MODULE 1: MATHEMATICS IN OUR WORLD

M1.1: Mathematics in Daily Life

Mathematics is an essential subject in this modern world even if it is the most widely disliked subject. It
is an essential subject that every individual must know. You encounter it in most of your daily routines, like when
riding a jeepney, paying tuition fees, budgeting allowances, and other activities that you usually do. Regardless
of your status in life, you will always find Math in it, whether you are a doctor, a businessman, an accountant, a
teacher, or a carpenter. Therefore, possessing simple and basic analytical skills is a must to survive the world.

Through Math, unconsciously, your critical thinking improves as well as your abilities to solve problems
from simple to complex manners. You can work better in Math if you continuously collaborate with your peers.
You can also find other techniques that you may adopt and add to your list.

Many students hate Math because it is difficult to understand, the numbers are big, there are a lot of
operations, so many formulas to memorize, there are a lot of variables that they don’t know when to apply it in
their daily lives.

But before we go into the details of the number of useful benefits of Mathematics to each one of us, let’s
take a look at first the expert’s definition of the subject.

What really is Mathematics? If you read different books, different dictionaries and you will search what
Math is, you will probably get a dozen more answers. But the common denominator is Math is an art, it is a
language; it is a study of patterns, it is a set of problem-solving tools and Math is a process of thinking.

Yes, mathematics is a language, meaning basic mathematical concepts are followed in almost every
aspect of life. Let’s take a look at the following situations:

Situation 1: Construction projects

Every construction project uses Math. What are those applications of Mathematics that are applied here?
Preparing budgets, taking measurements, estimating the cost and profit, arithmetic calculations, trigonometry,
geometry, calculus and statistics.

Situation 2: Buying at the grocery/supermarket or cooking

It is in the grocery store or the supermarket that you see strategies like: “Buy one, Take one”, “50% off”
and the like. When customers see these schemes, they will surely get their calculator and compute for the
discount. In your kitchen also, when you are cooking there are steps to be followed, proportions of different
ingredients and many more. These are the Mathematics for this situation: ratios and proportions, percentage,
algebra and mathematical operations.

Situation 3: Fashion designing or Interior designing

Math is also an essential concept in fashion designing. When you take measurements, choosing a color
for a certain design, estimating the quantity of cloth to be used, you are using mathematical operations.

Same way with the interior designing. Estimating budgets, planning the area and volume, and estimating
the proper layout of a certain room you are using Math. Geometry, percentage, ratio, mathematical operations,
calculus and statistics are used here.

These are just some of the situations in our lives that we used Math. Whether you are promoting a product
online, listening to music and dancing, weather forecasting, playing video games, conducting any major surgery,
keeping the records of patients with Covid-19 in different hospitals, planning a trip abroad, manufacturing cars,
driving, managing time, budgeting and doing research. All these have to deal with Mathematics in one way or
another.

Indeed, Mathematics plays an important role in our lives. Man will not survive without it. It is really
imperative on our part that we must learn to love Math. Learning to love Math starts from understanding the
nature of it, its meaning, its uses, who uses it, and its application in our daily life.

Now, during the community quarantine, where everyone is in their respective homes, it seems that one
may have picked up a new hobby. Trending during these uncertain times are cooking, baking or gardening. If
you are into gardening, the terms “plantita”, “plantito”, “plantmama”, whatever you call it, refers to a plant lover.
Are you one of them? Or anyone in your family plant lovers? Many turned into gardening because experts say
that gardening is a great stress reliever, it can lessen anxiety too and can surely benefit our mental health.
Succulents and cacti are two of the favorites of plant lovers.

Do you know that there is mathematics behind those cacti or succulent plants? Let’s take a look at first
the difference between the two.

Succulents are plants having fleshy tissues that conserve moisture. Cacti are part of the succulent plants
because they are fleshy plants that store water. Hence, all cacti are succulents but there are succulents which
are not cacti.

Clearly, you can see geometry on the cacti and the succulents. Through the thorns and bristles of the
cacti, you can find helixes. Helixes means spirals. You can also look down on the arrangement of its ribs and
you will surely see spirals.

M1.2: Exploring Fibonacci Sequence

An Italian mathematician in the names of Leonardo

Bonacci, Leonardo of Pisa, or Leonardo Bigollo Pisano is one
of the keenest observers among known mathematicians. With the
nickname Fibonacci which means “Son of Bonacci”, he observed
a sequence on the growing populace of rabbits.

His discovery started with a simple pondered question:

Given optimal conditions, how many pairs of rabbits can be
produced from a single pair of rabbits in one year? From this, he
formed a sequence of a pattern of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8…which
was named after him as a Fibonacci sequence. He introduced this
idea in his book Liber Abaci in 1202.

Consequently, Fibonacci studied this special

sequence of numbers 1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8,….with a different rule of
determining the next number in the sequence. Do you know
this rule? Yes, you can calculate each successive number
from the sum of the previous two. What are the next three
terms of the given sequence after the number 8? We have, 13
(5 + 8), 21 (8 + 13), and 35 (13 + 21).
 How about the Golden Ratio? What is it? And how is it related to the Fibonacci sequence?

There are different names for the Golden Ratio. It

can be Golden Mean, Golden Section, or Divine
Proportion. This Golden Ratio exists when a specific line is
divided into two parts. One part is length a, which is the larger
part, and the other is b which is the smaller part. Take note
that the total length of this line is a + b.

Now, the lengths of a and b are chosen in a very

specific way so that the ratio of a + b to a and the ratio of a
to b are equal. Mathematically speaking, we have the
following equation:

Simplifying (1), we have

Equation (2) can be interpreted mathematically as the larger part of the geometric
mean of the smaller part and the whole.

Simplifying (3), we obtain

𝑎 𝑏 1
If we let 𝑥 = in (4), then = 𝑥− = . Hence (4) becomes,
𝑏 𝑎 𝑥

Simplifying (5), we get

Equation (7) is a quadratic equation. You can either use factoring (if it is factorable), quadratic formula,
or completing the square in solving this type of equation. Since equation (7) is not factorable, we will use either
the quadratic formula or completing the square. Either of the two will get the same values of x which are:

We will only take the positive root of equation (7), thus, the one that we are looking for is the value of
𝑥1 = 1.618033988875. Therefore, the golden ratio, which is denoted by the Greek letter “phi” is 𝜙 = 1+2
√5
≈
1.618.

Let us determine how the Fibonacci sequence relates to the golden ratio. Let us go back to the sequence:
1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55….
 Let us now get the ratios of the successive pair of numbers in the sequence. Hence,

Observe that the ratio from each successive pair of numbers in the
Fibonacci sequence, it will get closer and closer to the Golden ratio. Now, this
Golden ratio has many applications. From beauty, arts, architecture, logos, shapes
(in particular rectangle), flowers, ferns, seashells, hurricanes, plants, some fruits
and vegetables and a lot more. With this, it is really worth noting that there were
really patterns in nature which can be related to mathematics. If one is only eager
to know, who knows you might discover another pattern that is again related to
mathematics in nature.

Fibonacci's discovery of a sequence of number patterns made a major

contribution to mathematics. His discovery paved the way for other observations
of patterns. Among the patterns they had noticed were symmetries, trees, spirals,
meanders, waves, foams, tessellations, cracks, and stripes. One thing in common
about these patterns is that they all possess the Fibonacci sequence pattern.
Worth noting here is that there are indeed patterns in nature that can be related to
mathematics.

MODULE 2: THE LANGUAGE OF MATHEMATICS

In Module 2, we will study mathematics as a language. Is Math a language? Why do you say so? Human
beings communicate either through words or actions. In mathematics, we can also communicate through
symbols or sentences written in mathematical symbols. Thus, mathematics can be considered as a language
since it has its form on how to deliver messages. The messages can be written through equations. Equations
are considered as complete sentences since they have all the components needed such as verbs that are
represented by operations, and adjectives that describe the units like nouns. The equations need to have an
equality sign. It serves as the linking verb between phrases.

In Mathematics, if the sentences do not express a complete thought, it is regarded as expressions. An

expression is only a part of the complete sentence which can be compared in English as the phrase.

In writing mathematical sentences, sometimes we may need to symbolize conditions like value or
changing value. We then use letters also known as variables to represent such conditions.
If we want to determine the variables of the expressions, we then substitute the numerical value in the variables.
This process is commonly known as evaluating the expression. The answer served as the solution of the
mathematical expression. This method is useful with formulas on volume, area, or perimeter.

The following link http://www.onemathematicalcat.org/pdf_files/LANG1.pdf (Links to an external site.)

discusses the importance of any language. Every language has its vocabulary (the words), and its rule for
combining these words into complete thoughts (the sentence). Mathematics is no exception.

Languages are ways of transforming information and meaning. Mathematics is a language that is
developed using symbols. To study mathematics, it is necessary to understand the language in which it is read
and written. It is important to understand that the key to comprehend math is in the interpretation of the concept
and not the nature or number of symbols or the role they play. However, to understand concepts, one must
essentially have a good grasp of the role and meaning of symbols and also be able to appreciate their usefulness
in math that is much simpler to understand and duplicate. The logic of signs and symbols in math is undeniable
and is often stressed as a vital tool in making it as a universal science.

Now that you have already read the link about the language of mathematics, let us review your basics.
Basics in math mean the four basic operations: addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. We will go over
the different words or phrases that imply one of the four operations. The basics in math also mean reviewing the
different set of numbers, its notations, and the elements of each set. Remember also that equations need an
equality sign and different words translate the equal sign. They are summarized in the table below.
It’s time now to translate English sentences/phrases to mathematical symbols with the following examples.
MODULE 3: MATHEMATICAL LOGIC

M3.1: Propositional Logic

This module discusses a particular type of logic known as Propositional Logic. Whenever we encounter
the word logic, this always reminds us that it is the use and study of correct reasoning. Precision is a prerequisite
in logic, one needs to understand that there are governing rules and techniques in formalizing statements. A
wide array of professionals uses logic in their field of specialization. It is widely used by philosophers,
mathematicians, and computer scientists. In the field of computer science, logic may be encountered in
programming, circuits, artificial intelligence, and databases.

The main focus of Propositional logic is propositions and their interrelationships. Propositional logic is
made up of atomic assertions or propositional letters, compound assertions, and logical connectives.
M3.2: Logical Connectives
M3.3: Disjunction
 In Module 2, you learned the notations of the set of numbers. Say, ℝ is the set of Real Numbers, ℕ is the
set of natural numbers, ℚ is the set of rational numbers, and ℤ is the set of integers. We will use the knowledge
you learned in Module 2 and the connectives that we used here in Module 3 in the following examples:

Summary and Conclusion

● A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false but cannot be both.
● The truth-value of a proposition means either true (T) or false (F).
● Notations of propositions are p, q, r, s or t.
● The negation of a proposition is denoted using the symbol tilde “∼”
● The conjunction of a proposition uses the word “and” and uses the symbol “∧”
● The disjunction of a proposition uses the word “or” and uses the symbol “∨”
● The truth-value of a negation of a proposition is the opposite of the truth-value of its proposition.
● The conjunction of two propositions p and q, p ∧ q is TRUE if and only if p and q are both true.
● The disjunction of two propositions p and q, p ∨ q is TRUE if and only if p is true or q is true or both are
true.
MODULE 4: CONDITIONALS AND BI-CONDITIONALS

M4.1: Conditionals

Please take note that the word “if” is not included in

your hypothesis. Same with the word “then,” it is not
part of the conclusion.

Examples:

● Albert Einstein wrote, “If you want to live a happy life, tie it to a goal, not to people or things.” The hypothesis
here is “You want to live a happy life.” And the conclusion is “Tie it to a goal, not to people or things.”
● “Life would be tragic if it weren’t funny.” This is a quote from Stephen Hawking. Now, we have to write it in
an “if-then” statement first. So, we have: “If life weren’t funny, then it would be tragic.” The hypothesis now
is the “if” part of the statement, that is, “Life weren’t funny.” Whereas, the conclusion is the “then” part which
is: “It would be tragic.”
● “A person who never made a mistake never tried anything new.” This is another quote from Albert Einstein.
Similar to what we have done with the quote of Stephen Hawking above, we are going to make it as an “if-
then” statement. Thus, we have, “If a person never made a mistake, then he never tried anything new.”
Hypothesis: “A person never made a mistake.” Conclusion: “He never tried anything new.”

CONDITIONAL STATEMENT
● also called an IMPLICATION
● can be written in the symbol as p ⟶ q
● component p is called the “hypothesis,” “premise,” or “antecedent”
● component q on the other hand is called the “conclusion,” or “consequent”

Example:
“Integers that are divisible by 6 are also divisible by 3.” This statement is an implication p ⟶ q. It can be
written as “If an integer is divisible by 6, then it is also divisible by 3.” The hypothesis or premise p is: “An integer
is divisible by 6.” The consequent or the conclusion is: “The integer is also divisible by 3.”
 Be very careful in analyzing the hypothesis and conclusion of a conditional connective. As seen from the
above examples, connectives “implies,” “only if,” and “is sufficient for” are straightforward connectives because
they are immediately followed by the conclusion of the statement.

Whereas, the other connectives like “when,” “whenever,” “follows from,” “provided that,” “if” and “is
necessary for” reverse the direction of the implication. The original p and q are swapped from these connectives.
M4.2: Truth Value of a Conditional
There are four possibilities in the above table. Let us consider the following conditional statement:
 “If you add 1 to an odd number, you get an even number.”

In symbol, we can write the given statement as p ⟶ q where the premise p is “You add 1 to an odd
number” and the conclusion q is “You get an even number.”

The first possibility is when both the premise and the conclusion are true, that is, “You add 1 to an odd
number, and you get an even number.” The overall statement is obviously true.

The second possibility is when p is true and q is false. The given statement is “You add 1 to an even
number, and you did NOT get an even number. This makes the whole statement false since the implication is
violated.

In the last two possibilities, the premise is assumed false. Once the premise is assumed false, the overall
statement is always true. In the statement above, the premise is assumed false meaning “You will NOT add 1 to
an even number.” The conclusion now is irrelevant. Whether the conclusion is either true or false, the whole
statement is still TRUE.

M4.3: Biconditional
There are a lot of theorems in mathematics with the form “p if and only if q”. The biconditional statement
is equivalent to (p ⟶ q) ∧ (q ⟶ p). This leads us to the following definition:
 In this biconditional connective, there are also four possibilities. One of the possibilities is that both
statements are True or both statements are False which results in equivalence, (p↔q) of True. Either of the two

statements is True, and the equivalence (p↔q) has always been False. Let us consider the following statements:

p: Manila has the most number of positive COVID-19 patients in July

q: Manila is the epicenter of active COVID-19 patients in the Philippines

If the first statement "Manila has the most number of positive COVID-19 patients in July" is true in reality,
and the second statement "Manila is the epicenter of active COVID -19 patients in the Philippines" is also true
in reality, then the equivalence (p↔q) is True. Similarly, if both statements are both False in reality, then the

equivalence (p↔q) is also True. But if one of the statements is False in reality, then the equivalence (p↔q) is
False.
Summary and Conclusion

● A conditional statement is denoted by ⟶ while the biconditional statement is ⟷.

● In an implication p ⟶ q, p is called premise, hypothesis, or antecedent while q is called the conclusion or
consequent. “p” is also called the sufficient condition while q is the necessary condition.
● A biconditional statement p ⟷ q is a combination of two implications p ⟶ q and q ⟶ p.
● The biconditional statement p ⟷ q is true when both p and q have the same truth value.
● The conditional statement p ⟶ q is false when p is true and q is false.

MODULE 5: RELATED CONDITIONALS

Suppose we are given the conditional statement:

CONDITIONAL: Any statement that can be written as "If p, then q".

WORDS: If p, then q. SYMBOL: p ⟶ q

CONVERSE: To write the converse of the given conditional statement, just switch the hypothesis and the
conclusion.
WORDS: If q, then p. SYMBOL: q ⟶ p

INVERSE: The inverse of the given conditional statement is negating the hypothesis and the conclusion.
WORDS: If not p, then not q. SYMBOL: ~p ⟶ (~ q)

CONTRAPOSITIVE: The contrapositive of the conditional statement is switching and negating both the
hypothesis and the conclusion.
WORDS: If not q, then not p. SYMBOL: ~q ⟶ (~p)

Remarks:
● A conditional statement p ⟶ q and its converse q ⟶ p may or may not be true.
● A conditional statement p ⟶ q and its contrapositive ~q ⟶ (~p) must have the same truth-value.
● The converse q ⟶ p and inverse ~p ⟶ (~ q) of a conditional statement are either both true or both false.
● When both statements are both true or both false, meaning they have the same truth-value are called
equivalent statements or logically equivalent.
● The statement “If p, then q” is logically equivalent to “not p, or q.” In symbol, p ⟶ q ≡ ~p ∨ q.
● The negation of the statement “If p, then q” is “p and not q.” In symbol, p ⟶ q ≡ p ∧ (~q).

Example 1: If an integer is divisible by two, then it is even.

Example 2: If x2 = 25, then x = ±5.

Rules in finding the converse, inverse, and contrapositive of conditional statements.

Summary and Conclusion

● To write the converse of the given conditional statement, just switch the hypothesis and the conclusion.
● The inverse of the given conditional statement is negating the hypothesis and the conclusion.
● The contrapositive of the conditional statement is switching and negating both the hypothesis and the
conclusion.
● The statement “If p, then q” is logically equivalent to “not p, or q.” In symbol, p ⟶ q ≡ ∼p ∨ q.
● The negation of the statement “If p, then q” is “p and not q.” In symbol, p ⟶ q ≡ p ∧ (∼ q).

MODULE 6: TRANSFORMATIONAL GEOMETRY

There are four types of transformation: Translation, Reflection, Rotation, and Dilation.

TRANSLATION
Translation means moving a certain object from one place to another. It is also known as “slide.” In other
words, the object can be moved by sliding it up, down, sideways, or diagonally without making the object bigger
or smaller.

Mathematically speaking, the coordinate rules for Translation are: (x,y) ⟶ (x±h, y±k) where h and k are the
horizontal and vertical shifts. The +h indicates movement to the right and -h means movement to the left. While
+k is moving upward and -k moving downward.

From Figure 1, the given shape, which by definition we call it as the

pre-image, is the square located in the second quadrant with vertices (-5,
5), (-1, 5), (-5, 1), and (-1, 1). Three translation rules were shown in Figure
1.
 Figure 1

(1) T(6, 0)

Applying the translation rule with the h = 6 and k = 0 to the four vertices of the pre-image, we get:

Vertex (-5, 5) → (-5 + 6, 5 + 0) = (1, 5)

Vertex (-1, 5) → (-1 + 6, 5 + 0) = (5, 5)

Vertex (-5, 1) → (-5 + 6, 1 + 0) = (1, 1)

Vertex (-1, 1) → (-1 + 6, 1 + 0) = (5, 1)

Hence, the vertices of the image now are: (1, 5), (5, 5), (1, 1), (5, 1). What do you think is the shape of
the image? Of course, it is still a square because based on the definition of translation the size of the object will
not change once it is transformed. Now, in what quadrant will the image be moved? Since h = +6, the shape will
move to the right but k = 0; hence the shape will not go up or go down. Therefore, the image is now in the first
quadrant.

We will concentrate now on the shape in the first quadrant that was transformed using the translation rule
T (6, 0). The vertices of the said shape are (1, 5), (5, 5), (1, 1) and (5, 1). We will now transform this shape with
the translation rule T(1, -7).

(2) T(1, -7). Here, h = 1, k = -7

Vertex (1, 5) → (1 + 1, 5 + (-7)) = (2, -2)

Vertex (5, 5) → (5 + 1, 5 + (-7)) = (6, -2)

Vertex (1, 1) → (1 + 1, 1 + (-7)) = (2, -6)

Vertex (5, 1) → (5 + 1, 1 + (-7)) = (6, -6)

Notice that h = 1 and is positive. The movement is to the right, and since k = -7, it will move downward.
Hence, the location of the new image is in the fourth quadrant.

Next, the image in the fourth quadrant with vertices (2, -2), (6, -2), (2, -6) and (6, -6) will be transformed
with the translation rule T(-7, 1).

(3) T(-7, 1) with h = -7 and k = 1

Vertex (2, -2) → (2 + (-7), -2 + (-7)) = (-5, -9)

Vertex (6, -2) → (6 + (-7), -2 + (-7)) = (-1, -9)

Vertex (2, -6) → (2 + (-7), -6 + (-7)) = (-5, -13)

Vertex (6, -6) → (6 + (-7), 1 + (-7)) = (-1, -6)

 From the signs of h and k, we find that the shape from the 4th quadrant will move 7 units to the left and
1 unit upward. Thus, the image can be found in the 3rd quadrant.

REFLECTION
Reflection, also called “flip,” will flip the object across a certain line of reflection. The reflected
figure is the mirror image of the original object.

Figure 2

From Figure 2 above, the pre-image is located in the second quadrant and it is a triangle with vertices A
(-3, -4), B(-1, 1), and C(-4, 2).

The pre-image is reflected over the y-axis. Thus, the image now has new vertices A', B', and C.' Let us
find the coordinates of A', B', and C.'

Therefore, when the pre-image triangle ABC is reflected over the y-axis, the image which is named as
triangle A’B’C’ is flipped in the first quadrant. See Figure 2.

Let us reflect now triangle A’B’C’ over the x-axis. The new vertices will be labeled as A” B" C."
 When you watch the animated gif, triangle A’B’C’ is in the first quadrant and when it is reflected over the
x-axis, its image is flipped in the 3rd quadrant.

You can continue reflecting the pre-image over the line y = x, over the line y = -x, and through the origin
by applying the coordinate rules for reflection.

ROTATION
Rotation, on the other hand, is also called "turn." It will turn an object through a clockwise or
counterclockwise direction about a fixed point, which we call as the center of rotation. Same with reflection,
rotation changes the position of the object, but everything else stays the same.

The coordinate plane rules for reflection is:

COUNTERCLOCKWISE CLOCKWISE RULE

90o 270o (x,y) ⟶ (-y, x)

180o 180o (x,y) ⟶ (-x, -y)

270o 90o (x,y) ⟶ (y, -x)

Table 1

In Table 1, turning an object 90o counterclockwise and 270o clockwise direction has the same coordinate
rule, which is (x,y) ⟶ (−y,x). Similarly for 180o, both counterclockwise and clockwise direction have the same
coordinate rule which is (x,y) ⟶ (−x,−y). Lastly, the coordinate rule for 270o counter clockwise and 90o clockwise is
(x,y) ⟶ (y,−x).

Figure 3

In Figure 3, the given is “Rotate the point A(1, 2)." It was the first rotated 90 o counterclockwise direction.

From the coordinate plane rule of 90o counterclockwise in Table 1, the point A (1, 2) rotated about the
origin by 90o, (1, 2) ⟶ (-2, 1). Label the new point as A’ with coordinates (-2, 1). The content in Figure 3 is
summarized in the table below.
DILATION
The last type of transformation is the dilation, which means reduction or enlargement. Dilation is different
from the other three because it changes the size of an object being transformed.

The mathematical way of describing dilation is using a scale factor which is denoted by "k." The
coordinate rules for dilation are:

From the origin dilated by a scale factor of “k”: (x,y) ⟶ (kx, ky)

SCALE FACTOR, k SIZE CHANGE FOR PREIMAGE

k>1 Dilation image is larger than preimage

0<k<1 Dilation image is smaller than preimage

k=1 Dilation image is the same size as the preimage

Figure 4

Let us dilate the shape below with different scale factors.

 Suppose the scale factor k = 2 (i.e., k > 1). What is the image of the given triangle?

Suppose the scale factor k = 0.5. (i.e. 0 < k < 1). What is the image of the given triangle?
For the scale factor k = 1, the image of the given triangle is the same as the pre-image.

Tessellation
When a single shape is being translated, rotated,
reflected, or dilated repeatedly in different directions to
cover a plane without gaps or overlaps, you are tessellating
a plane.

A tessellation is also called “tiling.” It is a repetition

of a pattern with no gaps or overlaps. There are a lot of ways
in making geometric tessellations. The tessellation works of
Dutch artist M.C. Escher are images of animals, sometimes
people, and other everyday objects that people are familiar
with. Below are some samples of Echer’s tessellations.
 The tessellation concept can be created by redrawing one or two geometric shapes and using sliding,
flipping, rotating, and dilating the said shapes entirely over the plane. It can also be done using paper cutting.
Just cut the two chosen geometric shapes and apply either the four types of transformation or just one of the
four.

Tessellations can also be done with paper folding. Same process with paper cutting and redrawing can
be followed. You can use recycled materials that you find at home to create interesting patterns. It’s fun and
easy. Here are some samples of tessellation using paper folding.
ART, GEOMETRY, AND THE PHILIPPINE WEAVING

Geometry is used in canvases of every artist. They used

Geometry in all their arts. From simple lines to different shapes,
artists make their work perfect. Now, our Philippine culture also
uses geometric patterns through weaving. Weaving according
to a dictionary refers to the craft or action of forming fabric
through interlacing threads.

Dr. Ma. Louise Antonette N. De Las Peñas of Ateneo de

Manila University had studied the connection between art and
geometry. She had noted that even without formal training in
math, weavers were able to make textiles applying
advanced levels of Geometry and Algebra using a combination of weaving and counting techniques. It was also
observed that in the Philippines, some regions were able to come up with their unique designs. Here are some
of the indigenous designs with notable geometric patterns.

(1) Philippine Ikat weave from Mindanao, Philippines

The term “ikat” is a style of weaving that uses a dyeing technique to create a
unique textile pattern. In the Indonesian language, "ikat" means "to tie" or "to bind." Ikat
textiles are produced in many other countries. In the Philippines, we have our version of
Ikat which is mostly made by the ethnic group of Mindanao and the Ifugao tribes.

(2) Kinarayan Fabric

This fabric from Mindanao has a series of triangles that appear like the spiny
back of a crocodile. Also included in the design are crabs and morning star. Many call
this fabric the Buwaya fabric. “Buwaya” is the Bisaya word for crocodile.
(3) T’Boli stitch pattern
T’boli is an ethnic group from South Cotabato in Southern
Mindanao. It means “Tagabili to lowlanders.” Some said that ’boli
culture is associated with t’nalak. T’nalak is a sacred cloth made by
traditional female weavers known as dream weavers. They made use
of geometric patterns with trademark colors.

With varying designs of regions, our appreciation of their native

culture was improved. We further understand their cultures and their
understanding of applied mathematics without actually knowing that
they are using mathematics. Their unique designs will depict the
particular regions they come from.
MODULE 7: MODULAR ARITHMETIC

“It is now 10 o’clock, what time will it be 90 hours from now?”

Did you add 90 to 10 to get the answer? Let us talk first about the 12-hour
clock format before answering the question.

Observe that when you estimate hours, and if you pass 12, then you will
obviously go back to 1. In other words, the mathematical system in a 12-hour clock
is that it consists of only 12 numbers for estimating hours of time. After the hour
hand reaches 12, it will go back again to 1. Hence, the numbering of hours in a
12-hour clock produces a cycle.

Military clock which is on a 24-hour cycle is one. The numbering of the hours goes from 1 to 24, then
back to 1 again.

Another one, is the numbering of the minutes in an hour and the seconds in a minute. Both of these
goes with a numbering up to 60, then goes back to 1 again.

We also have days in a week. The numbering goes from 1st day to 7th day and then goes back to the
1st day again.

Months in a year is also another example wherein the numbering goes from 1st month to 12 months,
then goes back to the 1st month again.

These examples wherein the system “wraps around” or forms a cycle, after reaching a certain limit, is
called in mathematics as a modular arithmetic system.

In modular arithmetic, it is a system of arithmetic for integers where the number line wraps around into a
circle instead of an infinitely long number line. See the figure below.
 In the usual arithmetic that we knew, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division were performed on
the number line. On the other hand, in modular arithmetic, it deals with repetitive cycles of numbers and
remainders. Remainder is a term used when there is something left over after dividing. Here is an illustration
from our elementary mathematics.

From the division algorithm above, we used the following terms:

dividend, divisor, quotient and remainder.

In mathematics, we usually generalize things. Let us denote now, the

dividend by “a”, the divisor as “b”, “q” for quotient and “r” for the
remainder, if there is any.

If the division has no remainder, then r = 0. Modular arithmetic deals

with remainders when we divide the number a with b. Just like what you did
in your Pre-Discussion Activity wherein you just find the remainders of the
division of some integers. In this case, we will introduce the term “modulo”
which we call the operator abbreviated as “mod”.

For example, 26 ≡ 11 (mod 5) . It means that 26 and 11 are congruent module 5. This is so because
26 and 11 each have the same remainder 1 on division by 5. Thus,

26 mod 5 = 1 = 11 mod 5 (1)

The symbol “≡” is called “congruent to” meaning “in agreement”. The notation is a triple equal sign.

In 26 mod 5, we can also write it as 26 = 5(5) +1.

Same with 11 mod 5, 11 = 2(5) + 1.

Here 26 and 11 are the dividends, 5 the divisor, 5 and 2 are the quotients and 1 is both the
remainders.
 Let us apply this modulo in our circular number line. The modulo or the “mod” is the length of the circular
number line.

For example, what is the modulo when we tell the number of hours in a 12-hour clock? Yes, the
modulo is 12.

For the 24-hour clock on the other hand it is 24.

The modulo for the number of minutes in an hour is 60.

Same is true for the number of seconds in a minute.

7 is the modulo for the days in a week and 12 for months in a year.

Let us first practice finding the modulo of several numbers with the following examples.

EXAMPLE 1: 921 mod 12 = ____

SOLUTION: When you use your calculator in dividing 921 by 12, you will get 76.75. Take note that .75 is NOT
the remainder. Use the long method in dividing to get:

921 = 12(76) + 9 Thus, 921 mod 12 = 9

EXAMPLE 2: 304 mod 3 = ____

SOLUTION: Dividing 304 by 3 using your calculator, you will get 101.33. Again, as in example #1, 33 is not the
remainder. Another way to get the remainder is to multiply the whole number part of the quotient, in this case is
101, by 3 resulting in the product of 303. Subtract 303 from 304, and the difference, 1 in this case, will be the
remainder.:

304 = 3(101) + 1 Thus, 304 mod 3 = 1.

EXAMPLE 3: 4255 mod 4 = ___

SOLUTION: Following the process used in example #2,
1. Divide 4255 by 4 = 1063.75
2. Multiply 1063 by 4 = 4252
3. Subtract 4252 from 4255 = 3
4. The remainder then is 3.

Thus, 4255 mod 4 = 3.

EXAMPLE 4: 888 mod 8 = ___

SOLUTION: Here, dividing 888 by 8 will give you 111, a whole number. This means that the remainder is 0.

Thus, 888 mod 8 = 0.

EXAMPLE 5: 555 mod 6 = ___
SOLUTION: Let us use another way to find the remainder. Here are the steps.
1. Divide 555 by 6 = 92.5
2. Multiply the decimal part by 6 = 0.5 x 6 = 3
3. The value 3 obtained is the remainder.

Thus, 555 mod 6 = 3.

“It is now 10 o’clock, what time will it be 90 hours from now?”

There are two ways to answer the given question.

The first one is we divide 90 by 12, to get the remainder. Why 12? Because we are working in a 12-hour
analogue clock. So, 90 divided by 12, the remainder is 6. Thus, 90 = 7(12) + 6.

Using the congruence notation, we have, 90 ≡ 6 (mod 12). Thus, 90 hours from 10 o’clock, the time on

the clock will be the same as time in 6 hours, which is 4 o’clock.

The second way is to add 10 to 90 to get a sum of 100. Then, divide 100 by 12 to get the remainder.
Hence, 100 = 8(12) + 4. Again, using congruence notation, we get, 100 = 4 (mod 12). The second way is direct
compared to the first one. Here, you can directly get the answer which is 4 o’clock.

Now, suppose this is the problem:

“It is now July, what month will it be 500 months from now?”

In our calendar, there are 12 months in a year. Notice that July is the 7th month of the year.

SOLUTION 1: The remainder when 500 is divided by 12 is equal to 8.

So, 500 = 41(12) + 8. Hence, 500 ≡ 8 (mod 12).

Now, count 8 months after July, you will get MARCH.

SOLUTION 2: The remainder when (500 + 7) is divided by 12, we get 3.

507 = 42(12) + 3 507 ≡ 3 (mod 12).

What is the 3rd month of the year? The answer is MARCH.

Now, let's have another set of examples.

EXAMPLE 1: Today is Monday, what day of the week will it be in 65 days?

SOLUTION: We have divided 65 by 7 because it is asking for days of the week. So, when we divide 65 by 7, the
remainder is 2. Thus, we have,
 65 = 9(7) + 2 65 ≡ 2 (mod 7)

Since the remainder is 2, you count two days from Monday. Therefore, the answer is WEDNESDAY.

EXAMPLE 2: It is now December, what month was it 26 months ago?

SOLUTION: Here, you will divide 26 by 12 because it talks about months of a year. The remainder when we
divide 26 by 12 is 2. Observe that,

26 = 2(12) + 2 26 ≡ 2 (mod 12)

Now, count 2 months before December. What month is it? Yes, it is OCTOBER.

EXAMPLE 3: It is now 8 o'clock, what time will it be in 100 hours?

SOLUTION: The remainder when we divide 100 by 12 is 4. Why is the divisor 12? Because it talks about hours
in a clock. Thus,

100 = 8(12) + 4 100 ≡ 4 (mod 12)

From 8 o'clock, count 4 hours, you will get 12 o'clock.

EXAMPLE 4: If today is Saturday, then what day of the week will it be in 347 days?
SOLUTION: Similar to Example 1, we use a divisor 7 because it talks about days of the week. Now, the
remainder when we divide 347 by 7 is 4. Observe,

347 = 49(7) + 4 347 ≡ 4 (mod7)

Hence, from Saturday, you count 4 days. Thus, the answer is WEDNESDAY.

EXAMPLE 5: If it is 6 o'clock, what time will it be in 130 hours?

SOLUTION: Similar to Example 3, the divisor is 12 because it talks about hours. So,

130 = 10(12) + 10 130 ≡ 10 (mod 12)

Count 10 hours from 6 o'clock, so the answer is 4 o'clock.

Applications of Modular Arithmetic in real-life situation:

International Standard Book Number (ISBN)

EXAMPLE: Verify if the ISBN
of MINDSHAPERS
CO., INC (2016) is valid.

The
ISBN is: 978-
621-406-066-5.
SOLUTION: We will use the 13-digit codeword since the given is a 13-digit ISBN. From the given ISBN, we find
that:
x1 = 9 x2 = 7 x3 = 8 x4 = 6 x5 = 2 x6 = 1 x7 = 4 x8 = 0
x9 = 6 x10 = 0 x11 = 6 x12 =6 x13 = 5

Substitute the values of 𝑥′𝑖 𝑠, 𝑖= 1, 2, ...13 to the formula below

Hence, we have,
1(9) + 3(7) + 1(8) + 3(6) + 1(2) + 3(1) + 1(4) + 3(0) + 1(6) + 3(0) + 1(6) + 3(6) +1(5)
= 9 + 21 + 8 + 18 + 2 + 3 + 4 + 0 + 6 + 0 + 6 + 18 + 5 = 100.

Now, when you divide 100 by 10, the remainder is 0. Therefore, 100 ≡ 0 (mod 10). Hence, the given ISBN is
valid.

Universal Product Code (UPC)

As an example, find the check digit of the given UPC.

From the given UPC, We are going to find the value of C by substituting the values of 𝑥′𝑖 𝑠, 𝑖 = 1,2,3,....12 to the
formula below

Now, since
x1 = 0 x2=4 x3=3 x4=0 x5=0 x6=0 x7=7 x8=9
x9=4 x10=7 x11=5 x12=C

Substitute these values to the formula above. Hence,

3(0) + 1(4) + 3(3) + 1(0) + 3(0) + 1(0) +3(7) + 1(9) + 3(4) + 1(7) + 3(5) + 1C
= 77 + C ≡ 0 (mod 10 )

We have now 77 + C ≡ 0 (mod 10). What will be the possible value of C which when added to 77 and divide the

sum by 10, you will get no remainder? Yes, it's correct. C should be 3.

Therefore, the check digit is 3.

VALIDITY OF CREDIT CARD NUMBERS

As an example, consider the sample credit card below:

SOLUTION: The credit card number of the given image is:

5488-0939-1551-9545

The first step is to multiply every 2nd digit by 2 starting from the right digit. Thus, we have:

Next step, if the product is more than 1 digit, add the digits. Hence, we have,

Observe the digits in the odd and even positions. In the figure below, the digits in the even position are highlighted
with light gold and blue for the digits in the odd position.
Combining now the digits in both positions we now have,

1 4 7 8 0 9 6 9 2 5 1 1 9 5 8 5

Then, we are going to add the digits above:

1+4+7+8+0+9+6+9+2+5+1+1+9+5+8+5 = 80

and

80 ≡ 0 (mod 10).

Since the remainder is 0 therefore, the credit card number is VALID.

Here is the summary of the solution.

MODULE 8: GRAPH COLORING

Graph coloring is one of the many topics of the subject Graph Theory. It is the procedure of assignment
of colors to each vertex of a graph G such that any vertices connected with an edge have different colors.

The objective is to minimize the number of colors while coloring a graph. This is what Graph coloring is
all about.

When you hear the word “graph”, what comes into your mind? Most of you will say that a graph is a
representation of a line, a bar graph, a circle, or some other graph of a function, or maybe some other statistical
graph. Now, the graph that we are talking about here in this module is not the graph that you are already familiar
with.
What word best describes a graph? Yes, it is connectivity. The pandemic this year brought us to working
from home. The means of communication of people working in offices are through emails, Facebook Messenger,
Zoom and Google Meet meetings to name a few.

Suppose for example that the means of communication of a certain office is through email. Then we can
represent their means of communication with a graph. How will we do it?

Let us assume that there are 7 office workers and that the initials of the workers are R, I, E, C, P, A and
K. The dots or vertices are the owners of the computers and the edges which are indicated by a line or an arc is
the connection between two office workers if and only if there is a communication between the two.

There are other possible representations of the scenario aside from Figure 1. It depends upon the
arrangements of the vertices, that is, the way you position your vertices, you will create another graph which is
similar to Figure 1. We call it isomorphic graphs. Observe that Figures 1 and 2 have the same number of
vertices and the same number of edges.
 In Figures 1 and 2, vertex R sends email to everybody except at vertex K. If there is no edge between
two vertices, it means that there is no communication between them. Like in between vertices K and A, I and E,
I and P to name a few. Can you find other vertices that are not connected by an edge?

The set of vertices is denoted by V and the set of edges is denoted by E. In Figures 1 and 2,

V = {R, C, A, K, E, P, I} and E = {RC, CA, RA, RP, PC, CK, CE, RE, RI}

The edge RC indicates that there is a two-way communication between vertex R and vertex C.

EXAMPLE: Draw a graph that represents the information of Table 1. Each vertex represents a city and an edge
connects the two vertices if the cities have a direct flight by Philippine Airlines flights. An “X” in the table indicates
a direct flight between the two cities.
SOLUTION:

The figure above has 4 vertices and six edges.

Hence, V = {v, u, w, z} and E = {vv, uv, vw, uw, wz, wz}.
Take note that in the Figure above, the edge in the given directed graph, say the edge V1V2 allows
you to go from V1 to V2 but not from V2 to V1. Whereas, in the given undirected graph, the edge V1V2
allows you to go from V1 to V2 as well as from V2 to V1.

In the above graph, vertices a and b are adjacent because there is an edge that connects them. We
also say that the edge ab is incident with vertices a and b, and that a and b are endpoints of the edge
ab. The table below is called an adjacency list representing the given graph above.
From the figure above, let us count the number of edges of each vertex. The given figure has 6 vertices.
The vertices are a, b, c, d, l and m. Vertex a has 2 degrees while the vertices b, c and m have 4 degrees
each. For vertices d and l, both have 5 degrees. A loop is attached to these vertices d and l which adds
two to the degree of each corresponding vertex. In other words, a vertex with a loop sees itself as an
adjacent vertex from both ends of the edge thus adding two to the degree. The degree is summarized
in the table below.
This graph has 6 pairs of adjacent vertices and these are ab, ba, ac, ca, bc and cb. Since a is adjacent
to b, we say that a is the initial vertex and b is the terminal vertex. Since we have a loop for vertices b
and d, we say that the initial vertex and terminal vertex are b and d respectively. The table below is an
edge list for a directed graph.
 Based from the figure above, the in-degree (deg−(v)) and out-degree
(deg+(v)) of vertices are:

In vertex a, the number of edges going out from it is 1, therefore the out-degree of vertex a is 1. It can
be observed that the number of edges coming into vertex a is 2, therefore the in- degree of vertex a is
2. In vertex b, there are 2 edges coming into it and 5 going out from it. The number of edges of in-
degree and out- degree can also be done in the same way for the other vertices.
EXAMPLE 1:
In a Clinical Laboratory, a STAT (urgent release of laboratory results) blood sample arrived for a numerous
laboratory examination. The blood sample will undergo a complete blood count examination, blood glucose level,
and blood typing. Three Medical technologists were assigned by the pathologist to test the STAT blood sample
(One medical technologist for each examination). Each medical technologist must call the other representatives
to confirm if there are certain abnormalities present in the results. After some time, the clinical pathologist calls
each representative to report their result. Construct a graph to model this result.

SOLUTION:
The result is a graph of a wheel of order 4. The center vertex represents the clinical pathologist. The four outer
vertices represent the medical technologists. An edge represents a phone call from the clinical pathologist to the
medical technology. Here is the graph representing the problem.

EXAMPLE 2:
A manager has seven sales supervisors. The manager wants to introduce a new product in some selected
supermarkets. The manager calls the first sales supervisor and informs her that she needs to find a supermarket.
The manager also asks the first sales supervisor to the same task on the second sales supervisor. Likewise, the
second sales supervisor was advised to do the same and pass it on to the third supervisor, and so on. The last
sales supervisor, then reported the accomplishment to the manager. Draw a graph to model the phone calls
that take place in this situation.

SOLUTION:
There are 8 people specified in the given problem. We can use a capital letter to designate each person as a
vertex. Each of them calls another person, so then the process has been repeated 8 times. We then used an
edge to establish that one person calls another person. That is a cycle graph of order 8 has been formed since
they are connected in a closed chain. Below is the graph.

EXAMPLE 3:
Joseph invites his girlfriend to have dinner on Valentine’s day. They agreed to wear casual attire for their dinner
date. He plans to impress his girlfriend by wearing an elegant outfit. When he opened his cabinet, he saw five t-
shirts with different colors (White, Black, Blue, Red, and Pink) and four jeans (Ripped, Skinny, Slim fit, and
Regular fit). How many possible combinations will Joseph have for his choices? Draw a graph to model the
outcome. Name and label the graph.

SOLUTION:
The result is a Complete Bipartite graph of order 4 and 5 respectively. The graph consists of two sets of vertices.
The upper vertices which represent the four jeans and the lower vertices represent the five t-shirts with different
colors. Here is the graph representing the problem.
The red graph above is the dual graph of the planar graph colored blue.
EXAMPLE: Let us find the chromatic number of the simple graph below.

SOLUTION: Let us find the degree of each vertex first. See the graph below.
So, there are five vertices with degree 4, that is, we have vertices b, e, d, c and f.

According to the procedure in graph coloring, we will color first the vertex with the highest degree.

We will start with b. Take note that since there are five vertices with degree 4, you can choose one from the 5
vertices. Since we choose vertex b, we will color it blue (you can choose also any color that you want).

Observe that we cannot color vertices c, d, and e with color blue because they are connected by an edge with
vertex b.

Hence, we can assign blue to vertex f.

Vertices e and c must have the same color. Suppose we will color them with green. Thus, the vertex must be
assigned a different color which is red.

Vertices a and g will have the same color with vertex d. See the figure below.

How many colors did we use in coloring the simple graph G? Yes, we used 3 colors: blue, green and red.
Therefore, the chromatic number of G is 3. In symbol, X(G)=3

Suppose we have a map. Observe that each map consists of regions. Now the set of regions in a map
can be represented by a graph. Each region of the map is represented by a vertex and an edge for every pair of
regions that have a common border. Take note that two regions in the map that touch at only one point are not
adjacent. The resulting graph from the fictional map is called its dual graph. See the figure below.

We will construct dual graphs for a given fictional map. Then we are going to find the number of colors
needed to color the map so that no two adjacent regions have the same color.
EXAMPLE:
SOLUTION:
STEP 1. Draw dots in each region.

STEP 2. Connect adjacent regions with edges between the new vertices.

STEP 3. Remove the map to get its dual graph.

 STEP 4. Find the degree of each vertex. This is the first step in Graph Coloring.

STEP 5. Color now the vertices of the graph. Follow steps 2 and 3 in Graph Coloring.

Hence, the chromatic number is 4, that is, X(G)=4. Lastly, color the original fictional map based on the
colors of the vertices of its dual graph.

EXAMPLE 1:
The Congress will convene a special session consisting of 8 committees to pass the National budget for the
country's response to the Covid-19. But some of the congressmen are members of more than 1 committee, so
they can't attend both meetings at the same time. An “X” in the following table indicates that the two
corresponding committees share a member. Use graph coloring to determine the minimum number of meeting
times that will be necessary so that all members can attend the appropriate meetings.

SOLUTION:
The information in the table can be represented by a graph. The vertices are the committees and an edge
connects two vertices if the corresponding committee have at least one common member.

STEP 1. Construction of the graph based on the information in the table.

Let vertex A = Appropriations, vertex B = Budget, vertex C = Finance, vertex D = Judiciary, vertex E = Education,
vertex F = Health, vertex G = Foreign Affairs and vertex H = Housing.

Here is the table with the corresponding representations of the committee.

Since we already know how many vertices our graph is, we have 8 vertices, next is to find the edges of our
graph.

An edge in the table means that two committees share a common member, meaning one person is a member
of both committees.

For instance, in the committee of Appropriations (vertex A) and the committee of Finance (vertex C), one person
is a member of both Appropriations and Finance because of the “X” in the table.
Hence, there is an edge between vertex A and vertex C in our graph. Here is the summary of edges based on
the table above:

AC, AF, AG, BD, BF, CD

CG, CH, DF, DH, EG, EH

This is now the graph.

STEP 2. Apply Graph Coloring.

Recall that in coloring the vertices of the graph we first determine the degree of each vertex and then we start
coloring the vertex with the highest degree and so on. Here is the graph with the corresponding degree of each
vertex.

Now, we must color the vertices of our graph so that we use the fewest possible number of colors.
 STEP 3: Interpretation of the color of vertices

Observe that we only used 3 colors: blue, red and green.

Each color represents a time slot for the meeting of the committees.

Based on the graph, vertices B and C will have the same schedule because they have the same color blue.
Whereas for vertices F, G and H colored red in the graph will have another schedule. Lastly for vertices A, D and
E with color green in the graph will have another time schedule.

Here is the summary of the meeting schedules of the committees.

EXAMPLE 2:
HRM students in some selected Universities want to join a baking competition in different categories. The HRM
students have three ovens that can be used for one day only and it is expected that each competing team will
finish the competition the whole day. All members of each team must participate in the category they volunteered
for, so a student cannot work on more than one category on any given day.

Category 1 will be made by Andrew, David and Anne.

Category 2 will be made by Jane, Junior and Andrew.
Category 3 will be made by Shane, Andrew and Junior.
 Category 4 will be made by Melody, Maria and Jake.
Category 5 will be made by Maria, Anne and Jane.
Category 6 will be made by David, Shane and Jake.

Use graph coloring to design a schedule for using the ovens, and using the smallest possible number of days,
so that each group can bake based on the preferred category and all members can participate.

SOLUTION:

STEP 1: Make a table using the information given in the problem.

First, let us denote each Category as C1, C2, C3, C4, C5 and C6 respectively. We put an “X” in the table
indicating that there is a common member of the two categories. Let us analyze the categories. Table 1 below
shows the pair of categories with their common member.

After identifying the common members among the categories, we will make another table where the six (6)
categories will be placed in the first row and first column respectively.

Take note that we are going to put an “X” in the table whenever there is an intersection of the two categories
with common member(s).

For instance, Andrew is a common member to both pairs C1, C2 and C1, C3. Hence, there is an “X” in Table 2
for the intersection of both pairs of categories.

Now, since there are six (categories), there will be six vertices in our graph. An edge in our graph means that it
connects the two categories with at least one member.

STEP 1. Construction of the graph based on the information in the table.

The corresponding graph in Figure 1 has six (6) vertices and nine (9) edges. The vertices are the categories and
an edge connects two categories if and only if they share a common member.

STEP 2. Apply Graph Coloring.

Follow the steps in coloring the vertices of the graph. Remember to use only the fewest possible color in coloring
the vertices.

Figure 2. The graph with the corresponding degree of each vertex.

 Figure 3. The graph with colored vertices.

STEP 3: Interpretation of the color of vertices

Since there used only 3 colors in coloring the vertices of our graph, then there will be three schedules for the
categories to use the oven.

Colored blue are categories 1 and 4 for the 1st time slot while categories 2 and 6 for the next time slot and
categories 3 and 5 for the last time slot.

The schedule in using the oven is summarized in Table 3 below.