Python

PYTHON
Unit-V
Introduction - Built-in Functions - Composition of Functions - Parameters and
Arguments - Function Calls - The return Statement - Python Recursive Function -
The Anonymous Functions - Writing Python Scripts (Book – 3, Sec. 4.1 – 4.10)
E Balagurusamy(2017), Problem Solving and Python Programming, McGraw Hill

India; 1st edition, Chennai.
Built-in Functions
Python has a set of built-in functions.
Function Description
abs() Returns the absolute value of a number
all() Returns True if all items in an iterable object are true
any() Returns True if any item in an iterable object is true
ascii() Returns a readable version of an object. Replaces none-ascii

characters with escape character
bin() Returns the binary version of a number
bool() Returns the boolean value of the specified object
R.NISHA M.Sc,M.Phil,B.Ed Page 1

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bytearray() Returns an array of bytes
bytes() Returns a bytes object
callable() Returns True if the specified object is callable, otherwise False
chr() Returns a character from the specified Unicode code.
classmethod() Converts a method into a class method
compile() Returns the specified source as an object, ready to be executed
complex() Returns a complex number
delattr() Deletes the specified attribute (property or method) from the

specified object
dict() Returns a dictionary (Array)
dir() Returns a list of the specified object's properties and methods

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divmod() Returns the quotient and the remainder when argument1 is divided
by argument2
enumerate() Takes a collection (e.g. a tuple) and returns it as an enumerate

object
eval() Evaluates and executes an expression
exec() Executes the specified code (or object)
filter() Use a filter function to exclude items in an iterable object
float() Returns a floating point number
format() Formats a specified value
frozenset() Returns a frozenset object
getattr() Returns the value of the specified attribute (property or method)

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globals() Returns the current global symbol table as a dictionary
hasattr() Returns True if the specified object has the specified attribute
(property/method)
hash() Returns the hash value of a specified object
help() Executes the built-in help system
hex() Converts a number into a hexadecimal value
id() Returns the id of an object
input() Allowing user input
int() Returns an integer number
isinstance() Returns True if a specified object is an instance of a specified

object
issubclass() Returns True if a specified class is a subclass of a specified object

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iter() Returns an iterator object
len() Returns the length of an object
list() Returns a list
locals() Returns an updated dictionary of the current local symbol table
map() Returns the specified iterator with the specified function applied to
each item
max() Returns the largest item in an iterable
memoryview() Returns a memory view object
min() Returns the smallest item in an iterable
next() Returns the next item in an iterable
object() Returns a new object
oct() Converts a number into an octal

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open() Opens a file and returns a file object
pow() Return the value of x to the power of y
print() Prints to the standard output device
property() Gets, sets, deletes a property
range() Returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 and increments by

1 (by default)
repr() Returns a readable version of an object
reversed() Returns a reversed iterator
round() Rounds a numbers
set() Returns a new set object
setattr() Sets an attribute (property/method) of an object

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sorted() Returns a sorted list
staticmethod() Converts a method into a static method
str() Returns a string object
sum() Sums the items of an iterator
super() Returns an object that represents the parent class
tuple() Returns a tuple
type() Returns the type of an object
vars() Returns the __dict__ property of an object
zip() Returns an iterator, from two or more iterators
Python Built-in Functions

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The Python built-in functions are defined as the functions whose functionality is
pre-defined in Python. The python interpreter has several functions that are always
present for use. These functions are known as Built-in Functions. There are several
built-in functions in Python which are listed below:
Python abs() Function
The python abs() function is used to return the absolute value of a number. It takes

only one argument, a number whose absolute value is to be returned. The argument
can be an integer and floating-point number. If the argument is a complex number,
then, abs() returns its magnitude.
Python abs() Function Example
1. # integer number
2. integer = -20
3. print('Absolute value of -40 is:', abs(integer))
4.
5. # floating number
6. floating = -20.83
7. print('Absolute value of -40.83 is:', abs(floating))
Output:
Absolute value of -20 is: 20
Absolute value of -20.83 is: 20.83
Python all() Function
The python all() function accepts an iterable object (such as list, dictionary, etc.). It

returns true if all items in passed iterable are true. Otherwise, it returns False. If the
iterable object is empty, the all() function returns True.
Python all() Function Example
1. # all values true
2. k = [1, 3, 4, 6]

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3. print(all(k))
4.
5. # all values false
6. k = [0, False]
7. print(all(k))
8.
9. # one false value
10.k = [1, 3, 7, 0]
11.print(all(k))
12.
13.# one true value
14.k = [0, False, 5]
15.print(all(k))
16.
17.# empty iterable
18.k = []
19.print(all(k))
Output:
True
False
False
False
True
Python bin() Function
The python bin() function is used to return the binary representation of a specified

integer. A result always starts with the prefix 0b.
Python bin() Function Example

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1. x = 10
2. y = bin(x)
3. print (y)
Output:
0b1010
Python bool()
The python bool() converts a value to boolean(True or False) using the standard

truth testing procedure.
Python bool() Example
1. test1 = []
2. print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
3. test1 = [0]
5. test1 = 0.0
7. test1 = None
9. test1 = True
10.print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
11.test1 = 'Easy string'
12.print(test1,'is',bool(test1))
Output:
[] is False
[0] is True
0.0 is False
None is False

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True is True
Easy string is True
Python bytes()
The python bytes() in Python is used for returning a bytes object. It is an

immutable version of the bytearray() function.
It can create empty bytes object of the specified size.
Python bytes() Example
1. string = "Hello World."
2. array = bytes(string, 'utf-8')
3. print(array)
Output:
b ' Hello World.'
Python callable() Function
A python callable() function in Python is something that can be called. This built-

in function checks and returns true if the object passed appears to be callable,
otherwise false.
Python callable() Function Example
1. x = 8
2. print(callable(x))
Output:
False
Python compile() Function

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The python compile() function takes source code as input and returns a code object
which can later be executed by exec() function.
Python compile() Function Example
1. # compile string source to code
2. code_str = 'x=5\ny=10\nprint("sum =",x+y)'
3. code = compile(code_str, 'sum.py', 'exec')
4. print(type(code))
5. exec(code)
6. exec(x)
Output:
<class 'code'>
sum = 15
Python exec() Function
The python exec() function is used for the dynamic execution of Python program

which can either be a string or object code and it accepts large blocks of code,
unlike the eval() function which only accepts a single expression.
Python exec() Function Example
1. x = 8
2. exec('print(x==8)')
3. exec('print(x+4)')
Output:
True
12
Python sum() Function

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As the name says, python sum() function is used to get the sum of numbers of an

iterable, i.e., list.
Python sum() Function Example
1. s = sum([1, 2,4 ])
2. print(s)
3.
4. s = sum([1, 2, 4], 10)
5. print(s)
Output:
17
Python any() Function
The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true. Otherwise,

it returns False.
Python any() Function Example
1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10.l = []
11.print(any(l))
Output:
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True
False
True
False
Python ascii() Function
The python ascii() function returns a string containing a printable representation of

an object and escapes the non-ASCII characters in the string using \x, \u or \U
escapes.
Python ascii() Function Example
1. normalText = 'Python is interesting'
2. print(ascii(normalText))
3.
4. otherText = 'Pythön is interesting'
5. print(ascii(otherText))
6.
7. print('Pyth\xf6n is interesting')
Output:
'Python is interesting'
'Pyth\xf6n is interesting'
Pythön is interesting
Python bytearray()
The python bytearray() returns a bytearray object and can convert objects into

bytearray objects, or create an empty bytearray object of the specified size.
Python bytearray() Example

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1. string = "Python is a programming language."
2.
3. # string with encoding 'utf-8'
4. arr = bytearray(string, 'utf-8')
5. print(arr)
Output:
bytearray(b'Python is a programming language.')
Python eval() Function
The python eval() function parses the expression passed to it and runs python

expression(code) within the program.
Python eval() Function Example
1. x = 8
2. print(eval('x + 1'))
Output:
Python float()
The python float() function returns a floating-point number from a number or

string.
Python float() Example
1. # for integers
2. print(float(9))
3.
4. # for floats
5. print(float(8.19))
6.

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7. # for string floats
8. print(float("-24.27"))
9.
10.# for string floats with whitespaces
11.print(float(" -17.19\n"))
12.
13.# string float error
14.print(float("xyz"))
Output:
9.0
8.19
-24.27
-17.19
ValueError: could not convert string to float: 'xyz'
Python format() Function
The python format() function returns a formatted representation of the given

value.
Python format() Function Example
1. # d, f and b are a type
2.
3. # integer
4. print(format(123, "d"))
5.
6. # float arguments
7. print(format(123.4567898, "f"))
8.
9. # binary format
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10.print(format(12, "b"))
Output:
123
123.456790
1100
Python frozenset()
The python frozenset() function returns an immutable frozenset object initialized

with elements from the given iterable.
Python frozenset() Example
1. # tuple of letters
2. letters = ('m', 'r', 'o', 't', 's')
3.
4. fSet = frozenset(letters)
5. print('Frozen set is:', fSet)
6. print('Empty frozen set is:', frozenset())
Output:
Frozen set is: frozenset({'o', 'm', 's', 'r', 't'})
Empty frozen set is: frozenset()
Python getattr() Function
The python getattr() function returns the value of a named attribute of an object. If

it is not found, it returns the default value.
Python getattr() Function Example

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1. class Details:
2. age = 22
3. name = "Phill"
4.
5. details = Details()
6. print('The age is:', getattr(details, "age"))
7. print('The age is:', details.age)
Output:
The age is: 22
The age is: 22
Python globals() Function
The python globals() function returns the dictionary of the current global symbol

table.
A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary
information about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.
Python globals() Function Example
1. age = 22
2.
3. globals()['age'] = 22
4. print('The age is:', age)
Output:
The age is: 22
Python hasattr() Function

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The python any() function returns true if any item in an iterable is true, otherwise

it returns False.
Python hasattr() Function Example
1. l = [4, 3, 2, 0]
2. print(any(l))
3.
4. l = [0, False]
5. print(any(l))
6.
7. l = [0, False, 5]
8. print(any(l))
9.
10.l = []
11.print(any(l))
Output:
True
False
True
False
Python iter() Function
The python iter() function is used to return an iterator object. It creates an object

which can be iterated one element at a time.
Python iter() Function Example
1. # list of numbers
2. list = [1,2,3,4,5]
3.

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4. listIter = iter(list)
5.
6. # prints '1'
7. print(next(listIter))
8.
9. # prints '2'
10.print(next(listIter))
11.
12.# prints '3'
14.
15.# prints '4'
17.
18.# prints '5'
Output:
Python len() Function
The python len() function is used to return the length (the number of items) of an

object.
Python len() Function Example
1. strA = 'Python'

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2. print(len(strA))
Output:
Python list()
The python list() creates a list in python.
Python list() Example
1. # empty list
2. print(list())
3.
4. # string
5. String = 'abcde'
6. print(list(String))
7.
8. # tuple
9. Tuple = (1,2,3,4,5)
10.print(list(Tuple))
11.# list
12.List = [1,2,3,4,5]
13.print(list(List))
Output:
[]
['a', 'b', 'c', 'd', 'e']
[1,2,3,4,5]
[1,2,3,4,5]
Python locals() Function

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The python locals() method updates and returns the dictionary of the current local
symbol table.
A Symbol table is defined as a data structure which contains all the necessary
information about the program. It includes variable names, methods, classes, etc.
Python locals() Function Example
1. def localsAbsent():
2. return locals()
3.
4. def localsPresent():
5. present = True
6. return locals()
7.
8. print('localsNotPresent:', localsAbsent())
9. print('localsPresent:', localsPresent())
Output:
localsAbsent: {}
localsPresent: {'present': True}
Python map() Function
The python map() function is used to return a list of results after applying a given

function to each item of an iterable(list, tuple etc.).
Python map() Function Example
1. def calculateAddition(n):
2. return n+n
3.
4. numbers = (1, 2, 3, 4)
5. result = map(calculateAddition, numbers)
6. print(result)
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7.
8. # converting map object to set
9. numbersAddition = set(result)
10.print(numbersAddition)
Output:
<map object at 0x7fb04a6bec18>
{8, 2, 4, 6}
Python memoryview() Function
The python memoryview() function returns a memoryview object of the given

argument.
Python memoryview () Function Example
1. #A random bytearray
2. randomByteArray = bytearray('ABC', 'utf-8')
3.
4. mv = memoryview(randomByteArray)
5.
6. # access the memory view's zeroth index
7. print(mv[0])
8.
9. # It create byte from memory view
10.print(bytes(mv[0:2]))
11.
12.# It create list from memory view
13.print(list(mv[0:3]))
Output:
65
b'AB'
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[65, 66, 67]
Python object()
The python object() returns an empty object. It is a base for all the classes and
holds the built-in properties and methods which are default for all the classes.
Python object() Example
1. python = object()
2.
3. print(type(python))
4. print(dir(python))
Output:
<class 'object'>
['__class__', '__delattr__', '__dir__', '__doc__', '__eq__', '__format__', '__ge__',
'__getattribute__', '__gt__', '__hash__', '__init__', '__le__', '__lt__', '__ne__',
'__new__', '__reduce__', '__reduce_ex__', '__repr__', '__setattr__', '__sizeof__',
'__str__', '__subclasshook__']
Python open() Function
The python open() function opens the file and returns a corresponding file object.
Python open() Function Example
1. # opens python.text file of the current directory
2. f = open("python.txt")
3. # specifying full path
4. f = open("C:/Python33/README.txt")

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Output:
Since the mode is omitted, the file is opened in 'r' mode; opens for reading.
Python chr() Function
Python chr() function is used to get a string representing a character which points

to a Unicode code integer. For example, chr(97) returns the string 'a'. This function
takes an integer argument and throws an error if it exceeds the specified range. The
standard range of the argument is from 0 to 1,114,111.
Python chr() Function Example
1. # Calling function
2. result = chr(102) # It returns string representation of a char
3. result2 = chr(112)
4. # Displaying result
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
7. # Verify, is it string type?
8. print("is it string type:", type(result) is str)
Output:
ValueError: chr() arg not in range(0x110000)
Python complex()
Python complex() function is used to convert numbers or string into a complex

number. This method takes two optional parameters and returns a complex
number. The first parameter is called a real and second as imaginary parts.
Python complex() Example
1. # Python complex() function example

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3. a = complex(1) # Passing single parameter
4. b = complex(1,2) # Passing both parameters
6. print(a)
7. print(b)
Output:
(1.5+0j)
(1.5+2.2j)
Python delattr() Function
Python delattr() function is used to delete an attribute from a class. It takes two

parameters, first is an object of the class and second is an attribute which we want
to delete. After deleting the attribute, it no longer available in the class and throws
an error if try to call it using the class object.
Python delattr() Function Example
1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "Pranshu"
4. email = "[email protected]"
5. # Declaring function
6. def getinfo(self):
7. print(self.id, self.name, self.email)
8. s = Student()
9. s.getinfo()
10.delattr(Student,'course') # Removing attribute which is not available
11.s.getinfo() # error: throws an error
Output:
101 Pranshu [email protected]
AttributeError: course

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Python dir() Function
Python dir() function returns the list of names in the current local scope. If the
object on which method is called has a method named __dir__(), this method will
be called and must return the list of attributes. It takes a single object type
argument.
Python dir() Function Example
2. att = dir()
4. print(att)
Output:
['__annotations__', '__builtins__', '__cached__', '__doc__', '__file__', '__loader__',
'__name__', '__package__', '__spec__']
Python divmod() Function
Python divmod() function is used to get remainder and quotient of two numbers.

This function takes two numeric arguments and returns a tuple. Both arguments are
required and numeric
Python divmod() Function Example
1. # Python divmod() function example
3. result = divmod(10,2)
5. print(result)
Output:
(5, 0)

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Python enumerate() Function
Python enumerate() function returns an enumerated object. It takes two

parameters, first is a sequence of elements and the second is the start index of the
sequence. We can get the elements in sequence either through a loop or next()
method.
Python enumerate() Function Example
2. result = enumerate([1,2,3])
4. print(result)
5. print(list(result))
Output:
<enumerate object at 0x7ff641093d80>
[(0, 1), (1, 2), (2, 3)]
Python dict()
Python dict() function is a constructor which creates a dictionary. Python

dictionary provides three different constructors to create a dictionary:
o If no argument is passed, it creates an empty dictionary.

o If a positional argument is given, a dictionary is created with the same key-
value pairs. Otherwise, pass an iterable object.
o If keyword arguments are given, the keyword arguments and their values are
added to the dictionary created from the positional argument.
Python dict() Example
2. result = dict() # returns an empty dictionary
3. result2 = dict(a=1,b=2)
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5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
Output:
{}
{'a': 1, 'b': 2}
Python filter() Function
Python filter() function is used to get filtered elements. This function takes two

arguments, first is a function and the second is iterable. The filter function returns a
sequence of those elements of iterable object for which function returns true
value.
The first argument can be none, if the function is not available and returns only
elements that are true.
Python filter() Function Example
1. # Python filter() function example
2. def filterdata(x):
3. if x>5:
4. return x
6. result = filter(filterdata,(1,2,6))
8. print(list(result))
Output:
[6]

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Python hash() Function
Python hash() function is used to get the hash value of an object. Python calculates

the hash value by using the hash algorithm. The hash values are integers and used
to compare dictionary keys during a dictionary lookup. We can hash only the types
which are given below:
Hashable types: * bool * int * long * float * string * Unicode * tuple * code
object.
Python hash() Function Example
2. result = hash(21) # integer value
3. result2 = hash(22.2) # decimal value
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
Output:
21
461168601842737174
Python help() Function
Python help() function is used to get help related to the object passed during the
call. It takes an optional parameter and returns help information. If no argument is
given, it shows the Python help console. It internally calls python's help function.
Python help() Function Example
2. info = help() # No argument
4. print(info)
Output:

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Welcome to Python 3.5's help utility!
Python min() Function
Python min() function is used to get the smallest element from the collection. This
function takes two arguments, first is a collection of elements and second is key,
and returns the smallest element from the collection.
Python min() Function Example
2. small = min(2225,325,2025) # returns smallest element
3. small2 = min(1000.25,2025.35,5625.36,10052.50)
5. print(small)
6. print(small2)
Output:
325
1000.25
Python set() Function
In python, a set is a built-in class, and this function is a constructor of this class. It
is used to create a new set using elements passed during the call. It takes an iterable
object as an argument and returns a new set object.
Python set() Function Example
2. result = set() # empty set
3. result2 = set('12')
4. result3 = set('javatpoint')
6. print(result)

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7. print(result2)
8. print(result3)
Output:
set()
{'1', '2'}
{'a', 'n', 'v', 't', 'j', 'p', 'i', 'o'}
Python hex() Function
Python hex() function is used to generate hex value of an integer argument. It takes

an integer argument and returns an integer converted into a hexadecimal string. In
case, we want to get a hexadecimal value of a float, then use float.hex() function.
Python hex() Function Example
2. result = hex(1)
3. # integer value
4. result2 = hex(342)
6. print(result)
7. print(result2)
Output:
0x1
0x156
Python id() Function
Python id() function returns the identity of an object. This is an integer which is

guaranteed to be unique. This function takes an argument as an object and returns a

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unique integer number which represents identity. Two objects with non-
overlapping lifetimes may have the same id() value.
Python id() Function Example
2. val = id("Javatpoint") # string object
3. val2 = id(1200) # integer object
4. val3 = id([25,336,95,236,92,3225]) # List object
6. print(val)
7. print(val2)
8. print(val3)
Output:
139963782059696
139963805666864
139963781994504
Python setattr() Function
Python setattr() function is used to set a value to the object's attribute. It takes

three arguments, i.e., an object, a string, and an arbitrary value, and returns none. It
is helpful when we want to add a new attribute to an object and set a value to it.
Python setattr() Function Example
1. class Student:
2. id = 0
3. name = ""
4.
5. def __init__(self, id, name):
6. self.id = id
7. self.name = name
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8.
9. student = Student(102,"Sohan")
10.print(student.id)
11.print(student.name)
12.#print(student.email) product error
13.setattr(student, 'email','[email protected]') # adding new attribute
14.print(student.email)
Output:
102
Sohan
[email protected]
Python slice() Function
Python slice() function is used to get a slice of elements from the collection of

elements. Python provides two overloaded slice functions. The first function takes
a single argument while the second function takes three arguments and returns a
slice object. This slice object can be used to get a subsection of the collection.
Python slice() Function Example
2. result = slice(5) # returns slice object
3. result2 = slice(0,5,3) # returns slice object
5. print(result)
6. print(result2)
Output:
slice(None, 5, None)
slice(0, 5, 3)

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Python sorted() Function
Python sorted() function is used to sort elements. By default, it sorts elements in

an ascending order but can be sorted in descending also. It takes four arguments
and returns a collection in sorted order. In the case of a dictionary, it sorts only
keys, not values.
Python sorted() Function Example
1. str = "javatpoint" # declaring string
3. sorted1 = sorted(str) # sorting string
5. print(sorted1)
Output:
['a', 'a', 'i', 'j', 'n', 'o', 'p', 't', 't', 'v']
Python next() Function
Python next() function is used to fetch next item from the collection. It takes two
arguments, i.e., an iterator and a default value, and returns an element.
This method calls on iterator and throws an error if no item is present. To avoid the
error, we can set a default value.
Python next() Function Example
1. number = iter([256, 32, 82]) # Creating iterator
3. item = next(number)
5. print(item)
6. # second item

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7. item = next(number)
8. print(item)
9. # third item
10.item = next(number)
11.print(item)
Output:
256
32
82
Python input() Function
Python input() function is used to get an input from the user. It prompts for the
user input and reads a line. After reading data, it converts it into a string and
returns it. It throws an error EOFError if EOF is read.
Python input() Function Example
2. val = input("Enter a value: ")
4. print("You entered:",val)
Output:
Enter a value: 45
You entered: 45
Python int() Function

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Python int() function is used to get an integer value. It returns an expression

converted into an integer number. If the argument is a floating-point, the
conversion truncates the number. If the argument is outside the integer range, then
it converts the number into a long type.
If the number is not a number or if a base is given, the number must be a string.
Python int() Function Example
2. val = int(10) # integer value
3. val2 = int(10.52) # float value
4. val3 = int('10') # string value
6. print("integer values :",val, val2, val3)
Output:
integer values : 10 10 10
Python isinstance() Function
Python isinstance() function is used to check whether the given object is an

instance of that class. If the object belongs to the class, it returns true. Otherwise
returns False. It also returns true if the class is a subclass.
The isinstance() function takes two arguments, i.e., object and classinfo, and then
it returns either True or False.
Python isinstance() function Example
1. class Student:
2. id = 101
3. name = "John"
4. def __init__(self, id, name):
5. self.id=id
6. self.name=name

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7.
8. student = Student(1010,"John")
9. lst = [12,34,5,6,767]
10.# Calling function
11.print(isinstance(student, Student)) # isinstance of Student class
12.print(isinstance(lst, Student))
Output:
True
False
Python oct() Function
Python oct() function is used to get an octal value of an integer number. This

method takes an argument and returns an integer converted into an octal string. It
throws an error TypeError, if argument type is other than an integer.
Python oct() function Example
2. val = oct(10)
4. print("Octal value of 10:",val)
Output:
Octal value of 10: 0o12
Python ord() Function
The python ord() function returns an integer representing Unicode code point for

the given Unicode character.
Python ord() function Example

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1. # Code point of an integer
2. print(ord('8'))
3.
4. # Code point of an alphabet
5. print(ord('R'))
6.
7. # Code point of a character
8. print(ord('&'))
Output:
56
82
38
Python pow() Function
The python pow() function is used to compute the power of a number. It returns x

to the power of y. If the third argument(z) is given, it returns x to the power of y
modulus z, i.e. (x, y) % z.
Python pow() function Example
1. # positive x, positive y (x**y)
2. print(pow(4, 2))
3.
4. # negative x, positive y
5. print(pow(-4, 2))
6.
7. # positive x, negative y (x**-y)
8. print(pow(4, -2))
9.
10.# negative x, negative y
11.print(pow(-4, -2))

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Output:
16
16
0.0625
0.0625
Python print() Function
The python print() function prints the given object to the screen or other standard
output devices.
Python print() function Example
1. print("Python is programming language.")
2.
3. x = 7
4. # Two objects passed
5. print("x =", x)
6.
7. y = x
8. # Three objects passed
9. print('x =', x, '= y')
Output:
Python is programming language.
x=7
x=7=y
Python range() Function

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The python range() function returns an immutable sequence of numbers starting

from 0 by default, increments by 1 (by default) and ends at a specified number.
Python range() function Example
1. # empty range
2. print(list(range(0)))
3.
4. # using the range(stop)
5. print(list(range(4)))
6.
7. # using the range(start, stop)
8. print(list(range(1,7 )))
Output:
[]
[0, 1, 2, 3]
[1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6]
Python reversed() Function
The python reversed() function returns the reversed iterator of the given sequence.
Python reversed() function Example
1. # for string
2. String = 'Java'
3. print(list(reversed(String)))
4.
5. # for tuple
6. Tuple = ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
7. print(list(reversed(Tuple)))
8.

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9. # for range
10.Range = range(8, 12)
11.print(list(reversed(Range)))
12.
13.# for list
14.List = [1, 2, 7, 5]
15.print(list(reversed(List)))
Output:
['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']
['a', 'v', 'a', 'J']
[11, 10, 9, 8]
[5, 7, 2, 1]
Python round() Function
The python round() function rounds off the digits of a number and returns the
floating point number.
Python round() Function Example
1. # for integers
2. print(round(10))
3.
4. # for floating point
5. print(round(10.8))
6.
7. # even choice
8. print(round(6.6))
Output:
10
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11
Python issubclass() Function
The python issubclass() function returns true if object argument(first argument) is

a subclass of second class(second argument).
Python issubclass() Function Example
1. class Rectangle:
2. def __init__(rectangleType):
3. print('Rectangle is a ', rectangleType)
4.
5. class Square(Rectangle):
6. def __init__(self):
7. Rectangle.__init__('square')
8.
9. print(issubclass(Square, Rectangle))
10.print(issubclass(Square, list))
11.print(issubclass(Square, (list, Rectangle)))
12.print(issubclass(Rectangle, (list, Rectangle)))
Output:
True
False
True
True
Python str
The python str() converts a specified value into a string.

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Python str() Function Example
1. str('4')
Output:
'4'
Python tuple() Function
The python tuple() function is used to create a tuple object.
Python tuple() Function Example
1. t1 = tuple()
2. print('t1=', t1)
3.
4. # creating a tuple from a list
5. t2 = tuple([1, 6, 9])
6. print('t2=', t2)
7.
8. # creating a tuple from a string
9. t1 = tuple('Java')
10.print('t1=',t1)
11.
12.# creating a tuple from a dictionary
13.t1 = tuple({4: 'four', 5: 'five'})
14.print('t1=',t1)
Output:
t1= ()
t2= (1, 6, 9)
t1= ('J', 'a', 'v', 'a')
t1= (4, 5)

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Python type()
The python type() returns the type of the specified object if a single argument is

passed to the type() built in function. If three arguments are passed, then it returns
a new type object.
Python type() Function Example
1. List = [4, 5]
2. print(type(List))
3.
4. Dict = {4: 'four', 5: 'five'}
5. print(type(Dict))
6.
7. class Python:
8. a = 0
9.
10.InstanceOfPython = Python()
11.print(type(InstanceOfPython))
Output:
<class 'list'>
<class 'dict'>
<class '__main__.Python'>
Python vars() function
The python vars() function returns the __dict__ attribute of the given object.
Python vars() Function Example
1. class Python:
2. def __init__(self, x = 7, y = 9):
3. self.x = x

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4. self.y = y
5.
6. InstanceOfPython = Python()
7. print(vars(InstanceOfPython))
Output:
{'y': 9, 'x': 7}
Python zip() Function
The python zip() Function returns a zip object, which maps a similar index of

multiple containers. It takes iterables (can be zero or more), makes it an iterator
that aggregates the elements based on iterables passed, and returns an iterator of
tuples.
Python zip() Function Example
1. numList = [4,5, 6]
2. strList = ['four', 'five', 'six']
3.
4. # No iterables are passed
5. result = zip()
6.
7. # Converting itertor to list
8. resultList = list(result)
9. print(resultList)
10.
11.# Two iterables are passed
12.result = zip(numList, strList)
13.
14.# Converting itertor to set
15.resultSet = set(result)
16.print(resultSet)

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Output:
[]
{(5, 'five'), (4, 'four'), (6, 'six')}
Function Composition in Python
Function composition is the way of combining two or more functions in

such a way that the output of one function becomes the input of the second
function and so on. For example, let there be two functions “F” and “G” and their
composition can be represented as F(G(x)) where “x” is the argument and output
of G(x) function will become the input of F() function.
Example:
# Function to add 2
# to a number
def add(x):
return x + 2
# Function to multiply
# 2 to a number
def multiply(x):
return x * 2
# Printing the result of
# composition of add and

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# multiply to add 2 to a number
# and then multiply by 2
print("Adding 2 to 5 and multiplying the result with 2: ",
multiply(add(5)))
Output:
Adding 2 to 5 and multiplying the result with 2: 14
Explanation
First the add() function is called on input 5. The add() adds 2 to the input and the
output which is 7, is given as the input to multiply() which multiplies it by 2 and
the output is 14
Better way to implement composition
There is a better way to implement the composition of Function. We can create a
special function which can combine any two functions.
# Function to combine two
# function which it accepts
# as argument
def composite_function(f, g):
return lambda x : f(g(x))
# Function to add 2
def add(x):

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return x + 2

# Function to multiply 2
def multiply(x):
return x * 2
# Composite function returns
# a lambda function. Here add_multiply
# will store lambda x : multiply(add(x))
add_multiply = composite_function(multiply, add)
print("Adding 2 to 5 and multiplying the result with 2: ",
add_multiply(5))
Output:
Adding 2 to 5 and multiplying the result with 2: 14
Composing N number of function
We can compose any number of function by modifying the above method.
# Function to combine two
# function which it accepts

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# as argument
def composite_function(f, g):
# Function to add 2
def add(x):
return x + 2
def multiply(x):
return x * 2
# Function to subtract 2
def subtract(x):
return x - 1
# Composite function returns
# a lambda function. Here
# add_subtract_multiply will
# store lambda x : multiply(subtract(add(x)))
add_subtract_multiply = composite_function(composite_function(multiply,

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subtract),
add)
print("Adding 2 to 5, then subtracting 1 and multiplying the result with 2: ",
add_subtract_multiply(5))
Output:
Adding 2 to 5, then subtracting 1 and multiplying the result with 2: 12
Now we will modify our composite_function to a function that can compose any
number of function instead of two by using reduce() function from functools
library.
# importing reduce() from functools
from functools import reduce
# composite_function accepts N
# number of function as an
# argument and then compose them
def composite_function(*func):
def compose(f, g):
return reduce(compose, func, lambda x : x)

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# Function to add 2
def add(x):
return x + 2

def multiply(x):
return x * 2
# Function to subtract 2
def subtract(x):
return x - 1
# Here add_subtract_multiply will
# store lambda x : multiply(subtract(add(x)))
add_subtract_multiply = composite_function(multiply,
subtract,
add)
print("Adding 2 to 5, then subtracting 1 and multiplying the result with 2: ",
add_subtract_multiply(5))
Output:
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Adding 2 to 5, then subtracting 1 and multiplying the result with 2: 12

Explanation
The reduce() function is taking first two function from *func and composing
them using compose() and then composing the third function to the previous
composed function and so on. Here the multiply() and subtract() is composed first
(multiply(subtract(x)) and then add() is composed (multiply(subtract(add(x))).
Compositions of Functions
Consider functions, f: A → B and g: B → C. The composition of f with g is a function fro

= g [f(x)] and is defined by gof.
To find the composition of f and g, first find the image of x under f and then find the im
Example1:
1. Let X = {1, 2, 3}
2. Y = {a, b}
3. Z = {5, 6, 7}.
Consider the function f = {(1, a), (2, a), (3, b)} and g = {(a, 5), (b, 7)} as in figure.
Find the composition of gof.
Solution: The composition function gof is shown in fig:

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(gof) (1) = g [f (1)] = g (a) = 5, (gof) (2) = g [f (2)] = g (a) = 5
(gof) (3) = g [f (3)] = g (b) = 7.
Example2: Consider f, g and h, all functions on the integers, by f (n) =n2,
g (n) = n + 1 and h (n) = n - 1.
Determine (i) hofog (ii) gofoh (iii) fogoh.
Solution:
(i) hofog (n) = n + 1,
hofog (n + 1) = (n+1)2
h [(n+1)2 ] = (n+1)2 - 1 = n2 + 1 + 2n - 1 = n2 + 2n.
(ii) gofoh (n) = n - 1, gof (n - 1) = (n-1)2
g [(n-1)2 ] = (n-1)2 + 1 = n2 + 1 - 2n + 1 = n2 - 2n + 2.
(iii) fogoh (n) = n - 1
fog (n - 1) = (n - 1) + 1
f (n) = n2.

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Note:
o If f and g are one-to-one, then the function (gof) (gof) is also one-to-one.
o If f and g are onto then the function (gof) (gof) is also onto.
o Composition consistently holds associative property but does not hold commutative
Arguments and Parameters in Python

Be it any programming language, Arguments and Parameters are the two words
that cause a lot of confusion to programmers. Sometimes, these two words are used
interchangeably, but actually, they have two different yet similar meanings. This
tutorial explains the differences between these two words and dives deep into the
concepts with examples.
Both arguments and parameters are variables/ constants passed into a function. The
difference is that:
1. Arguments are the variables passed to the function in the function call.
2. Parameters are the variables used in the function definition.
3. The number of arguments and parameters should always be equal except for
the variable length argument list.
Example:
1. def add_func(a,b):
2. sum = a + b
3. return sum
4. num1 = int(input("Enter the value of the first number: "))
5. num2 = int(input("Enter the value of the second number: "))
6. print("Sum of two numbers: ",add_func(num1, num2))

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Output:
Enter the value of the first number: 5
Enter the value of the second number: 2
Sum of two numbers: 7
Points to grasp from the Example:

1. (num1, num2) are in the function call, and (a, b) are in the function
definition.
2. (num1, num2) are arguments and (a, b) are parameters.
Mechanism:
Observe that in the above example, num1 and num2 are the values in the function
call with which we called the function. When the function is invoked, a and b are
replaced with num1 and num2, the operation is performed on the arguments, and
the result is returned.
Functions are written to avoid writing frequently used logic again and again. To
write a general logic, we use some variables, which are parameters. They belong
to the function definition. When we need the function while writing our program,
we need to apply the function logic on the variables we used in our program, called
the arguments. We then call the function with the arguments.
Types of Arguments:
Based on how we pass arguments to parameters, arguments are of two types:
1. Positional arguments
2. Keyword arguments
o Given some parameters, if the respective arguments are passed in order one

after the other, those arguments are called the "Positional arguments."
o If the arguments are passed by assigning them to their respective parameters
in the function call with no significance to the passing order, they are called
"Keyword arguments".

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Example:
1. def details(name, age, grade):
2. print("Details of student:", name)
3. print("age: ", age)
4. print("grade: ", grade)
5. details("Raghav", 12, 6)
6. details("Santhosh", grade = 6, age = 12)
Output:
Details of student: Raghav
age: 12
grade: 6
Details of student: Santhosh
age: 12
grade: 6
Points to grasp from the Example:
First Function Call:
o The function has three parameters-name, age and grade. So, it accepts three
arguments.
o In the first function call:
1. details("Raghav", 12, 6)
The arguments are passed position-wise to the parameters, which mean according

to the passed order:
o name is replaced with "Raghav."

o age is replaced with 12 and
o grade is replaced with 6
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o In the first function call, the order of passing the arguments matter. The
parameters accept the arguments in the given order only.
o In the Second Function Call:
1. details("Santhosh", grade = 6, age = 12)
Here, the first argument, "Santhosh", is passed based on its position to name, and
the next two arguments are passed by assignment to their respective parameters. As
you can observe, here, the position didn't matter.
Important Point:
o Keyword arguments must always follow positional arguments. If not,
Python will raise a syntax error:
If we write: details("Santhosh", age = 6, 12)
1. details("Santhosh", age = 6, 12)
2. ^
3. SyntaxError: positional argument follows keyword argument
Call by Value and Call by Reference:
This is the most important concept on arguments and parameters. Based on the
type of arguments passed to the parameters, there are two methods of invoking/
calling functions-Call by value and Call by reference.
When the values of arguments are passed into parameters in the function, the
values are copied into parameters. This method is called "Call by value".
In this method, arguments and parameters are different and are stored in different
memory locations.
o Changes done on parameters inside the function do not affect the arguments
in the program and vice versa.
o Java functions/ methods follow only Call by value.
When the addresses of the arguments are passed into parameters instead of values,
this method of invoking a function is called "Call by Reference".

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o Both the arguments and parameters refer to the same memory location.
o Changes to the parameters (pointers) will affect the values of the arguments
in the program.
o By default, C language follows Call by value, but using the indirection
operator and pointers; we can simulate Call by reference.
Which Method does Python Follow?
Python doesn't use Call by value or Call by reference. It follows a method called
"Call by assignment". In Python, every single entity is an object. Objects are
divided into Mutable and Immutable objects. What happens in Python when we
assign a value to a variable is different from other low-level languages like C or
Java.
Suppose, in the statement:
a = 20
a is the variable, and 20 is the value assigned. Here in a memory location, 20 is

saved, and a is the name we're giving to the reference we're making to the memory
location. Now, if we say:
a = 21
The name stops referring to the memory location with 20 and starts to refer to
another memory location with 21.
In other languages like C, variables are the memory locations that store the values.
Example:
In C:
1. #include<stdio.h>
2. int main()
3. {
4. int a;
5. a = 20;
6. printf("%p", (void*)&a);

PYTHON
7. a = 22;
8. printf("\n%p", (void*)&a);
9. }
Output:
000000000062FE1C
000000000062FE1C
In Python:
1. a = 20
2. print(id(a))
3. a = 21
4. print(id(a))
Output:
140714950863232
140714950863264
o As you can observe: In C, after reassigning the value, the variable is still in
the same memory location, while in Python, it refers to a different memory
location. (id -> address in Python).
o But that's not all. There are other types of objects too.
Now comes the concept of Mutable and Immutable objects in Python.
Mutable and Immutable Objects in Python:

1. Mutable objects are those objects/ data types in Python that we can modify
after creating them Ex: Lists, Dictionaries, Sets
2. Immutable objects, on the other hand, are objects that can't be modified once
created. Ex: int, float, strings, tuples
Example:

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Mutable Objects:
1. a = [23, 45, 89]
2. print(id(a))
3. a.append(49)
4. print(id(a))
Output:
2253724439168
2253724439168
Understanding:
A list is immutable, which means we can alter or modify it after creating it. As you
can observe, when created with the name a, it is saved in the address
"2253724439168". Using append(), we altered it by appending another value. It is
still in the same memory location, meaning the same object is modified.
Immutable Objects:
1. a = 20
2. print(id(a))
3. a += 23
4. print(id(a))
Output:
140714950863232
140714950863968
Understanding:
This is the case we discussed before in the tutorial. An int object is immutable,
meaning we can't modify it once created. You might wonder we still added 23 in
the above code. Observe that the object when created is not the same object after
adding. Both are in different memory locations which means they are different
objects.
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So, how are arguments passed to the parameters when a function is invoked?
With all the knowledge about assignment operation in Python:
1. The passing is like a "Call by Reference" if the arguments are mutable.

2. The passing is like "Call by Value" if the arguments are immutable.
Example:
1. def details(name, age, grade, marks):
2. marks.append(26)
3. name += " Styles"
4. print("Details of the student: ")
5. print("name: ",name)
6. print("age: ",age)
7. print("grade: ", grade)
8. print("marks: ", marks)
9. name = "Harry"
10.age = 15
11.grade = 10
12.marks = [25, 29, 21, 30]
13.details (name, age, grade, marks)
14.print(grade)
15.print(marks)
Output:
Details of the student:
name: Harry Styles
age: 15
grade: 10
marks: [25, 29, 2F1, 30, 26]
10

PYTHON
[25, 29, 21, 30, 26]
Understanding:
The function accepts 4 arguments. Notice the arguments grade and marks. grade

is an integer value which means it is immutable. Hence, once created, we can't
modify it. It follows "Call by Value". As we discussed earlier in the tutorial, when
following Call by reference, "Changes done on the parameters (pointers) will
not affect the values of the arguments in the program". Hence, the original
value of grade in the program is not modified after concatenating the string in the
function definition.
In the case of marks, it is a list and is mutable. So, it follows "Call by Reference,"
which means, "Changes done on the parameters (pointers) will affect the
values of the arguments in the program". Hence, the change is reflected in the
original program after appending the list in the function definition.
Calling a Function
A function is defined by using the def keyword and giving it a name, specifying
the arguments that must be passed to the function, and structuring the code block.
After a function's fundamental framework is complete, we can call it from

anywhere in the program. The following is an example of how to use the
a_function function.
Code
1. # Defining a function
2. def a_function( string ):
3. "This prints the value of length of string"
4. return len(string)
5.
6. # Calling the function we defined
7. print( "Length of the string Functions is: ", a_function( "Functions" ) )
8. print( "Length of the string Python is: ", a_function( "Python" ) )

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Output:
Length of the string Functions is: 9

Length of the string Python is: 6
How to call a function in Python?
As we know, functions are the block of statements used to perform some

specific tasks in programming. It also helps to break the large group of code into
smaller chunks or modules. Functions can be called anywhere and the number of
times in a program. It allows us to reuse the code by simply calling the particular
function or block in a program. Thus, it avoids the repetition of the same code. We
can define functions inside the class, modules, nested functions, etc.
Features of Functions
Following are the features of Python Functions:
1. It is used to avoid repetitions of code.

2. Using the function, we can divide a group of code into smaller modules.
3. It helps to hide the code and create clarity to understand the modules.
4. It allows code to be reusable, thus saving memory.
5. Statements written inside a function can only be executed with a function
name.
6. Python function starts with def and then a colon (:) followed by the function
name.
Rules for defining a function

1. The def keyword is used in the Python function to declare and define a
function.
2. The function name must begin with the following identifiers such as: A-Z, a-
z, and underscore (_).
3. Every function must follow colon (:) and then indention to write the
program.

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4. In a Python function, the reserved word cannot be used as a function name

or identifier.
5. In Python, the function parameter can be empty or multiples.
Create a function in Python
To create a function, we need to use a def keyword to declare or write a function in

Python. Here is the syntax for creating a function:
Syntax
1. def function_name(): # use def keyword to define the function
2. Statement to be executed
3. return statement # return a single value.
Let's create a function program in Python.
Myfun.py
1. def myFun(): # define function name
2. print(" Welcome to JavaTpoint")
3. myFun() # call to print the statement
Output:
Welcome to JavaTpoint
Function Calling in Python
Once a function is created in Python, we can call it by

writing function_name() itself or another function/ nested function. Following is
the syntax for calling a function.
Syntax:
1. def function_name():
2. Statement1
3. function_name() # directly call the function
4.

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5. # calling function using built-in function
6. def function_name():
7. str = function_name('john') # assign the function to call the function
8. print(str) # print the statement
Consider the following example to print the Welcome Message using a function in
Python.
CallFun.py
1. def MyFun():
2. print("Hello World")
3. print(" Welcome to the JavaTpoint")
4.
5. MyFun() # Call Function to print the message.
Output:
Hello World
Welcome to the JavaTpoint
Python return statement

Introduction
The Python return statement is used to return a value from a function. The user can
only use the return statement in a function. It cannot be used outside of the Python
function. A return statement includes the return keyword and the value that will be
returned after that.
Syntax of return statement:

1. def funtion_name():
2. statements
3. .
4. .

PYTHON
5. .
6. return [expression]
Program 1
1. def adding(x, y):
2. i = x + y
3. return i
4. result = adding(16, 25)
5. print(f'Output of adding(16, 25) function is {result}')
Output
Program 2(a, b):
1. # this function is return the value of (a + b)
2. return a + b
3. def boolean_function(a):
4. # this function is return the Boolean value
5. return bool(a)
6. # calling function
7. flag = adding(2, 3)
8. print("Output of first function is {}".format(flag))
9. flag = boolean_function(9 < 5)

PYTHON
10.print("\nOutput of second function is {}".format(flag))
Output.
Returning Multiple Values
In the Python programming language, a user can return multiple values from a
function. The following are the various methods for this.
1. Using Object: This method is similar to C / C ++ and Java. A user can create a

class to hold multiple values in a function and return an object of that class.
1. class a:
2. def __init__(self):
3. self.omg = "javatpoint is the best website to learn"
4. self.i = 122
5. # This function will return an object of the class a
6. def test():
7. return a()
8. # Driver code to test the above method

PYTHON
9. z = test()
10.print(z.omg)
11.print(z.i)
Output
Recursion in Python
The term Recursion can be defined as the process of defining something in terms

of itself. In simple words, it is a process in which a function calls itself directly or
indirectly.

Advantages of using recursion
 A complicated function can be split down into smaller sub-problems utilizing
recursion.
PYTHON
 Sequence creation is simpler through recursion than utilizing any nested

iteration.
 Recursive functions render the code look simple and effective.
Disadvantages of using recursion
 A lot of memory and time is taken through recursive calls which makes it
expensive for use.
 Recursive functions are challenging to debug.
 The reasoning behind recursion can sometimes be tough to think through.
Syntax:
def func(): <--
|
| (recursive call)
|
func() ----
Example 1: A Fibonacci sequence is the integer sequence of 0, 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8….
 Python3
# Program to print the fibonacci series upto n_terms
# Recursive function
def recursive_fibonacci(n):
if n <= 1:
return n
else:
return(recursive_fibonacci(n-1) + recursive_fibonacci(n-2))
n_terms = 10

PYTHON
# check if the number of terms is valid
if n_terms <= 0:
print("Invalid input ! Please input a positive value")
else:
print("Fibonacci series:")
for i in range(n_terms):
print(recursive_fibonacci(i))
Output
Fibonacci series:
0
1
1
2
3
5
8
13
21
34
Example 2: The factorial of 6 is denoted as 6! = 1*2*3*4*5*6 = 720.
 Python3

PYTHON
# Program to print factorial of a number
# recursively.
# Recursive function
def recursive_factorial(n):
if n == 1:
return n
else:
return n * recursive_factorial(n-1)
# user input
num = 6
# check if the input is valid or not
if num < 0:
print("Invalid input ! Please enter a positive number.")
elif num == 0:
print("Factorial of number 0 is 1")
else:

PYTHON
print("Factorial of number", num, "=", recursive_factorial(num))
Output
Factorial of number 6 = 720
The Anonymous Functions
Lambda Functions in Python are anonymous functions, implying they don't have a
name. The def keyword is needed to create a typical function in Python, as we
already know. We can also use the lambda keyword in Python to define an
unnamed function.
Syntax of Python Lambda Function

1. lambda arguments: expression
This function accepts any count of inputs but only evaluates and returns one
expression.
Lambda functions can be used whenever function arguments are necessary. In

addition to other forms of formulations in functions, it has a variety of applications
in certain coding domains. It's important to remember that according to syntax,
lambda functions are limited to a single statement.
Example of Lambda Function in Python
An example of a lambda function that adds 4 to the input number is shown below.
Code
1. # Code to demonstrate how we can use a lambda function
2. add = lambda num: num + 4
3. print( add(6) )
Output:
PYTHON
10
The lambda function is "lambda num: num+4" in the given programme. The
parameter is num, and the computed and returned equation is num * 4.
There is no label for this function. It generates a function object associated with the
"add" identifier. We can now refer to it as a standard function. The lambda
statement, "lambda num: num+4", is nearly the same as:
Code
1. def add( num ):
2. return num + 4
3. print( add(6) )
Output:
10
What's the Distinction Between Lambda and Def Functions?
Let's glance at this instance to see how a conventional def defined function differs
from a function defined using the lambda keyword. This program calculates the
reciprocal of a given number:
Code
1. # Python code to show the reciprocal of the given number to highlight the differenc
e between def() and lambda().
2. def reciprocal( num ):
3. return 1 / num
4.
5. lambda_reciprocal = lambda num: 1 / num
6.
7. # using the function defined by def keyword
8. print( "Def keyword: ", reciprocal(6) )
9.
10.# using the function defined by lambda keyword

PYTHON
11.print( "Lambda keyword: ", lambda_reciprocal(6) )
Output:
Def keyword: 0.16666666666666666
Lambda keyword: 0.16666666666666666
Using Lambda Function with filter()
The filter() method accepts two arguments in Python: a function and an iterable
such as a list.
The function is called for every item of the list, and a new iterable or list is
returned that holds just those elements that returned True when supplied to the
function.
Here's a simple illustration of using the filter() method to return only odd numbers
from a list.
Code
1. # Code to filter odd numbers from a given list
2. list_ = [34, 12, 64, 55, 75, 13, 63]
3.
4. odd_list = list(filter( lambda num: (num % 2 != 0) , list_ ))
5.
6. print(odd_list)
Output:
[55, 75, 13, 63]
Using Lambda Function with map()
A method and a list are passed to Python's map() function.
The function is executed for all of the elements within the list, and a new list is
produced with elements generated by the given function for every item.

PYTHON
The map() method is used to square all the entries in a list in this example.
Code
1. #Code to calculate the square of each number of a list using the map() function
2.
3. numbers_list = [2, 4, 5, 1, 3, 7, 8, 9, 10]
4.
5. squared_list = list(map( lambda num: num ** 2 , numbers_list ))
6.
7. print( squared_list )
Output:
[4, 16, 25, 1, 9, 49, 64, 81, 100]
Using Lambda Function with List Comprehension
We'll apply the lambda function combined with list comprehension and lambda
keyword with a for loop in this instance. We'll attempt to print the square of
numbers in the range 0 to 11.
Code
1. #Code to calculate square of each number of list using list comprehension
2. squares = [lambda num = num: num ** 2 for num in range(0, 11)]
3.
4. for square in squares:
5. print( square(), end = " ")
Output:
0 1 4 9 16 25 36 49 64 81 100
Using Lambda Function with if-else
We will use the lambda function with the if-else block.
Code

PYTHON
1. # Code to use lambda function with if-else
2. Minimum = lambda x, y : x if (x < y) else y
3.
4. print(Minimum( 35, 74 ))
Output:
35
Using Lambda with Multiple Statements
Multiple expressions are not allowed in lambda functions, but we can construct 2
lambda functions or more and afterward call the second lambda expression as an
argument to the first. Let's use lambda to discover the third maximum element.
Code
1. # Code to print the third-largest number of the given list using the lambda function
2.
3. my_List = [ [3, 5, 8, 6], [23, 54, 12, 87], [1, 2, 4, 12, 5] ]
4.
5. # sorting every sublist of the above list
6. sort_List = lambda num : ( sorted(n) for n in num )
7.
8. # Getting the third largest number of the sublist
9. third_Largest = lambda num, func : [ l[ len(l) - 2] for l in func(num)]
10.result = third_Largest( my_List, sort_List)
11.
12.print( result )
Output:
[6, 54, 5]

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E Balagurusamy(2017), Problem Solving and Python Programming, McGraw Hill

abs() Returns the absolute value of a number

all() Returns True if all items in an iterable object are true

any() Returns True if any item in an iterable object is true

ascii() Returns a readable version of an object. Replaces none-ascii

bin() Returns the binary version of a number

bool() Returns the boolean value of the specified object

R.NISHA M.Sc,M.Phil,B.Ed Page 1

bytearray() Returns an array of bytes

bytes() Returns a bytes object

callable() Returns True if the specified object is callable, otherwise False

chr() Returns a character from the specified Unicode code.

classmethod() Converts a method into a class method

compile() Returns the specified source as an object, ready to be executed

complex() Returns a complex number

delattr() Deletes the specified attribute (property or method) from the

dict() Returns a dictionary (Array)

dir() Returns a list of the specified object's properties and methods

R.NISHA M.Sc,M.Phil,B.Ed Page 2

enumerate() Takes a collection (e.g. a tuple) and returns it as an enumerate

eval() Evaluates and executes an expression

exec() Executes the specified code (or object)

filter() Use a filter function to exclude items in an iterable object

float() Returns a floating point number

format() Formats a specified value

frozenset() Returns a frozenset object

getattr() Returns the value of the specified attribute (property or method)

R.NISHA M.Sc,M.Phil,B.Ed Page 3

globals() Returns the current global symbol table as a dictionary

hash() Returns the hash value of a specified object

help() Executes the built-in help system

hex() Converts a number into a hexadecimal value

id() Returns the id of an object

input() Allowing user input

int() Returns an integer number

isinstance() Returns True if a specified object is an instance of a specified

issubclass() Returns True if a specified class is a subclass of a specified object

R.NISHA M.Sc,M.Phil,B.Ed Page 4

iter() Returns an iterator object

len() Returns the length of an object

list() Returns a list

locals() Returns an updated dictionary of the current local symbol table

max() Returns the largest item in an iterable

memoryview() Returns a memory view object

min() Returns the smallest item in an iterable

next() Returns the next item in an iterable

object() Returns a new object

oct() Converts a number into an octal

R.NISHA M.Sc,M.Phil,B.Ed Page 5

open() Opens a file and returns a file object

pow() Return the value of x to the power of y

print() Prints to the standard output device

property() Gets, sets, deletes a property

range() Returns a sequence of numbers, starting from 0 and increments by

repr() Returns a readable version of an object

reversed() Returns a reversed iterator

round() Rounds a numbers

set() Returns a new set object

setattr() Sets an attribute (property/method) of an object

R.NISHA M.Sc,M.Phil,B.Ed Page 6

sorted() Returns a sorted list

staticmethod() Converts a method into a static method

str() Returns a string object

sum() Sums the items of an iterator

super() Returns an object that represents the parent class

tuple() Returns a tuple

type() Returns the type of an object

vars() Returns the __dict__ property of an object

zip() Returns an iterator, from two or more iterators

Python Built-in Functions

R.NISHA M.Sc,M.Phil,B.Ed Page 7

Python abs() Function

The python abs() function is used to return the absolute value of a number. It takes

Python abs() Function Example

Absolute value of -20 is: 20

vars() Returns the dict property of an object