI ≤
§  examples  include   # − K
## L! L+
§ single  limiter  operate  in   vO = " KvI < vI <
uni-­‐polar  manner   # K K
§ double  limiter  operate  in   # L+
# L+ vI ≥
bi-­‐polar  manner   #$ K
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.6.  LimiLng  and  
Clamping  Circuits  

§  sou  vs.  hard  limiter   §  Q:  How  are  limiter  


circuits  applied?  
§  A:  Signal  processing,  
used  to  prevent  
breakdown  of  
transistors  within  
various  devices.  
Figure  4.30:  H   ard  vs.  Sou  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Limi:ng.  
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
single  limiters  
employ  one  
diode  
double  limiters  
employ  two  
diodes  of  
opposite  polarity  
linear  range  may  
be  controlled  via  
string  of  diodes  
and  dc  sources  
zener  diodes  may    
be  used  to  
implement  sou  
limi:ng  
 

Figure  4.31:  Variety  of  basic  limi:ng  circuits.  


Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.6.2.  The  Clamped  
Capacitor  or  DC  
Restorer  

§  Q:  What  is  a  dc  restorer?  


§  A:  Circuit  which  removes  the  
dc  component  of  an  AC  wave.  
§  Q:  Why  is  this  ability  important?  
§  A:  Average  value  of  this  
output  (w/  dc  =  0)  is  effec:ve  
way  to  measure  duty  cycle   Figure  4.32:  The  clamped  
capacitor  or  dc  restorer  
with  a  square-­‐wave  input  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing   and  no  load  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
4.6.3:  The  Voltage  
Doubler  

§  Q:  What  is  a  voltage  


doubler?  
§  A:  One  which  
mul:plies  the  
amplitude  of  a  wave  
or  signal  by  two.  
Figure  4.34:  Voltage  doubler:  (a)  
circuit;  (b)  waveform  of  the  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
voltage  across  D1.  
Summary  (1)  

§  In  the  forward  direc:on,  the  ideal  diode  conducts  any  


current  forced  by  the  external  circuit  while  displaying  a  
zero-­‐voltage  drop.    The  ideal  diode  does  not  conduct  in  
reverse  direc:on;  any  applied  voltage  appears  as  reverse  
bias  across  the  diode.  
§  The  unidirec:onal  current  flow  property  makes  the  
diode  useful  in  the  design  of  rec:fier  circuits.  
§  The  forward  conduc:on  of  prac:cal  silicon-­‐junc:on  
diodes  is  accurately  characterized  by  the  rela:onship  i  =  
ISeV/VT.    
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Summary  (2)  

§  A  silicon  diode  conducts  a  negligible  current  un:l  the  


forward  voltage  is  at  least  0.5V.    Then,  the  current  
increases  rapidly  with  the  voltage  drop  increasing  by  
60mV  for  every  decade  of  current  change.  
§  In  the  reverse  direc:on,  a  silicon  diode  conducts  a  
current  on  the  order  of  10-­‐9A.    This  current  is  much  
greater  than  IS  and  increases  with  the  magnitude  of  
reverse  voltage.  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Summary  (3)  

§  Beyond  a  certain  value  of  reverse  voltage  (that  depends  


on  the  diode  itself),  breakdown  occurs  and  current  
increases  rapidly  with  a  small  corresponding  increase  in  
voltage.  
§  Diodes  designed  to  operate  in  the  breakdown  region  are  
called  zener  diodes.    They  are  employed  in  the  design  of  
voltage  regulators  whose  func:on  is  to  provide  a  
constant  dc  voltage  that  varies  li\le  with  varia:ons  in  
power  supply  voltage  and  /  or  load  current.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Summary  (4)  

§  In  many  applica:ons,  a  conduc:ng  diode  is  modeled  as  


having  a  constant  voltage  drop  –  usually  with  value  of  
approximately  0.7V.  
§  A  diode  biased  to  operate  at  a  dc  current  ID  has  small  
signal  resistance  rd  =  VT/ID.  
§  Rec:fiers  covert  ac  voltage  into  unipolar  voltages.    Half-­‐
wave  rec:fiers  do  this  by  passing  the  voltage  in  half  of  
each  cycle  and  blocking  the  opposite-­‐polarity  voltage  in  
the  other  half  of  the  cycle.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Summary  (5)  

§  The  bridge-­‐rec:fier  circuit  is  the  preferred  full-­‐wave  


rec:fier  configura:on.  
§  The  varia:on  of  the  output  waveform  of  the  rec:fier  is  
reduced  considerably  by  connec:ng  a  capacitor  C  across  
the  output  load  resistance  R.    The  resul:ng  circuit  is  the  
peak  rec:fier.    The  output  waveform  then  consists  of  a  
dc  voltage  almost  equal  to  the  peak  of  the  input  sine  
wave,  Vp,  on  which  is  superimposed  a  ripple  component  
of  frequency  2f  (in  the  full-­‐wave  case)  and  of  peak-­‐to-­‐
peak  amplitude  Vr  =  Vp/2fRC.    
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Summary  (6)  

§  Combina:on  of  diodes,  resistors,  and  possible  reference  


voltage  can  be  used  to  design  voltage  limiters  that  
prevent  one  or  both  extremi:es  of  the  output  waveform  
from  going  beyond  predetermined  values  –  the  limi:ng  
levels.  
§  Applying  a  :me-­‐varying  waveform  to  a  circuit  consis:ng  
of  a  capacitor  in  series  with  a  diode  and  taking  the  
output  across  the  diode  provides  a  clamping  func:on.  
§  By  cascading  a  clamping  circuit  with  a  peak-­‐rec:fier  
circuit,  a  voltage  doubler  is  realized.  
 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  
Summary  (6)  

§  Beyond  a  certain  value  of  reverse  voltage  (that  depends  


on  the  diode  itself),  breakdown  occurs  and  current  
increases  rapidly  with  a  small  corresponding  increase  in  
voltage.  
§  Diodes  designed  to  operate  in  the  breakdown  region  are  
called  zener  diodes.    They  are  employed  in  the  design  of  
voltage  regulators  whose  func:on  is  to  provide  a  
constant  dc  voltage  that  varies  li\le  with  varia:ons  in  
power  supply  voltage  and  /  or  load  current.  

 
Oxford  University  Publishing  
Microelectronic  Circuits  by  Adel  S.  Sedra  and  Kenneth  C.  Smith  (0195323033)  

You might also like