Multiphase Flows

In addition, ANSYS Fluent offers a Full Multiphase Coupled solver where all velocities, pressure correction
and volume fraction correction are solved simultaneously, which currently is not as robust as the others.

Furthermore, ANSYS Fluent has an option to solve stratified immiscible fluids within the Eulerian mul-
tiphase formulation. This feature is similar to the single fluid VOF solution, but in the context of multiple
velocities.

17.3. Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

Information is organized into the following subsections:
17.3.1. Overview of the VOF Model
17.3.2. Limitations of the VOF Model
17.3.3. Steady-State and Transient VOF Calculations
17.3.4. Volume Fraction Equation
17.3.5. Material Properties
17.3.6. Momentum Equation
17.3.7. Energy Equation
17.3.8. Additional Scalar Equations
17.3.9.Time Dependence
17.3.10. Surface Tension and Adhesion
17.3.11. Open Channel Flow
17.3.12. Open Channel Wave Boundary Conditions
17.3.13. Coupled Level-Set and VOF Model

17.3.1. Overview of the VOF Model

The VOF model can model two or more immiscible fluids by solving a single set of momentum equations
and tracking the volume fraction of each of the fluids throughout the domain. Typical applications include
the prediction of jet breakup, the motion of large bubbles in a liquid, the motion of liquid after a dam
break, and the steady or transient tracking of any liquid-gas interface.

17.3.2. Limitations of the VOF Model

The following restrictions apply to the VOF model in ANSYS Fluent:

• You must use the pressure-based solver. The VOF model is not available with the density-based solver.

• All control volumes must be filled with either a single fluid phase or a combination of phases. The VOF
model does not allow for void regions where no fluid of any type is present.

• Only one of the phases can be defined as a compressible ideal gas. There is no limitation on using com-
pressible liquids using user-defined functions.

• Streamwise periodic flow (either specified mass flow rate or specified pressure drop) cannot be modeled
when the VOF model is used.

• The second-order implicit time-stepping formulation cannot be used with the VOF explicit scheme.

• When tracking particles in parallel, the DPM model cannot be used with the VOF model if the shared
memory option is enabled (Parallel Processing for the Discrete Phase Model in the User's Guide). (Note
that using the message passing option, when running in parallel, enables the compatibility of all multiphase
flow models with the DPM model.)

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

17.3.3. Steady-State and Transient VOF Calculations

The VOF formulation in ANSYS Fluent is generally used to compute a time-dependent solution, but for
problems in which you are concerned only with a steady-state solution, it is possible to perform a
steady-state calculation. A steady-state VOF calculation is sensible only when your solution is independent
of the initial conditions and there are distinct inflow boundaries for the individual phases. For example,
since the shape of the free surface inside a rotating cup depends on the initial level of the fluid, such
a problem must be solved using the time-dependent formulation. On the other hand, the flow of water
in a channel with a region of air on top and a separate air inlet can be solved with the steady-state
formulation.

The VOF formulation relies on the fact that two or more fluids (or phases) are not interpenetrating. For
each additional phase that you add to your model, a variable is introduced: the volume fraction of the
phase in the computational cell. In each control volume, the volume fractions of all phases sum to unity.
The fields for all variables and properties are shared by the phases and represent volume-averaged
values, as long as the volume fraction of each of the phases is known at each location. Thus the variables
and properties in any given cell are either purely representative of one of the phases, or representative
of a mixture of the phases, depending upon the volume fraction values. In other words, if the

 fluid’s
volume fraction in the cell is denoted as  , then the following three conditions are possible:

•   = : The cell is empty (of the 

 fluid).

•
 = : The cell is full (of the 
 fluid).

< 
•  < : The cell contains the interface between the  fluid and one or more other fluids.
Based on the local value of  , the appropriate properties and variables will be assigned to each control
volume within the domain.

17.3.4. Volume Fraction Equation

The tracking of the interface(s) between the phases is accomplished by the solution of a continuity
equation for the volume fraction of one (or more) of the phases. For the 
 phase, this equation has
the following form:
∂ ! 
  + ∇ ⋅     =   # + ∑ 
ur
 ɺ −
ɺ  (17.8)
  ∂  =" 

where $
ɺ %& is the mass transfer from phase ' to phase ( and )
ɺ *+ is the mass transfer from phase ,
to phase -. By default, the source term on the right-hand side of Equation 17.8 (p. 475), ./ , is zero, but
0
you can specify a constant or user-defined mass source for each phase. See Modeling Mass Transfer in
Multiphase Flows (p. 579) for more information on the modeling of mass transfer in ANSYS Fluent’s
general multiphase models.

The volume fraction equation will not be solved for the primary phase; the primary-phase volume
fraction will be computed based on the following constraint:

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Multiphase Flows


∑
= (17.9)

=
The volume fraction equation may be solved either through implicit or explicit time discretization.

17.3.4.1. The Implicit Scheme

When the implicit scheme is used for time discretization, ANSYS Fluent’s standard finite-difference in-
terpolation schemes, QUICK, Second Order Upwind and First Order Upwind, and the Modified HRIC
schemes, are used to obtain the face fluxes for all cells, including those near the interface.
  +  +  −   +  +  + 
 
 + ∑     =    + ∑
ɺ  −

ɺ   
(17.10)
   =  
Since this equation requires the volume fraction values at the current time step (rather than at the
previous step, as for the explicit scheme), a standard scalar transport equation is solved iteratively for
each of the secondary-phase volume fractions at each time step.

The implicit scheme can be used for both time-dependent and steady-state calculations. See Choosing
a Volume Fraction Formulation in the User's Guide for details.

17.3.4.2. The Explicit Scheme

In the explicit approach, ANSYS Fluent’s standard finite-difference interpolation schemes are applied
to the volume fraction values that were computed at the previous time step.
 +  +  
 −      
 + ∑      =  ∑  ɺ  − 
ɺ  +   !  (17.11)
   =  

where
" + = index for new (current) time step
# = index for previous time step
$ % ' & = face value of the ( )* volume fraction, computed from the first- or second-
order upwind, QUICK, modified HRIC, compressive, or CICSAM scheme
+ = volume of cell
, - = volume flux through the face, based on normal velocity

This formulation does not require iterative solution of the transport equation during each time step, as
is needed for the implicit scheme.

Important

When the explicit scheme is used, a time-dependent solution must be computed.

When the explicit scheme is used for time discretization, the face fluxes can be interpolated either using
interface reconstruction or using a finite volume discretization scheme (Interpolation Near the Inter-
face (p. 477)). The schemes available in ANSYS Fluent for the explicit formulation are discussed in Explicit
Schemes in the User's Guide.

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

17.3.4.3. Interpolation Near the Interface

ANSYS Fluent’s control-volume formulation requires that convection and diffusion fluxes through the
control volume faces be computed and balanced with source terms within the control volume itself.

In the geometric reconstruction and donor-acceptor schemes, ANSYS Fluent applies a special interpolation
treatment to the cells that lie near the interface between two phases. Figure 17.2: Interface Calcula-
tions (p. 477) shows an actual interface shape along with the interfaces assumed during computation
by these two methods.

Figure 17.2: Interface Calculations

The explicit scheme and the implicit scheme treat these cells with the same interpolation as the cells
that are completely filled with one phase or the other (that is, using the standard upwind (First-Order
Upwind Scheme (p. 633)), second-order (Second-Order Upwind Scheme (p. 634)), QUICK (QUICK
Scheme (p. 636)), modified HRIC (Modified HRIC Scheme (p. 638)), compressive (The Compressive and
Zonal Discretization Schemes (p. 479)), or CICSAM scheme (The Compressive Interface Capturing Scheme
for Arbitrary Meshes (CICSAM) (p. 479)), rather than applying a special treatment.

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Multiphase Flows

17.3.4.3.1. The Geometric Reconstruction Scheme

In the geometric reconstruction approach, the standard interpolation schemes that are used in ANSYS
Fluent are used to obtain the face fluxes whenever a cell is completely filled with one phase or another.
When the cell is near the interface between two phases, the geometric reconstruction scheme is used.

The geometric reconstruction scheme represents the interface between fluids using a piecewise-linear
approach. In ANSYS Fluent this scheme is the most accurate and is applicable for general unstructured
meshes. The geometric reconstruction scheme is generalized for unstructured meshes from the work
of Youngs [504] (p. 756). It assumes that the interface between two fluids has a linear slope within each
cell, and uses this linear shape for calculation of the advection of fluid through the cell faces. (See Fig-
ure 17.2: Interface Calculations (p. 477).)

The first step in this reconstruction scheme is calculating the position of the linear interface relative to
the center of each partially-filled cell, based on information about the volume fraction and its derivatives
in the cell. The second step is calculating the advecting amount of fluid through each face using the
computed linear interface representation and information about the normal and tangential velocity
distribution on the face. The third step is calculating the volume fraction in each cell using the balance
of fluxes calculated during the previous step.

Important

When the geometric reconstruction scheme is used, a time-dependent solution must be

computed. Also, if you are using a conformal mesh (that is, if the mesh node locations are
identical at the boundaries where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are
no two-sided (zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit them,
as described in Slitting Face Zones in the User's Guide.

17.3.4.3.2. The Donor-Acceptor Scheme

In the donor-acceptor approach, the standard interpolation schemes that are used in ANSYS Fluent are
used to obtain the face fluxes whenever a cell is completely filled with one phase or another. When
the cell is near the interface between two phases, a “donor-acceptor” scheme is used to determine the
amount of fluid advected through the face [165] (p. 738). This scheme identifies one cell as a donor of
an amount of fluid from one phase and another (neighbor) cell as the acceptor of that same amount
of fluid, and is used to prevent numerical diffusion at the interface. The amount of fluid from one phase
that can be convected across a cell boundary is limited by the minimum of two values: the filled volume
in the donor cell or the free volume in the acceptor cell.

The orientation of the interface is also used in determining the face fluxes. The interface orientation is
either horizontal or vertical, depending on the direction of the volume fraction gradient of the


phase within the cell, and that of the neighbor cell that shares the face in question. Depending on the
interface’s orientation as well as its motion, flux values are obtained by pure upwinding, pure down-
winding, or some combination of the two.

Important

When the donor-acceptor scheme is used, a time-dependent solution must be computed.

Also, the donor-acceptor scheme can be used only with quadrilateral or hexahedral meshes.
In addition, if you are using a conformal mesh (that is, if the mesh node locations are
identical at the boundaries where two subdomains meet), you must ensure that there are

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

no two-sided (zero-thickness) walls within the domain. If there are, you will need to slit them,
as described in Slitting Face Zones in the User's Guide.

17.3.4.3.3. The Compressive Interface Capturing Scheme for Arbitrary Meshes (CICSAM)
The compressive interface capturing scheme for arbitrary meshes (CICSAM), based on Ubbink’s work
[457] (p. 754), is a high resolution differencing scheme. The CICSAM scheme is particularly suitable for
flows with high ratios of viscosities between the phases. CICSAM is implemented in ANSYS Fluent as
an explicit scheme and offers the advantage of producing an interface that is almost as sharp as the
geometric reconstruction scheme.

17.3.4.3.4. The Compressive and Zonal Discretization Schemes

The compressive scheme is a second order reconstruction scheme based on the slope limiter. The theory
below is applicable to zonal discretization and the phase localized compressive scheme, which use the
framework of the compressive scheme.
 = +
∇  (17.12)

where
 is the face VOF value
 is the donor cell VOF value
 is the slope limiter value
∇
is the donor cell VOF gradient value

• The slope limiter for the compressive scheme  is bound between 0 and 2. This scheme is available for
the VOF model, for both the implicit and explicit volume fraction schemes. It is also available for the Eu-
lerian multiphase model when the explicit scheme for the volume fraction is selected. Note that the
compressive scheme can be made available for the Eulerian multiphase model when the implicit volume
fraction scheme is selected as described in Implicit Schemes in the User's Guide.

• The slope limiter for the zonal discretization and phase localized compressive schemes can be summarized
in the table below:

Table 17.1: Slope Limiter Discretization Scheme

Slope Limiter Scheme

Value 
0 first order upwind
1 second order reconstruction bounded by the global minimum/maximum
of the volume fraction
2 compressive

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Multiphase Flows

Slope Limiter Scheme

Value
<
< and blended: where a value between 0 and 1 means blending of the first order
< < and second order and a value between 1 and 2 means blending of the
second order and compressive scheme

Note

1.  = represents the first order upwind scheme described in First-Order Upwind

Scheme (p. 633).

2.  = is analogous to the second order upwind scheme (Second-Order Upwind

Scheme (p. 634)), where the slope limiter is bounded between 0 and 1.

3.  = represents the compressive scheme described above, where the slope limiter is
bounded between 0 and 2.

• The slope limiter for the phase localized compressive scheme is calculated based on the specified values
of the interfacial slope limiters.

17.3.4.3.5. Bounded Gradient Maximization (BGM)

The BGM scheme is introduced to obtain sharp interfaces with the VOF model, comparable to that ob-
tained by the Geometric Reconstruction scheme. Currently this scheme is available only with the steady
state solver and cannot be used for transient problems. In the BGM scheme, discretization occurs in
such a way so as to maximize the local value of the gradient, by maximizing the degree to which the
face value is weighted towards the extrapolated downwind value [475] (p. 755).

17.3.5. Material Properties

The properties appearing in the transport equations are determined by the presence of the component
phases in each control volume. In a two-phase system, for example, if the phases are represented by
the subscripts 1 and 2, and if the volume fraction of the second of these is being tracked, the density
in each cell is given by
 =    + −    (17.13)

In general, for an
-phase system, the volume-fraction-averaged density takes on the following form:
 = ∑   (17.14)

All other properties (for example, viscosity) are computed in this manner.

17.3.6. Momentum Equation

A single momentum equation is solved throughout the domain, and the resulting velocity field is shared
among the phases. The momentum equation, shown below, is dependent on the volume fractions of
all phases through the properties  and .
∂ ur ur ur ur ur ur ur
  + ∇ ⋅    = − ∇  + ∇ ⋅  ∇  + ∇    +   +  (17.15)
∂  

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

One limitation of the shared-fields approximation is that in cases where large velocity differences exist
between the phases, the accuracy of the velocities computed near the interface can be adversely affected.

Note that if the viscosity ratio is more than , this may lead to convergence difficulties. The com-
pressive interface capturing scheme for arbitrary meshes (CICSAM) (The Compressive Interface Capturing
Scheme for Arbitrary Meshes (CICSAM) (p. 479)) is suitable for flows with high ratios of viscosities between
the phases, therefore solving the problem of poor convergence.

17.3.7. Energy Equation

The energy equation, also shared among the phases, is shown below.
∂ ur
 + ∇ ⋅   +  = ∇ ⋅ 
 ∇  +  (17.16)
∂
The VOF model treats energy, , and temperature,  , as mass-averaged variables:

∑  =  
=  (17.17)
∑  =  

where  for each phase is based on the specific heat of that phase and the shared temperature.

The properties  and   (effective thermal conductivity) are shared by the phases. The source term,
 , contains contributions from radiation, as well as any other volumetric heat sources.

As with the velocity field, the accuracy of the temperature near the interface is limited in cases where
large temperature differences exist between the phases. Such problems also arise in cases where the
properties vary by several orders of magnitude. For example, if a model includes liquid metal in com-
bination with air, the conductivities of the materials can differ by as much as four orders of magnitude.
Such large discrepancies in properties lead to equation sets with anisotropic coefficients, which in turn
can lead to convergence and precision limitations.

17.3.8. Additional Scalar Equations

Depending upon your problem definition, additional scalar equations may be involved in your solution.
In the case of turbulence quantities, a single set of transport equations is solved, and the turbulence
variables (for example,  and  or the Reynolds stresses) are shared by the phases throughout the field.

17.3.9. Time Dependence

For time-dependent VOF calculations, Equation 17.8 (p. 475) is solved using an explicit time-marching
scheme. ANSYS Fluent automatically refines the time step for the integration of the volume fraction
equation, but you can influence this time step calculation by modifying the Courant number. You can
choose to update the volume fraction once for each time step, or once for each iteration within each
time step. These options are discussed in more detail in Setting Time-Dependent Parameters for the
VOF Model in the User’s Guide.

17.3.10. Surface Tension and Adhesion

The VOF model can also include the effects of surface tension along the interface between each pair
of phases. The model can be augmented by the additional specification of the contact angles between

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Multiphase Flows

the phases and the walls, as well as the at porous jumps. You can specify a surface tension coefficient
as a constant, as a function of temperature through a polynomial, or as a function of any variable
through a UDF. The solver will include the additional tangential stress terms (causing what is termed
as Marangoni convection) that arise due to the variation in surface tension coefficient. Variable surface
tension coefficient effects are usually important only in zero/near-zero gravity conditions.

17.3.10.1. Surface Tension

Surface tension arises as a result of attractive forces between molecules in a fluid. Consider an air bubble
in water, for example. Within the bubble, the net force on a molecule due to its neighbors is zero. At
the surface, however, the net force is radially inward, and the combined effect of the radial components
of force across the entire spherical surface is to make the surface contract, thereby increasing the
pressure on the concave side of the surface. The surface tension is a force, acting only at the surface,
that is required to maintain equilibrium in such instances. It acts to balance the radially inward inter-
molecular attractive force with the radially outward pressure gradient force across the surface. In regions
where two fluids are separated, but one of them is not in the form of spherical bubbles, the surface
tension acts to minimize free energy by decreasing the area of the interface.

In ANSYS Fluent, two surface tension models exist: the continuum surface force (CSF) and the continuum
surface stress (CSS). The two models are described in detail in the sections that follow.

Note

The calculation of surface tension effects on triangular and tetrahedral meshes is not as ac-
curate as on quadrilateral and hexahedral meshes. The region where surface tension effects
are most important should therefore be meshed with quadrilaterals or hexahedra.

17.3.10.1.1. The Continuum Surface Force Model

The continuum surface force (CSF) model proposed by Brackbill et al. [41] (p. 731) has been implemented
such that the addition of surface tension to the VOF calculation results in a source term in the momentum
equation. To understand the origin of the source term, consider the special case where the surface
tension is constant along the surface, and where only the forces normal to the interface are considered.
It can be shown that the pressure drop across the surface depends upon the surface tension coefficient,
, and the surface curvature as measured by two radii in orthogonal directions,
 and  :
 
  −  =   +  (17.18)
   
where
 and  are the pressures in the two fluids on either side of the interface.

In ANSYS Fluent, a formulation of the CSF model is used, where the surface curvature is computed from
local gradients in the surface normal at the interface. Let  be the surface normal, defined as the
gradient of  , the volume fraction of the 
 phase.
 = ∇ (17.19)

The curvature, , is defined in terms of the divergence of the unit normal, ɵ [41] (p. 731):
 = ∇ ⋅ ɵ (17.20)

where

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ɵ= (17.21)

The surface tension can be written in terms of the pressure jump across the surface. The force at the
surface can be expressed as a volume force using the divergence theorem. It is this volume force that
is the source term that is added to the momentum equation. It has the following form:
    ∇   +     ∇  

 = ∑    (17.22)

    <   +
  
This expression allows for a smooth superposition of forces near cells where more than two phases are
present. If only two phases are present in a cell, then   = −   and ∇   = − ∇  , and Equa-
tion 17.22 (p. 483) simplifies to
 ∇ 
 =  ! " (17.23)
 + !
#
where $ is the volume-averaged density computed using Equation 17.14 (p. 480). Equation 17.23 (p. 483)
shows that the surface tension source term for a cell is proportional to the average density in the cell.

17.3.10.1.2. The Continuum Surface Stress Model

The Continuum Surface Stress (CSS) method is an alternative way to modeling surface tension in a
conservative manner, unlike the non-conservative formulation of the Continuum Surface Force (CSF)
method. CSS avoids the explicit calculation of curvature, and could be represented as an anisotropic
variant of modeling capillary forces based on surface stresses.

In the CSS method, the surface stress tensor due to surface tension is represented as
% =& ' −( ⊗ (
ur
( (17.24)
ur
) = ∇* (17.25)
ur
+
+ = ur (17.26)
+

where,
, = unit tensor
- = surface tension coefficient
⊗ = tensor product of the two vectors: the original normal and the transformed
normal
. = volume fraction
ur
/ = volume fraction gradient

 ∇2 ⊗ ∇2 
0 =1  ∇2 3 −  (17.27)
 ∇2 
The surface tension force is represented as
4677 = ∇ 5 (17.28)

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17.3.10.1.3. Comparing the CSS and CSF Methods

The CSS method provides few added advantages over the CSF method, especially for cases involving
variable surface tension. Both CSS and CSF methods introduce parasitic currents at the interface due
to the imbalance of the pressure gradient and surface tension force.

In the CSF method, the surface tension force is represented in a nonconservative manner as follows:
 =
 ∇  (17.29)

where k is the curvature. This expression is valid only for constant surface tension.

For variable surface tension, the CSF formulation requires you to model an additional term in the tan-
gential direction to the interface based on the surface tension gradient.

In the CSS method, surface tension force is represented in a conservative manner as follows:
  ∇ ⊗ ∇  
 = ∇    ∇
−  (17.30)
  ∇ 
The CSS method does not require any explicit calculation for the curvature. Therefore, It performs more
physically in under-resolved regions, such as sharp corners.

The CSS method does not require any additional terms for modeling variable surface tension due to its
conservative formulation.

17.3.10.1.4. When Surface Tension Effects Are Important

The importance of surface tension effects is determined based on the value of two dimensionless
quantities: the Reynolds number, Re, and the capillary number, ; or the Reynolds number, Re, and
the Weber number, . For Re ≪ , the quantity of interest is the capillary number:

 = (17.31)

and for Re ≫ , the quantity of interest is the Weber number:
 
 = (17.32)

where  is the free-stream velocity. Surface tension effects can be neglected if  ≫ or !≫ .

To include the effects of surface tension in your model, refer to Including Surface Tension and Adhesion
Effects in the User’s Guide.

17.3.10.2. Wall Adhesion

An option to specify a wall adhesion angle in conjunction with the surface tension model is also available
in the VOF model. The model is taken from work done by Brackbill et al. [41] (p. 731). Rather than impose
this boundary condition at the wall itself, the contact angle that the fluid is assumed to make with the
wall is used to adjust the surface normal in cells near the wall. This so-called dynamic boundary condition
results in the adjustment of the curvature of the surface near the wall.

If " # is the contact angle at the wall, then the surface normal at the live cell next to the wall is
$ɵ = $ɵ ' % ' + &ɵ' %' (17.33)

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

where ɵ
and ɵ  are the unit vectors normal and tangential to the wall, respectively. The combination
of this contact angle with the normally calculated surface normal one cell away from the wall determine
the local curvature of the surface, and this curvature is used to adjust the body force term in the surface
tension calculation.

To include wall adhesion in your model, refer to Including Surface Tension and Adhesion Effects in the
User's Guide.

17.3.10.3. Jump Adhesion

Similar to wall adhesion, there is also an option to provide jump adhesion when using the VOF model.
Here, the contact angle treatment is applicable to each side of the porous jump boundary by assuming
the same contact angle at both the sides.

Therefore, if   is the contact angle at the porous jump, then the surface normal at the neighboring
cell to the porous jump is
ɵ = ɵ  + ɵ  (17.34)

where
ɵ  and ɵ are the unit vectors normal and tangential to the porous jump, respectively.

To include jump adhesion in your model, refer to Steps for Setting Boundary Conditions in the User's
Guide.

ANSYS Fluent provides two methods of jump adhesion treatment at the porous jump boundary:

• Constrained Two-Sided Adhesion Treatment:

The constrained two-sided adhesion treatment option imposes constraints on the adhesion
treatment. Here, the contact angle treatment will be applied to only the side(s) of the porous
jump that is(are) adjacent to the non-porous fluid zones. Hence, the contact angle treatment
will not be applied to the side(s) of the porous jump that is(are) adjacent to porous media zones.
If the constrained two-sided adhesion treatment is disabled, the contact angle treatment will be
applied to all sides of the porous jump.

Note

This is the default treatment in ANSYS Fluent.

• Forced Two-Sided Adhesion:

ANSYS Fluent allows you to use forced two-sided contact angle treatment for fluid zones without
any imposed constraints. Refer to Steps for Setting Boundary Conditions in the User’s Guide to
learn how to apply this option.

17.3.11. Open Channel Flow

ANSYS Fluent can model the effects of open channel flow (for example, rivers, dams, and surface-piercing
structures in unbounded stream) using the VOF formulation and the open channel boundary condition.
These flows involve the existence of a free surface between the flowing fluid and fluid above it (generally
the atmosphere). In such cases, the wave propagation and free surface behavior becomes important.

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Multiphase Flows

Flow is generally governed by the forces of gravity and inertia. This feature is mostly applicable to
marine applications and the analysis of flows through drainage systems.

Open channel flows are characterized by the dimensionless Froude Number, which is defined as the
ratio of inertia force and hydrostatic force.


= (17.35)

where  is the velocity magnitude,  is gravity, and  is a length scale, in this case, the distance from
the bottom of the channel to the free surface. The denominator in Equation 17.35 (p. 486) is the
propagation speed of the wave. The wave speed as seen by the fixed observer is defined as
 =  ±
(17.36)

Based on the Froude number, open channel flows can be classified in the following three categories:

• When  < , that is,  <  (therefore  < 0 or  > 0), the flow is known to be subcritical where dis-
turbances can travel upstream as well as downstream. In this case, downstream conditions might affect
the flow upstream.

• When  = (therefore  = 0), the flow is known to be critical, where upstream propagating waves remain
stationary. In this case, the character of the flow changes.

• When  > , that is,  >  (therefore  > 0), the flow is known to be supercritical where disturbances
cannot travel upstream. In this case, downstream conditions do not affect the flow upstream.

17.3.11.1. Upstream Boundary Conditions

There are two options available for the upstream boundary condition for open channel flows:

• pressure inlet

• mass flow rate

17.3.11.1.1. Pressure Inlet

The total pressure ! at the inlet can be given as
r
") = #$ * + # − # ) r% & ⋅ ' − (r (17.37)

r r
where + and , are the position vectors of the face centroid and any point on the free surface, respect-
r
ively, Here, free surface is assumed to be horizontal and normal to the direction of gravity. - is the
r
gravity vector, . is the gravity magnitude, / is the unit vector of gravity, 0 is the velocity magnitude,
1 is the density of the mixture in the cell, and 2 3 is the reference density.
From this, the dynamic pressure 4 is
6
5= 7 8 (17.38)

and the static pressure 9: is

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

r r r
 =
−
  ⋅  − (17.39)

which can be further expanded to

r r
 = − 
 ⋅  +  (17.40)

where the distance from the free surface to the reference position, , is
r
 = −  ⋅  (17.41)

17.3.11.1.2. Mass Flow Rate

The mass flow rate for each phase associated with the open channel flow is defined by
ɺ -./01 = !-./01 "#$% -./01 &$'()*+, (17.42)

17.3.11.1.3. Volume Fraction Specification

In open channel flows, ANSYS Fluent internally calculates the volume fraction based on the input
parameters specified in the boundary conditions dialog box, therefore this option has been disabled.

For subcritical inlet flows (Fr < 1), ANSYS Fluent reconstructs the volume fraction values on the boundary
by using the values from the neighboring cells. This can be accomplished using the following procedure:

• Calculate the node values of volume fraction at the boundary using the cell values.

• Calculate the volume fraction at the each face of boundary using the interpolated node values.

For supercritical inlet flows (Fr > 1), the volume fraction value on the boundary can be calculated using
the fixed height of the free surface from the bottom.

17.3.11.2. Downstream Boundary Conditions

17.3.11.2.1. Pressure Outlet
Determining the static pressure is dependent on the Pressure Specification Method. Using the Free
Surface Level, the static pressure is dictated by Equation 17.39 (p. 487) and Equation 17.41 (p. 487),
otherwise you must specify the static pressure as the Gauge Pressure.

For subcritical outlet flows (Fr <1), if there are only two phases, then the pressure is taken from the
pressure profile specified over the boundary, otherwise the pressure is taken from the neighboring cell.
For supercritical flows (Fr > 1), the pressure is always taken from the neighboring cell.

17.3.11.2.2. Outflow Boundary

Outflow boundary conditions can be used at the outlet of open channel flows to model flow exits where
the details of the flow velocity and pressure are not known prior to solving the flow problem. If the
conditions are unknown at the outflow boundaries, then ANSYS Fluent will extrapolate the required
information from the interior.

It is important, however, to understand the limitations of this boundary type:

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• You can only use single outflow boundaries at the outlet, which is achieved by setting the flow rate
weighting to 1. In other words, outflow splitting is not permitted in open channel flows with outflow
boundaries.

• There should be an initial flow field in the simulation to avoid convergence issues due to flow reversal at
the outflow, which will result in an unreliable solution.

• An outflow boundary condition can only be used with mass flow inlets. It is not compatible with pressure
inlets and pressure outlets. For example, if you choose the inlet as pressure-inlet, then you can only use
pressure-outlet at the outlet. If you choose the inlet as mass-flow-inlet, then you can use either outflow
or pressure-outlet boundary conditions at the outlet. Note that this only holds true for open channel
flow.

• Note that the outflow boundary condition assumes that flow is fully developed in the direction perpen-
dicular to the outflow boundary surface. Therefore, such surfaces should be placed accordingly.

17.3.11.2.3. Backflow Volume Fraction Specification

ANSYS Fluent internally calculates the volume fraction values on the outlet boundary by using the
neighboring cell values, therefore, this option is disabled.

17.3.11.3. Numerical Beach Treatment

In certain applications, it is desirable to suppress the numerical reflection caused by an outlet boundary
for passing waves. To avoid wave reflection, a damping sink term is added in the momentum equation
for the cell zone in the vicinity of the pressure outlet boundary [341] (p. 748), [512] (p. 757).

= −
  +
        (17.43)

where
= vertical direction along gravity

= flow direction
 = momentum sink term in the  direction
 = linear damping resistance (1/s) (default value is 10)
 = quadratic damping resistance (1/m) (default value is 10)
 = velocity along the  direction
 = distance from the free surface level
 = distance along the flow direction 
  = damping function in the  direction
  = damping function in the  direction

The scaling factors in the  and  directions are defined by Equation 17.44 (p. 488) and Equa-
tion 17.45 (p. 489), respectively:
 − !
= (17.44)
 " − !

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

−

= (17.45)

 −


where the damping functions in the  and  directions, respectively, are

 =
  (17.46)
 = −  (17.47)

In Equation 17.44 (p. 488),   and   are the start and end points of the damping zone in the  direction.
In Equation 17.45 (p. 489),  and   are the free surface and bottom level along the  direction.

Note

Numerical beach treatment in ANSYS Fluent uses linear damping in the  direction and
quadratic damping in the  direction.

Note

This option is available with Open Channel Flow (p. 485) and Open Channel Wave Boundary
Conditions (p. 489).

To include numerical beach in your simulation, see Numerical Beach Treatment for Open Channels

17.3.12. Open Channel Wave Boundary Conditions

Open channel wave boundary conditions allow you to simulate the propagation of waves, which is
useful in the marine industry. Small amplitude wave theories are generally applicable to lower wave
steepness and lower relative depth, while finite amplitude wave theories are more appropriate for either
increasing wave steepness or increasing relative depth. Wave steepness is generally defined as the ratio
of wave height to wave length, and relative depth is defined as the ratio of wave height to the liquid
depth.

ANSYS Fluent provides the following wave theories for incoming surface gravity waves through velocity
inlet boundary conditions:

• First order Airy wave theory is applied to small amplitude waves in shallow to deep liquid depth
ranges, and is linear in nature.

• Higher order Stokes wave theories are applied to finite amplitude waves in intermediate to deep liquid
depth ranges, and are nonlinear in nature.

• Higher order Cnoidal/Solitary wave theories are applied to finite amplitude waves in shallow depth
ranges, and are nonlinear in nature.

Short gravity wave expressions for each wave theory are based on infinite liquid height, whereas shallow
or intermediate wave expressions are based on finite liquid height.

The wave height  is defined as follows:

= = !+ " (17.48)

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Multiphase Flows

where is the wave amplitude,
 is the wave amplitude at the trough, and   is the wave amplitude
at the crest. For linear wave theory,   =   and for nonlinear wave theory,  ≠ 
.

The wave number ( ) is:

= (17.49)

where  is the wave length.
The vector form for the wave number  is
ur
 =µ
 +   µ (17.50)

where  is the reference wave propagation direction,  is the direction opposite to gravity and  is the
direction normal to  and . The wave numbers in the  and  directions are defined by Equa-
tion 17.51 (p. 490) and Equation 17.52 (p. 490), respectively:
 =  (17.51)
!#=! " (17.52)

$ is the wave heading angle, which is defined as the angle between the wave front and reference wave
propagation direction, in the plane of % and &.

The effective wave frequency '( is defined as

ur ur
), = ) + * ⋅ + (17.53)
ur
where - is the wave frequency and . is the averaged velocity of the flow current. The effects of a
moving object could also be incorporated with the flow current when the flow is specified relative to
the motion of the moving object.

The wave speed or celerity / is defined as

1
0= (17.54)
2
The final velocity vector for incoming waves obtained by superposing all the velocity components is
represented as:
ur ur
3 = 4 +5 µ
6 + 7 µ8 + 9 µ: (17.55)

where ; , < , and = are the velocity components of the surface gravity wave in the > , ?, and @ directions,
respectively.

17.3.12.1. Airy Wave Theory

The wave profile for a linear wave is given as
A B C =D E (17.56)

where F is defined as follows:

G = H NI + H OJ − KPL + M (17.57)

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

and
are the space coordinates in the  and  directions, respectively,  is the phase difference, and
 is the time.

The wave frequency  is defined as follows for shallow/intermediate waves:

 = 
(17.58)

and as follows for short gravity waves:

 =  (17.59)

where  is the liquid height,  is the wave number, and  is the gravity magnitude.

The velocity components for the incident wave boundary condition can be described in terms of shal-
low/intermediate waves and short gravity waves.

Velocity Components for Shallow/Intermediate Waves

    +   
=   (17.60)
     
  +!
= " (17.61)
 !

Velocity Components for Short Gravity Waves

$ %&' ,-  * 
= )  + (17.62)
# (  * 
/01 56
.= 3 4 (17.63)
2

where 7 is the height from the free surface level in the direction 8, which is opposite to that of gravity.
For more information on how to use and set up this model, refer to Modeling Open Channel Wave
Boundary Conditions in the User’s Guide.

17.3.12.2. Stokes Wave Theories

The generalized expression for wave profiles for higher order theories (second to fifth order) is
@ @ @
9 : ; =< = + < > ?@@ + < > ? @A =
(17.64)
+ <B> @ ?BB + <@> @? BC A B
= + < > ? AA
C A
= + < > ? CC =

The generalized expression for the associated velocity potential for shallow/intermediate waves is

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Multiphase Flows


   + 

  +    + 


 

+ 



 
   + 
 

 =  
 + 

   +  (17.65)
 


      + 



     

 
and for short gravity waves, the velocity potential is
   =     (17.66)

The wave frequency  is defined as

"#
 =   +   +   !   (17.67)

$ %
where is the wave speed, is the gravity magnitude, , , and & '( ) *+
are functions of wave length,-.
and liquid height for shallow/intermediate waves and constant values for short gravity waves. Velocity
components for surface gravity waves are derived from the velocity potential function.

/ = ∂∂ 01 2 (17.68)

3 = ∂∂ 45 6 (17.69)

7 = ∂∂89 (17.70)

Refer to Lin's book for details on the numerical expressions [254] (p. 743).

17.3.12.3. Cnoidal/Solitary Wave Theory

Fluent formulates the Cnoidal/Solitary wave theories that are expressed using complex Jacobian and
elliptic functions based on the work by John D. Fenton (1998) [116] (p. 735). The cnoidal solution displays
long flat troughs and narrow crests of real waves in shallow waters. In the limit of infinite wavelength,
the cnoidal solution describes a solitary wave as a wave with a single hump, having no troughs. Due
to the complexity of the cnoidal wave theories, solitary wave theories are more widely used for shallow
depth regimes.

Note

For simplicity, the higher order terms, which are functions of relative depth, have been
omitted from the numerical details below. Refer to the work of John D. Fenton [116] (p. 735)
for detailed numerical expressions.

:
The elliptic function parameter, , is calculated by solving the following nonlinear equation:
;= = > ? + ?@A<BC ⋅DCEBC ⋅FBC>G (17.71)
< <
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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

Tough height from the bottom,
, is derived from the following relationship:
   
= − +  
 ⋅ 
 ⋅ 
 (17.72)
  

Wave number,  , is defined as:


= +  ⋅  ⋅  (17.73)
 

Wave celerity, !, is defined as:

 % & '  
" = #$ 01  +  −  + %)#$*+ ⋅ ,+-*+ ⋅ .*+'/  (17.74)
 $  ( '  
Wave frequency, 2, is defined as:
3 = 45 (17.75)

The wave profile for a shallow wave is defined as:

 : H 
6 7 8 = − 9 + 9 FG  + ;< = > + :?@9AB ⋅ CBDAB ⋅ 8AB>E  (17.76)
 9 FG 
Where I is defined as:
J = K P L − LS + K QM − NRO (17.77)

where T U is the translational distance from reference frame origin in the V direction.

Velocity components for the fifth order wave theories are expressed as:
  h d d− g ie d 
[Z bc i 
 
W =  X − YZ bc  − ∑ 

d = g 
 ∑ \ +Z 
 
 e = j  Z bc  f = j
i f ∑ 
X] ^ _ ` def   a (17.78)
   
 
  | x x− { }y x 
on vw } 
 
k =  l − mn vw  − ∑ 

x = { 
 ∑ p +n 
 
 y = ~  n vw  z = ~
} z ∑ 
lq r s t xyz   u (17.79)
   
 
= € Œ ‚ Œƒ„ … † ‡„ … † ˆ„ … †
’ Ž Ž−‘ “ + ‘ Ž
∑  ‚ Œ “ 
∑ ∑
 ‰ + (17.80)
    ƒ„“ •  − ‘– … † ‹ Ž
  Š+
Ž=‘    = ”   Œ  =‘

where — ˜™š are the numerical coefficients mentioned in the reference [116] (p. 735).

Note

Solitary wave theory expressions are derived by assuming that the waves have infinite wave
length. Based on this assumption we get:

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Multiphase Flows

 =

17.3.12.4. Nomenclature for Open Channel Waves

Symbol Description

 Reference wave propagation

direction

 direction normal to  and 

 Direction opposite to gravity

Wave Height

Wave Amplitude
 Liquid Height
  Trough Height

 Wave Length
 Wave Heading Angle
 Wave Number
 Wave Number in the  direc-
tion
 Wave Number in the  direc-
tion
 Wave Celerity
 Wave Frequency
 Effective Wave Frequency
 Elliptical Function Parameter
  Complete Elliptical Integral
of the First Kind
 Complete Elliptical Integral
of the Second Kind
!" # $ , %& ' ( , )* + , Jacobian Elliptic Functions
. Spatial coordinate in the -
direction
0 Spatial coordinate in the /
direction
2 Spatial coordinate in the 1
direction

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

Symbol Description

 Translational distance from
reference frame origin in the
direction
 Velocity Potential
ur Averaged velocity of flow

current
   Velocity components for sur-
face gravity waves in the  ,
, and
directions, respect-
ively.

17.3.12.5. Choosing a Wave Theory

Applying linear versus nonlinear wave theories to shallow waves is limited by the Ursell number. For
nonlinear waves, the Ursell number criterion is based on waves being single-crested, without producing
any secondary crests at the trough. Wave theories should be chosen in accordance with wave steepness
and relative depth, as waves try to acquire a nonlinear pattern with increasing wave steepness or relative
depth. Second and fourth order wave theories are more prone to produce secondary crests. Choosing
the correct wave theory for a particular application depends on the input parameters within the wave
breaking limit, as described below:

• Mandatory Check for Complete Wave Regime within Wave Breaking Limit

The wave height to liquid depth ratio   (relative depth) within the wave breaking limit is defined
as:
  =
   (17.81)
 
 =
   (17.82)
%&'(  !"#! $

The wave height to wave length depth ratio ) * (wave steepness) within the breaking limit is defined
as:
+ =
 ,  (17.83)
6789 -./01/-2345
: =
 ;  (17.84)
CDEF <=>?@A?>B

• Check for Wave Theories within Wave Breaking Limit

For this check, the wave type is represented with the appropriate wave theory in the following
manner:

– Linear Wave: Airy Wave Theory

– Stoke Wave: Fifth Order Stoke Wave Theory

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– Shallow Wave: Fifth Order Cnoidal/Solitary Wave Theory

Checks for wave theories between second to fourth order are performed between linear and fifth
order Stokes wave.

– Wave Regime Check

The liquid height to wave length ratio
for short gravity waves is defined as:

   = (17.85)

For Stokes wave in shallow regime the ratio is defined as:

   = (17.86)


For shallow waves, the ratio is defined as:

  = (17.87)

– Wave Steepness Check

The wave height to wave length ratio   for linear waves is defined as:
 =
 
      (17.88)
  
For Stokes wave in shallow regime, the ratio is defined as:
 =
 
      (17.89)
  
For shallow waves, the ratio is defined as:
! =
 $
 "   #  (17.90)
%&'  "
• Relative Depth Check

The wave height to liquid depth ratio ( ) for a linear wave is defined as:
* =
 +  (17.91)
,-.
For Stokes wave in shallow regime the ratio is defined as:
/ =
 0  (17.92)
123
For shallow waves, the ratio is defined as:
4 =
 5  (17.93)
678

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

• Ursell Number Stability Criterion

The Ursell number is defined as:

 

=  (17.94)

The Ursell number stability criterion for a linear wave is defined as:


 = (17.95)

The criterion for Stokes wave in shallow regime is defined as:


  =  (17.96)

The criterion for shallow waves is defined as:


  =  (17.97)

17.3.12.6. Superposition of Waves

The principle of superposition of waves can be applied to two or more waves simultaneously passing
through the same medium. The resultant wave pattern is produced by the summation of wave profiles
and velocity potentials of the individual waves. Depending on the nature of the superposition, the fol-
lowing phenomena are possible:

• Interference: Superposition of waves of the same frequency and wave heights, travelling in the same dir-
ection. Constructive interference occurs in cases of waves travelling in the same phase, while destructive
interference occurs in cases of waves travelling in opposite phases.

• Beats/Wave Group: Superposition of waves of same wave heights travelling in the same direction with
nearly equal frequencies. The beats are generated by increase/decrease in the resultant frequency of the
waves over time.

For marine applications, this concept of wave superposition is known as a Wave Group. In a wave
group, packets (group) of waves move with a group velocity that is slower than the phase speed of
each individual wave within the packet.

• Stationary/Standing Waves: Superposition of identical waves travelling in opposite directions. This super-
position forms a stationary wave where each particle executes simple harmonic motion with the same
frequency but different amplitudes.

• Irregular Waves: Superposition of waves with different wave heights, frequencies, phase differences, and
direction of propagation. Irregular sea waves are quite common in marine applications, and can be modeled
by superimposing multiple waves.

Note

The superposition principle is only valid for linear and small-amplitude waves. Superposition
of finite amplitude waves may be approximate or invalid because of their nonlinear behavior
and dependency of the wave dispersion on wave height.

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17.3.13. Coupled Level-Set and VOF Model

The level-set method is a popular interface-tracking method for computing two-phase flows with topo-
logically complex interfaces. This is similar to the interface tracking method of the VOF model. In the
level-set method [335] (p. 747), the interface is captured and tracked by the level-set function, defined
as a signed distance from the interface. Because the level-set function is smooth and continuous, its
spatial gradients can be accurately calculated. This in turn will produce accurate estimates of interface
curvature and surface tension force caused by the curvature. However, the level-set method is found
to have a deficiency in preserving volume conservation [327] (p. 747). On the other hand, the VOF
method is naturally volume-conserved, as it computes and tracks the volume fraction of a particular
phase in each cell rather than the interface itself. The weakness of the VOF method lies in the calculation
of its spatial derivatives, since the VOF function (the volume fraction of a particular phase) is discontinuous
across the interface. To overcome the deficiencies of the level-set method and the VOF method, a
coupled level-set and VOF approach is provided in ANSYS Fluent.

Important

The coupled level-set and VOF model is specifically designed for two-phase flows, where no
mass transfer is involved and is applied to transient flow problems only. The mesh should
be restricted to quadrilateral, triangular or a combination of both for 2D cases and restricted
to hexahedral, tetrahedral or a combination of both for 3D cases.

To learn how to use this model, refer to Including Coupled Level Set with the VOF Model

17.3.13.1. Theory
The level-set function is defined as a signed distance to the interface. Accordingly, the interface is the
zero level-set,
  and can be expressed as  =     = in a two-phase flow system:
 + ∈

= ∈ (17.98)
 ∈

where  is the distance from the interface.
The normal and curvature of the interface, which is needed in the computation of the surface tension
force, can be estimated as
uv ∇

=
∇
=
(17.99)

∇
=∇ ⋅
∇  =
(17.100)

The evolution of the level-set function can be given in a similar fashion as to the VOF model:
∂ uv
+∇⋅  = (17.101)
∂
uv
Where  is the underlying velocity field.

And the momentum equation can be written as

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 Volume of Fluid (VOF) Model Theory

uv
∂



= − ∇  + ∇ ⋅  ∇
+ ∇

−   ∇  +
uv uv uv uv uv
+∇⋅ (17.102)
∂
 +     
  = if  <  and  =  (where  is the grid spacing), otherwise   = .  is the

surface tension coefficient.

17.3.13.1.1. Re-initialization of the Level-set Function via the Geometrical Method

By nature of the transport equation of the level-set function Equation 17.101 (p. 498), it is unlikely that
the distance constraint of ∇ = is maintained after its solution. The reasons for the lack of maintenance
is due to the deformation of the interface, uneven profile, and thickness across the interface. Those errors
will accumulate during the iteration process and cause large errors in mass and momentum solutions.
A re-initialization process is therefore required for each time step. The geometrical interface-front con-
struction method is used here. The geometrical method involves a simple concept and is reliable in
producing accurate geometrical data for the interface front. The values of the VOF and the level-set
function are both used to reconstruct the interface-front. Namely, the VOF model provides the size of
the cut in the cell where the likely interface passes through, and the gradient of the level-set function
determines the direction of the interface.

The concept of piecewise linear interface construction (PLIC) is also employed to construct the interface-
front. The procedure for the interface–front reconstruction can be briefly described as follows and as
shown in Figure 17.3: Schematic View of the Interface Cut Through the Front Cell (p. 499):

1. Locate the interface front cells, where the sign(!) is alternating or the value of the volume fraction
is between 0 and 1, that is, a partially filled cell.

2. Calculate the normal of the interface segment in each front cell from the level-set function gradients.

3. Position the cut-through, making sure at least one corner of the cell is occupied by the designated
phase in relation to the neighboring cells.

4. Find the intersection between the cell centerline normal to the interface and the interface so that
the VOF is satisfied.

5. Find the intersection points between the interface line and the cell boundaries; these intersection
points are designated as front points.

Figure 17.3: Schematic View of the Interface Cut Through the Front Cell

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Multiphase Flows

Once the interface front is reconstructed, the procedure for the minimization of the distance from a
given point to the interface can begin as follows:

1. Calculate the distance of the given point in the domain to each cut-segment of the front cell. The
method for the distance calculation is as follows:

a. If the normal line starting from the given point to the interface intersects within the cut-segment,
then the calculated distance will be taken as the distance to the interface.

b. If the intersection point is beyond the end points of the cut-segment, the shortest distance from the
given point to the end points of the cut-segment will be taken as the distance to the interface cut-
segment, as shown in Figure 17.4: Distance to the Interface Segment (p. 500).

2. Minimize all possible distances from the given point to all front cut-segments, so as to represent the
distance from the given point to the interface. Thus, the values of these distances will be used to re-ini-
tialize the level-set function.

Figure 17.4: Distance to the Interface Segment

17.3.13.2. Limitations
The current implementation of the model is only suitable for two-phase flow regime, where two fluids
are not interpenetrating. The level-set model can only be used when the VOF model is activated. Note
that no mass transfer is permitted.

17.4. Mixture Model Theory

Information is organized into the following subsections:
17.4.1. Overview
17.4.2. Limitations
17.4.3. Continuity Equation
17.4.4. Momentum Equation
17.4.5. Energy Equation
17.4.6. Relative (Slip) Velocity and the Drift Velocity
17.4.7. Volume Fraction Equation for the Secondary Phases
17.4.8. Granular Properties
17.4.9. Granular Temperature

Release 15.0 - © SAS IP, Inc. All rights reserved. - Contains proprietary and confidential information
500 of ANSYS, Inc. and its subsidiaries and affiliates.