Introduction to Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science

ANTHROPOLOGY
● From the Greek word “Anthropos” which means man, and “lógos” which means the study
of.
● The study of humanity, The study of humankind.
● The study of humanity, including our prehistoric origins and contemporary human
diversity.
● The study of humankind in all times and all places.

Goals of Anthropology
● Discover what makes people different from one another in order to understand and
preserve diversity.
● Discover what all people have in common.
● Look at one’s own culture more objectively, like an outsider; make the strange familiar
and the familiar strange.
● Produce new knowledge and new theories about humankind and human behavior.

Fields of Anthropology
1. Cultural Anthropology - is the study of living people and their cultures, including
variation and change.
2. Biological Anthropology - is the study of humans as biological organisms, including
their evolution and contemporary variation.
3. Linguistic Anthropology - is the study of communication, mainly (but not exclusively)
among humans.
4. Archaeology - is the study of past human cultures through their material remains.
5. Applied Anthropology
- Anthropology put to use.
- Application of anthropological knowledge to help solve social problems or to shape
policy goals.
- Applied anthropology is not a separate field of Anthropology. However, the application
should be a valued part of every field of Anthropology.

SOCIOLOGY
● (Latin: socius, "companion"; -ology, "the study of", Greek λόγος, lógos, "knowledge") is
the study of human societies. Combining the two words will mean the study of
associates or companions.
● Sociology was coined by Auguste Comte (1798-1857), who was regarded as the “father
of Sociology”.

Concepts of Sociology
● A science that studies human civilization.
● A systematic study of groups and societies that people build and how these affect their
behavior.
 ● It focuses on various social connections, institutions, organizations, structures, and
processes.

The scientific study of Sociology enables us to:

● Obtain possible theories and principles about society as well as various aspects of social
life.
● Critically studying the nature of humanity which also leads to examining our roles within
the society.
● Appreciate that all things (in society) are interdependent with each other.

The scientific study of Sociology enables us to:

● Broaden our familiarity on sociological facts which are acquired through empirical
process
● Expose our minds to the different perspectives on attaining the truth.

Areas of Sociology
1. Social Organization - includes the study of social institutions, social inequality, social
mobility, religious groups, and bureaucracy.
2. Social Psychology - focuses on the study of human nature and its emphasis on social
processes as they affect individual or responses.
3. Applied Sociology - concerned with the specific intent of yielding practical applications
for human behavior and organization. Also, aims to assist in resolving social problems.
4. Population Studies - this area includes size, growth, demographic characteristics,
composition, migration, changes, and equality vis a vis (in relation to )economic, political,
and social systems.
5. Human Ecology - pertains to the study of the effects of various social organizations
(religious, political and a like) to the population’s behavior.
6. Sociological Theory and Research - focuses on the discovery of theoretical tools,
methods, and techniques to scientifically explain a sociological issue.
7. Social Change - studies the factor that causes social organization and social
disorganization like calamity, drug abuse, drastic and gradual social change, health and
welfare problems, political instability, unemployment and underemployment, child and
women’s issue.

POLITICAL SCIENCE
Politics
● Originated from the Greek word “Politeia” or “Polis” which means city or state.
● The art and science of governing city/state
● The social process or strategy in any position of control in which people gain, use, or
lose power.
● Politics - the first systematic work scroll focused on political affairs written by Aristotle –
that named him the Father of Political Science.
Political Science
● The nature and organization of the State, the structure, and functions of the high
branches of government, and the theory of political and civil liberties (Agpalo, 1998)
● The systematic study of political and governmental institutions and processes (Ranney,
1995)
● Collections of relevant rules and routines that determine appropriate actions regarding
relations between roles and situations involving the determination of what the situation
is, what the role is being fulfilled, and what obligation of that part in that situation is
(Peters, 2012)

Fields of Political Science

1. Domestic Politics - is generally the most common field of study; its subfields include
public opinion, elections, national government, and state, local, or regional government.
2. Comparative Politics - focuses on politics within countries (often grouped into world
regions) and analyzes similarities and differences between countries.
3. International Relations - considers the political relationships and interactions between
countries, including the causes of war, the formation of foreign policy, international
political economy, and the structures that increase or decrease the policy options
available to governments.
4. Political Theory - includes classical political philosophy and contemporary theoretical
perspectives (e.g., constructivism, critical theory, and postmodernism)
5. Public Administration - studies the role of the bureaucracy. It is the field most oriented
toward practical applications within political science and is often organized as a separate
department that prepares students for careers in the civil service.
6. Public Law Studies – it studies the constitutions, legal systems, civil rights, and criminal
justice (now increasingly its own discipline).
7. Public Policy – examines the passage and implementation of all types of government
policies, particularly those related to civil rights, defense, health, education, economic
growth, urban renewal, regional development, and environmental protection.

State
● came from the Latin word “stare” which means ‘to stand’.
● A political community that occupies a definite territory; has an organized government
with the authority to make and enforce laws without the consent of a higher authority.
● A self-governing political entity.

Elements of the State

● People - the population or the inhabitants.
● Territory - refers to the portion of the earth which is composed of aerial, fluvial, and
terrestrial domains.
● Sovereignty - refers to supreme absolute power within its territorial boundaries
● Government - refers to the institution or agency through which the state maintains social
order, etc.
Nation
● (Anderson 1991, Poggi 2008) is the social construction of a collective identity, a group of
people who share the same history, geography, language, customs, and sometimes
religion.

Differences between Nation and State

State
● Existed not only at present but also in the ancient period.
● It is legal political.
● People organized for law within a definite territory.
● Must be sovereign.
● Inhabited by heterogeneous groups of people.

Nation
● Modern Phenomenon.
● It is racial-cultural.
● People psychologically joined together with a common will to live.
● Doesn’t remain sovereignty.
● Inhabited by homogeneous groups of people.
 Anthropological and Sociological Perspective on Culture and Society

Anthropological Perspective
● From the Greek word “Anthropos” which means man and “lógos” which means
the study of.
● Thus, we will be defining and be looking into the approaches and perspectives on
the study of culture using the anthropological perspective.

1. Unilineal Evolutionism - states that new cultural forms emerged from the past the pass
through similar stages of development.
Example: Animism
2. Cultural Diffusionism - asserts that culture originates from one more culture center
which is the result of borrowed elements to the new culture.
Example: Monotheism
3. Historical Particularism - believes that each group has its unique culture, which is
influenced by its history, geography, and environment.
Example: Filipino people are influenced by superstitious beliefs, which originate from
their ancestors.
4. Anthropological Structuralism - conveys that cultural phenomena and practices have
a relationship to one another by which humans organize and structure their experiences.
Example: Father and Son, Husband and Wife
5. Cultural Materialism - on the other hand, considers the idea that culture is influenced
by technology, resources, economic values, religious belief, and the utilization of things
Example: Pork is prohibited in the Muslim diet.
6. Anthropological Functionalism - cultural elements and practices are interrelated and
interdependent and persist because they have a purpose.
Example: Filipinos’ actions are influenced by their religion

Sociological Perspectives

1. Sociological Functionalism - views society as an organized network

cooperating groups operating orderly to generally accepted norms
Example: To produce more productive graduates in the community, the
government must pour money into education.
2. Sociological Conflict Perspective - sees the social environment is a continuous
struggle which is in contrast with functionalism
Example: Rich vs. Poor
3. Sociological Evolutionism - explains how human groups came to exist, grow,
and develop.
Example: Before, people use telephone to communicate with one another, now
with the advancement of technology, many of us use cell phones as a means of
communication.
 4. Symbolic Interactionism - deals with patterns of behavior in large units of
society such as organizations, communities, etc.
Example: Why does an individual in the community avoid eye contact when
talking to a stranger?

Context Analysis
● Anthropological Perspectives
● Unilineal Evolutionism
● Cultural Diffusionism
● Historical Particularism
● Cultural Materialism
● Anthropological Structuralism
● Anthropological Functionalism

Sociological Perspectives
● Evolutionism
● Sociological Conflict
● Symbolic Interactionism
● Sociological Functionalism

Culture and Society

Culture is a complex whole that encompasses beliefs, practices, values, attitudes, laws, norms,
artifacts, symbols, knowledge, and everything that a person learns and shares as a member of
society.

Society is derived from the Latin word “societas” or “socious” which means companion or
associate.
● Thus, Society refers to all people, collectively regarded as constituting a community of
related, interdependent individuals living in a particular place, following a certain mode of
life.
● It refers to a population of people that is organized in a cooperative manner.
● It is a population that occupies the same territory.

Perspective on Society and Culture

Aspects of Culture

Aspect here is defined as a particular part or feature of culture which has the following
characteristics:
● dynamic, flexible, & adaptive,
● shared & contested through time,
● learned through socialization or enculturation,
● patterned social interactions, and
● integrated and at times unstable.

1. Artifacts - objects made by human beings either hand-made or mass-produced.

2. Arts and Recreation - arts, Music, Drama and Literatures, Games and Sports, and Use
of Leisure Time.
3. Clothes - the people usually wear in the community.
4. Custom and Traditions - the things we do. Passed through centuries, generations, and
time by our common ancestors.
5. Food - the staple food that the people in the community often eat
6. Government - the one that implement rules, keep peace and order, and address
conflicts in the community.
7. Knowledge - the psychological result of perception, learning, and reasoning
8. Language - the mental faculty or power of vocal communication.
9. Religion - astrong belief in a supernatural power that controls human destiny.
10. Shelter - a structure that provides privacy and protection from danger.
11. Tools - objects used to improve the performance of a task.
12. Values - the morals that we live by.

Culture Superiority and Inferiority

1. Ethnocentrism - iis the tendency to judge other cultures by one's own standards.
● Ethnocentrism refers to the tendency to view one's own culture as the norm. There is a
tendency to assume one's culture is superior to others.
2. Xenocentrism - the extreme likeness for things that are foreign. It is the belief that what
is foreign is best in terms of one’s lifestyle, products, or ideas.
3. Cultural Relativism - is the recognition that one culture can not be arbitrarily judged by
the standards of another. Every culture must be “judged” by its own culture criteria
because standards of right and wrong and good and bad are relative to the cultural
context within which they appear.

Conclusion

Cultural Relativism
● A cultural relativist would say that Japanese think they are the smartest people because
that’s their standpoint.
Ethnocentrism And Xenocentrism
● Filipinos are outstanding workers all around the world.
● Philippines is only a Third World country.

Cultural Relativism - Context

Ethnocentrism - Superior
Xenocentrism - Inferior

Becoming A Member of Society

Theoretical Perspectives on Enculturation and Socialization

 1. Looking Glass Self Theory - states that a person’s sense of self is actually derived
from the perception of others as we perceive ourselves on how other people think of
us (coined by Charles Horton Cooley).
2. Role Taking Theory - the development of social awareness is traced by our social
interaction. We learn more ways to draw out desired behavior from others.
3. Me and I Theory - Me as the perceptions of what others think of us; I as the
independent and unpredictable side of ourselves (coined by George Herbert Mead).

Acculturation, Enculturation, and Socialization

1. Acculturation - this implies the process of transforming the cultural beliefs and customs
of one's own culture, by adopting traits of a different culture, while retaining their own
culture origin.
2. Enculturation - means the process of acquiring the rules, norms, values, customs, and
guidelines of a culture in order to be a part of society.
3. Socialization - this refers to a lifelong social experience by which people develop their
human potential and learn about culture.
4. Socialization - through the process of socialization, the students learned that it is the
norm to greet their teacher, the value from which this norm is derived is respect.

Agents Socialization
1. Family - has a major impact on Socialization. Lays down our sense of self, forming our
initial motivations, values, and beliefs.
2. School - the primary agent of Socialization. Schools were able to contribute to
self-development by exposing us to people who are not relatives, thus exposing us to
new attitudes, values, and ways of looking at the world.
3. Peers - this eases the transition from adolescence to adult responsibilities, for it offers
young people an identity that supports some independence from their families.
4. Mass Media - this is the primary source of information about the world, thus enabling us
to view a wide range of role models and occupations.
5. Workplace - this allows us to learn to behave properly within an occupation, at the same
time, indicates that one has passed out adolescence stage.

Deviance and Conformity

1. Deviance - is recognized as the violation of cultural norms.
2. Conformity - is the act of exhibiting the same behavior in a society.

Types of Deviance
1. Innovation - rejection of the use of socially acceptable means to achieve success.
2. Ritualism - reject the importance of success goals but continue to toil as conscientious
and diligent workers.
3. Retreatism - withdrawal from society and does not care about success.
4. Rebellion - attempts to change the goals and means of society.

Categories of Norms
 1. Folkways - socially accepted behaviors that have no moral underpinnings
Example:
Americans: rude for a visitor to make slurping sounds when consuming soup
Koreans: encourages it
2. Mores - norms related to Moral Conventions
Examples:
Abortions, Use of Contraceptives, Religious Practices
3. Taboos - behaviors that are absolutely forbidden in a specific culture
Example:
Cannibalism, Incest
4. Laws - rules and regulations implemented by the state, making them the prime source of
social control. - violations of the laws are met with punishments of ostracism, fines, and
imprisonment.

Conformity
1. Social Control - is the set of means to ensure people that people generally behave in
expected, approved ways.
2. Internal Social Control - refers to the socialization developed within the individual as
we do things we know it is the right thing to do.
3. External Social Control - refers to social sanctions or the system of rewards and
punishments.

Human Dignity, Rights, and Common Good

1. Human Dignity
● The basic fundamental human right.
● An idea that a person has an innate right to be valued, respected, and treated well.
Violations of Human Dignity
● Humiliation
● Degrading treatment
● Poverty
● Torture and War
● Slavery
2. Human Rights
● Inherent to all human beings
● These are standards that allow all people to live with dignity, freedom, equality, justice
and peace.
3. Common Good
● Public interest
● The common good is reached when we work together to improve the well-being of
people in our society and the wider world.