REVIEWS IN ECONOMIC GEOLOGY Volume 2 GEOLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF EPITHERMAL SYSTEMS B. R. Berger & P. M. Bethke, Editors CONTENTS ‘THE GEOTHERMAL FRAMEWORK FOR EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS R. W. Henley ‘A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE THERMODYNAMICS OF GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS AND HYDROTHERMAL ORE DEPOSITS R. W. Henley & K. L. Brown ‘THE BEHAVIOR OF SILICA IN HYDROTHERMAL SOLUTIONS R.O. Fournier CARBONATE TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION IN THE EPITHERMAL ENVIRONMENT R.O. Fournier FLUID INCLUSION SYSTEMATICS IN EPITHERMAL SYSTEMS R. J. Bodnar, T. J. Reynolds, & C.A. Kuehn LIGHT STABLE-ISOTOPE SYSTEMATICS IN THE EPITHERMAL ENVIRONMENT C.W. Field & R. H. Fifarek GEOLOGIC, MINERALOGIC, AND GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ‘VOLCANIC-HOSTED EPITHERMAL PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS D. 0. Hayba, P. M. Betike, P. Heald, & N. K. Foley GEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENT-HOSTED, DISSEMINATED PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATES W.C. Bagby & B. R. Berger RELATIONSHIP OF TRACE-ELEMENT PATTERNS TO ALTERATION AND MORPHOLOGY IN EPITHERMAL PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS ‘M.L. Silberman & B. R. Berger RELATIONSHIPS OF TRACE-ELEMENT PATTERNS TO GEOLOGY IN HOT-SPRING ‘TYPE PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS B. R. Berger & M. L. Silberman BOILING, COOLING, AND OXIDATION IN EPITHERMAL SYSTEMS: A NUMERICAL, ‘MODELING APPROACH M. H. Reed & N. Spycher USING GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION TO DEVELOP EXPLORATION STRATEGIES FOR EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS S. 8. Adams Series Editor: James M. Robertson SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTSREVIEWS IN ECONOMIC GEOLOGY ASSN 0741-0123) Published Annually by the SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTS Printed by BookCrafters, Inc., 140 Buchanan Street, Chelsea, MI 48118 ‘Series Editor: James M. Robertson ‘Additional copies of this volume may be obtained from: ‘The Economic Geology Publishing Company P.O. Box 637 University of Texas at El Paso EI Paso, TX 79968-0637 USA (915) 533-1965 Vol. 1; FLUID-MINERAL EQUILIBRIA IN HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS (1984) ISBN 0-9613074-0-4 Vol. 2; GEOLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF EPITHERMAL SYSTEMS (1985) Reviews in Economic Geology is a publication of the Society of Economic Geologists designed to accompany the Society's Short Course series. Like the Shor Courses, each volume provides intensive ‘updates on various applied and academic topics for practicing eco- nomic geologists and geochemists in exploration, development, re- Search, and teaching. 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To place a standing order, notify the Economic Geology Publishing Company (PUBCO) business office at the address given above. ‘Address Change. Standitg-order holders please note thatthe PUB (CO business office must be totifed ofa change of address at eas four ‘weeks prior to mailing out avolume, It is essential to submit a copy of ‘your mailing label for reference. Replacement Policy. Missing volumes will be replaced without ‘charge to standing-order nlders who notify the PUBCO business ‘office within sx weeks (six nonths for India and Australia) of the date 4 new Short Course is given and new volume produced ‘Remittances should be made payable to PUBCO, Reviews in Economic Geology, and stould be mailed to the PUBCO business offic atthe address given sove. Also all other business communice- tions should be addressed t that office.REVIEWS IN ECONOMIC GEOLOGY (ISSN 0741-0123) Volume 2 GEOLOGY AND GEOCHEMISTRY OF EPITHERMAL SYSTEMS ISBN 0-9613074-1-2 Volume Editors: B. R. BERGER P.M. BETHKE Branch of Exploraton Geochemistry Branch of Resource Analysis U.S. Geological Survey U.S. Geological Survey MS 973 MS 959, National Center Box 25046, Federal Center Reston, VA 22092 Denver, CO 80225-0046 Series Editor: JAMES M. ROBERTSON New Mexico Bureau of Mines & Mineral Resources Campus Station Socorro, NM 87801 SOCIETY OF ECONOMIC GEOLOGISTSThe Authors: Samuel S. Adams 3030 Third Street Boulder, CO 80302 William C. Bagby Branch of Western Mineral Resources U.S. Geological Survey MS 901 345 Middlefield Road Menlo Park, CA 94025 B. R. Berger Branch of Exploration Geochemistry U.S. Geological Survey Ms 973 Box 25046, Federal Center Denver, CO 80225-0046 Philip M. Bethke Branch of Resource Analysis U.S. Geological Survey MS 959, National Center Reston, VA 22092 R. J. Bodnar Department of Geological Sciences Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University Blacksburg, VA 20461 K. L. Brown Chemistry Division D.S.LR., Private Bag Taupo New Zealand Cyrus W. Field Department of Geology Oregon State University Corvallis, OR 97331-5506 Richard H. Fifarek Department of Geology Southern Illinois University Carbondale, IL 62901 N. K. Foley Branch of Resource Analysis U.S. Geological Survey MS 959, National Center Reston, VA 22092 Robert 0. Fournier Branch of Igneous and Geothermal Processes U.S Geological Survey Ms 910 345 Midilefield Road Menlo Park, CA 94025 Daniel O. Hayba Branch of Resource Analysis U.S. Geological Survey MS 959, National Center Reston, VA 22092 Pamela Heald Branch of Resource Analysis U.S. Geological Survey MS 959, National Center Reston, VA 22092 R. W. Henley Chemistry Divsion DS.LR., Private Bag Taupo New Zealand C. A. Kuehn Department of Geosciences ‘The Pennsylvania State University University Park, PA 16802 Mark H. Reed Department of Geology University of Oregon Eugene, OR 97403 T. J. Reynolds FLUID, Inc. P.O. Box 6873 Denver, CO 80206 M. L. Silberman Branch of Exploration Geochemistry U.S. Geological Survey Ms 912 Box 25046, Federal Center Denver, CO 80225-0046 N. Spycher Department of Geology University of Oregon Eugene, OR 97403FOREWORD « PREFACE 2s se BIOGRAPHIES. INTRODUCTION « « HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN GENERAL GEOLOGY & GEOCHEMISTRY OF EPITHERMAL SYSTEMS CONTENTS. ‘THE GEOTHERMAL, FRAMEVORK OF EPTTHEEMAL DEPOSITS Re W. Henley Collieion-Related Anagnatic # Terrestrial Magua-felated Hydrothermal Syste ‘TERRESTRIAL MAGMATIC-HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS Large Scale Structure Natural Discharges Hydrothermal Eruption Vents Heat and Nass Flow in Geothermal Systens (CHEMISTRY OF GEOTHERMAL DISCHARGES ©. s+. EPTTHERMAL ORE-FORMING SYSTEMS . . . jrothermal Syetens Requirenente for Ore Deposition Chemistry of Systens Responsible for Ore Formation Ghemfeal and Physical Processes in Ore Formation Host-Rock Relations SUMMARY oe se EPILOGUE. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS REFERENCES » « « [A PRACTICAL GUIDE TO THE THERMODYNAMICS OF GEOTHERMAL FLUIDS AND HYDROTHERMAL. ORE DEPOSITS Re We Henley and Xe Ls Brown INTRODUCTION ses ee ee ee eee GEOLOGICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE BROADLANDS GEOTHERMAL SYSTEM... 2+. +s ar FLUID CHEMISTRY # n 2 1” a a a 5 25 2%FLUID-MINERAL EQUILIBRIA: ALTERATION MINERALOGY FLUID-MINERAL EQUILIBRIA: TRACE-METAL CONTENTS MINERAL DEPOSITION. see eee tee eee eee Silica Caleite Metal Sulfides and Gold ACKNOWLEDOMENTS 6 ee ee ee ee eee eee REVIEW QUESTIONS «2 ee ee ee eee eee REFERENCES Fs se eee ee ee ee eee eee ROE ee ee) CHAPTER 3 ‘THE BEHAVIOR OF SILICA IN HYDROTHERMAL. Re 0. Fournier INTRODUCTION 0 ee ee eee eee eee SOLUBILITIES OF SILICA MINERALS » +e. e se ‘TE BEHAVIOR OF DISSOLVED SILICA IN HOT-SPRING SYSTEMS ALKALINE WATERS 6 ee ee ee eee ee ACID WATERS oo ee eee eee REACTION WITH GLASS see eee ee ee eens AMORPHOUS SILICA~CHALCEDONY RELATIONS ss. + SPECULATIONS REGARDING SOME TEXTURES OF QUARTZ « Jasperotd and Massive Replacement of Limestone by Silica ‘Quarts Solubility at High Tenperatures CONCLUSIONS © se eee eee ee eee erer ACKENOWLEDOMENTS 2 vee ee ee eer REFERENCES © vee ete tee eee eee APPENDIX este eee e eter teers SOLUTIONS. 3 a a a se eeCHAPTER 4 ‘CARBONATE TRANSPORT AND DEPOSITION IN THE EPITHERMAL. ENVIRONMENT Re 0» Fourier INTRODUCTION ov ce ce eee ee tee e eens 8 op DISSOLVED IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS ©. eee eee ee ee eee eee eee ee eee THE SOLUBILITY OF CALCITE IN AQUEOUS SOLUTIONS . oe ee ee eee eee eee iE ee eee eee era cuaPren 5 FLUID-INCLUSION SYSTEMATICS IN EPITHERMAL SYSTEMS R. J. Bodnar, 2. J. Reynolde, and C. A. Kuohn INTRODUCTION Soe eee ee eee eee B INFORMATION AVATLABLE FROM FLULD-INCLUSION PETROGRAPHY 66 ss ee eee eee ee eee IDENTIFICATION OF FLUID INCLUSIONS TRAPPED FROM BOTLING SOLUTIONS - see eee eee ee 7 IDENTIFICATION OF GASES IN FLUTD INCLUSIONS FROM THE RPTTHERMAT. ENVIROMENT vee ee eee ee ee eee tee tee tee eee eee 8 INTERPRETATION OF FLUID INCLUSIONS FROM THE EPITHERMAL ENVIRONMENT 6 6. eee eee ee 98 APPLICATION OF FLUID TNCLUSTONS IN EXPLORATION FOR EPITHERMAL PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS vss e erect settee tere reece cence SUGGESTIONS FOR FUTURE FLUID-INCLUSION RESEARCH Fv ee ee eee eee ee eee eee WRPEREMCES oc ce et cee eter e eee tee eens % HAPTER 6 LIGHT STABLE-ISOTOPE SYSTEMATICS IN THE EPITHERMAL ENVIRONMENT C. W. Field and R. H. Pifarek INTRODUCTION oe ee eee ee Ree er een) CONVENTIONS, SYSTEMATICS, AND RATIONALE 6 pe ee ee ete eee eee ee # Fractionation ‘Equilibrium Reaction Applications GEOLOGIC DISTRIBUTIONS 6 ee ee ee eee ete ee eee eee MO EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS «6s ee eee ete eee eee ee eee ee ee MD carbon SulfurHydrogen and Oxygen sues eer eer CU. -J90000000000000000D0000000000000000000000 CHAPTER 7 GEOLOGIC, MINERALOGIC, AND GEOCHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF ‘VOLCANTG-HOSTED EPITHERMAL PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS D. 0. Hayba, P.M. Bethke, P. Heald, and N. X. Foley foto DODO OOOdDDOOUOooOoDdooOd00b0D000G SUMMARY OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF VOLCANIC-HOSTED EPITHERMAL ORE DEPOSITS... +. + + Characteristics of Advlaria-Sericite-Type Deposite Characteristics of Acid-Sulfate-Type Deposits Sumary of Characteristics ‘THE ADULARIA-SERICLTE ENVIRONMENT: CREEDE AS AN EXAMPLE soe se se ee ee Creede as_an Exenplar ‘Sumary of Taportant Studies Geologic and Mineralogic Characteristics Geocheaical Environment Hydrologic Environment Boiling and Mixing in the Ore Zone Sumary of Creede Wineralization ‘THE ACTD-SULFATE ENVIRONMENT: SUMMTTVILLE AS AN EXAMPLE 6 see ee ee ee Geologic and Mineralogic Characteristics Geochenical Environment Susmary of Summitville Wineralization GEOTHERMAL INTERPRETATION OF VOLCANIC-HOSTED EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS... + es + + Aularia-Sericite Deposits ‘Acid-Sulfate Deposits MECHANISMS OF ACID-SULFATE ALTERATION ©. eee ee ee ee ee eee ae ACKNOWLEDOMENTS ee ee ee ee eee eee teens (1 Jp ogU pO Doo DDOodU DUD oso oUoDoUDoaoooK CHAPTER 8 GEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENT-HOSTED, DISSEMINATED ‘PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS IN THE WESTERN UNITED STATIS We C. Bagby and B. Re Berger INTRODUCTION oe eee eee eee eee err CxtryC oo Do pode ooo Ud UDO DODO oD 00000000000 REGIONAL GEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF DEPOSITS IN MINERAL TRENDS AND ISOLATED DEPOSITS ese ee ee ‘The Getchell Trend The Carlin Trend 14 125 136 151 159 162 162 19 19 1m‘The Cortez Trend GEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS OF THREE END-MEMBER, SEDIMENT-HOSTED, DISSEMINATED PRECIOUS-METAL DEPOSITS. - ee ee ee ee ete eee carlin Preble GENERAL ASPECTS OF TRACE ELEMENT AND STABLE-ISOTOPE GEOCHEMISTRY»... + + SUMMARY OF GEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS Fee ee ee ee eee eee ee eee Regional and District Scale Deposit Seale ENVIRONMENT OF FORMATION © se ee eee ee eee ete EXPLORATION APPLICATION «ee ee eee ee eee eee ee eee eee INFLUENCE OF GEOLOGIC CHARACTERISTICS ON MINING Fe se eee eee ee ee Grade_and Tonnage Mineability. WEVUNENCES 6 oe ee eee teeter ees CHAPTER 9 RELATIONSHIP OF TRACE-ELEMENT PATTERNS TO ALTERATION ARD MORPHOLOGY IW EPITHERMAL PRECIOUS-METAL, DEPOSITS Me Ls Silberman and B. R. Berger INTRODUCTION © se eee eee eee eee ee ee ete eee GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS 6 oo ee eee ee tee eee eee Morphology and Characteristics ‘Alteration Patterns Geocheaical Zones EPITHERMAL ORE DEPOSITS 6 eee ee eee ee eee ete eee Morphology and Characteristics ‘Alteration Patterns NATURE OF FLUIDS INVOLVED IN GEOTHERMAL SYSTEMS AND EPITHERMAL ORE DEPOSITS sve see ee te tee teeter teens TIO cee teen tte tenet eee eeeee (GEOCHEMICAL ZONING IN EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS ©. eee ee eee eee eee BODIE MINING DISTRICT ove eee ee eee eee eee Large-scale Vertical Zoning at Bodie Bluff--The Big Picture Detailed Lateral Zoning PARAMOUNT MINING DISTRICT--VERTICAL ZONING + spe eee eee ee eee 183 189 192 198 195 196, 19 208 ais aa aa ais 24ACKNOWLEDGMENTS oe ee ee eee ee te te ee ee MB REFERENCES © ee te ee eee ee ee ee 20 CHAPTER 10 RELATIONSHIPS OF TRACE-ELEMENT PATTERNS TO GEOLOGY JIN HOT-SPRING-TYPE PRECIOUS-METAL, DEPOSITS B. R. Berger and M. L. Silberman TMERODUCTION © oe ee eee ee eet etree cect es M8 CONTROLS ON TRACE-ELEMENT PATTERNS © 6 ee eee ee ee eee eee ee BD TRACE-ELEMENT PATTERNS IN STUDIED DEPOSITS ©... ee ee pe eee eee eee ee 28 Hasbrouck Mountain, Nevada Round Mountain, Nevada g Uri Jog goo0ecu00dDo0c00b00000 D0 0000500000 00000 g ernest eer BOILING, COOLING, AND OXIDATION IN EPITHERMAL SYSTEXS: ‘A NUMERICAL MODELING APPROACH M. H. Reed and W. P. Spycher INTRODUCTION © ee ee ee eee tt ee ee Bone ht ter erase) BOILING RESULTS eee ee eee eet ee eee ee ne OF DISCUSSION OF BOILING AND COOLING Fe ee te te te eee ee ee ee eee eee ee 2 Sulfide and Carbonate Mineral Precipitation Precipitation of Silicates Boiling Without Fractionation and Cooling Only SUPER- AND SUB-ISOENTHALPIC BOILING 6s se se ee ee eee eee eee ee ee eee 28 BOILING AND GOLD PRECIPITATION. ee sete te tee ee eee eee ee eee eee MI ‘THE HOT-SPRING ENVIRONMENT © ee et ee eee es 2 Condensation of the Boiled Gas Oxidation of Gases to Produce Acld-Sulfate Waters Reaction of Gases vith Meteoric Ground Water Gold Precipitation fro Mixing of Acid-Sulfate Water with Botled Aqueous Phase Gold Precipitation fron Mixing of Oxygenated Ground Water with Boiled Aqueous Phase 8 8g MKNOWLEDOHENTS 6 eee ete ete tees REFERENCES eee ee eee ee ee ee ee eee MOCHAPTER 12 USING GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION TO DEVELOP EXPLORATION STRATEGIES FOR EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS 3. 8. Adame INTRODUCTION So ee ee tte ee SOME CONSIDERATIONS IN THE USE OF GEOLOGICAL INFORMATION IN EXPLORATION os + + STRATEGIC FACTORS 2 ee eee ee eee eee Organizational Objectives Commodity Prices Financial Resources Exploration Organization Regulations and Land Availability Competitor Aetivity Previous Exploration Geologic Information Exploration Wethods “Opportunities Risk HUMAN FACTORS Foe cece eee eee eee eens Personal Objectives Tducation and Training Problem Solving Intuition and Creativity Uncertainty ‘Aversion to Lo! DEVELOPMENT OF MINERAL-DEPOSIT MODELS - eee ee eee ee ee eee ee ee ee ee 2 Organization of Geologic Inforaation Yodel Terminology Tevel of Model Development DATA-PROCESS-CRITERTA MODEL ve se ee ee te eee ee ee ee 26 Definition of a Mineral-Deposit Type Compilation of Analog Deposits Selection of Geologic Data Data-Process Linking Identification of Formation Processes valuation of Data-Process Links Selection of Diagnostic Criteria Evaluation of Data-Process-Criteria Model ‘Application of Data-Process-Criteria Wodel to Exploration Summary of Data-Process-Criteria Model CONCLUSIONS REFERENCES © oe eee eee eee teens ee ta TABLE OF CONVERSION FACTORS 66s oe ee ee ee ee ee eee ee eee es Inside Back CoverFOREWORD Geology and Geochemistry of _Epithermal Systems--Volume 2 of Reviews in Economic Geology--was created to accompany a Society of Economic Geologists (SEG) short course of the same name that was given in October, 1983, prior to the annual meetings of the Geological Society of America and Associated Societies in Orlando, Florida. As was the case with Volume 1, the final published version of, Volume 2 unfortunately postdates the short course by some months. Geology and Geochemistry of _Epithermal Systems presents a synthesis of the current under- standing “of the processes responsible for the concentration of metals (especially gold and silver) in near-surface environments, provides an overview of the systematics of the most important approaches to the study of epithermal ores and processes, and summarizes the geology of both sediment-hosted and volcanic-hosted epithermal precious-metal deposits. After the volume editors, the most significant contributors to the production of this volume were the members of the Editorial Support Group, Branch of Exploration Geochemistry, U.S, Geological Survey, Denver, Colorado. These ‘ladies, Marilyn A. Billone, Candace A. Vassalluzzo, and especially Pamela S. Detra and Dorothy B. Wesson, accomplished the long, arduous, and often frustrating job of assembling, editing, and formatting the book with a uniformly high level of professionalism end good cheer. Their efforts are gratefully acknowledged. Carol Hjellming of the New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources (NMBMMR) editing staff checked, balanced, and helped interpret the chemical equationss Lynne McNeil (NMBMMR) formatted the cutlines. Lastly, I wish to express my continuing aporeciation to the New Mexico Bureau of Mines and Mineral Resources and. its Director, Frank Kottlowski, who provide the Series Editor with time, space, and encouragement. James M. Robertson Series Editor Socorro, NM March, 1986PREFACE, In a speech on May 10, 1911, before the Geological Society of Washington, Waldemar Lindgren described his systematic classification of all types of mineral deposits. One of his categories included deposits related to intrusive and eruptive igneous rocks that form veins at shallow depths that contain open- cavity filling textures and that have been a primary Source of "bonanza" grades of gold and silver--the epithermal deposits. Historically, most of the ores in epithermal systems have been mined from quartz Veins, breccias, or disseminations that are associated with non-marine volcanic rocks. Open-space filling Textures and structures are common--comb structure, ‘crustification, symmetrical banding, and crystal-lined Yugs. Ore minerals include native gold, native silver, lectrum, argentite, sulfosalts, tellurides, and Selenides and often the common sulfides sphalerite, galena, and chalcopyrite. Common gangue minerals Ere quartz, adularia, calcite, barite, rhodochrosite, and fluorite. Alteration is commonly widespread in ej thermal systems, particularly in the upper portions of the vein. systems; among the alteration phases are quartz, adularia, ilite, chlorite, alunite, and kaolinite. Lindgren (1928) recognized the difficulty of developing a rigid subsidiary classification scheme for epithermal deposits; he separated them into six categories: Confidence MAIN LEVEL Gold deposits Argentite-gold deposits ‘Argentite deposits Gold selenide deposits Gold telluride deposits Gold telluride deposits with alunite Nolan (1933) and Ferguson (1929) felt that few of these six characteristics were restricted enough to be diagnostic and proposed only two classes of epithermal Systems based en the weight ratio of gold to silver, Silver-gold, and gold-silver. Based on his experience with deposits in Nevada, Ferguson (1929) found that there is a bimedal distribution of gold-silver ratios, and Nolan (1933) felt that the bimodality was due to genetic processes. For the silver-gold deposits, Nolan (1933) noticed that through-going fault fissures control the ore and felt that this implies a deep origin for the source of ‘the metals. Nolan (1933) also noted that the precious metal ores are very commonly sharply limited above ‘and below by approximately parallel surfaces referred to as the ore "horizon." He suggested that these limits are related to temperature. Base metals tend to increase at and below the base of the lower surface of ‘the precious-metal ore. Figure 1 is a longitudinal, vertical projection of the Last Chance-Confidence silver-gold vein in the Mogollon mining district, New Last Chance a Now! One Booy, BooFT LEVEL 1 LS Aol 700-FT LEVEL, 500 1000 FEET 900-FT LEVEL Figure P.1. Vertical, longitudinal projection of the Contidence-tast Chance vein in the Mogollon mining district, New Mexico (Ferguson, 1927). Banded quartz vein is continuous along strike With ore grade material occurring in specific masses (stippled areas) in the vein, The tops tha bottons of the silver-rich ore bodies describe near parallel surfaces referred to as the “ore horizon."Mexico (Ferguson, 1927) illustrating the ore horizons, the shape of ore bodies, and the typical distribution of ore grades within a continuous banded quartz-adularia- sericite vein, Burbank (1933) reported that base metals appear to be more abundant in silver-gold deposits in regions of sedimentary rocks with overlying volcanic rocks and in thick, volcanic sequences with @ long history of volcanic activity. In contrast to the silver-gold deposits, Nolan (1933) noted that gold- silver deposits are commonly within or close to small, shallow intrusive bodies and that the ore-controlling fracture systems are frequently more discontinuous than those associated with silver-gold deposits. The gold-silver ores are also more irregular in distribution than the silver-gold ores. Nolan felt. that this regularity may be related to the complex thermal regimes in these types of systems due to the shallow intrusive activity. Figure 2a shows a series of plan views of the January mine, Goldfield mining distrct, Ober Lever 232-77 LeveL Figure P.2. Nevada and a cross section through the January shaft (Ransome, 1909) showing the relationships of ore to Guartz-alunite-kaolinite replaced wallrock ("ledge matter") and the host rocks. Figure 2b shows two ross sections from Rarsome (1909, p. 154) of the Combination mine in Goldfield ilustrating the irregular vertical distribution of bonanza-grade ore ‘masses within the "ledge matter.” Also, the ore bodies were not persistent along strike, Although Waldemar Lindgren (1928) recognized the correlation between epithermal systems and active geothermal systems, it vas Donald E. White (1955, 1981) who championed the detailed study of active systems and the applicatien of the results and concepts derived from these studies to epithermal ore deposits. The impact of White's leadership in the study of hydrothermal systems, in general, and epithermal systems, in particular,’ was recognized by the Society of Economic Geologists when it held a symposium in vamuany ‘SHAFT, a S1FT LeveL OFT LEVEL, 1o9-FT LeveL 160-Fr LeveL, 1o9-FT LeveL 232-FT LEVEL, 205-7 LEVEL ‘Ross secTion 9 50 190150 Feer 203-FT LeveL a). Plan views of the January mine at selected mining levels and a cross sec tion through the January shaft Goldfield mining district, Nevada (Ransome, 1909). Bonanza-grade gold ores occur in replaced dacite referred to as “ledge matter.” ‘The ore bodies are not persistent either down- dip or along strike, and occur both on the hanging wall side of the ledge and on the foot wall side. b). Two cross sections from Ransome (1909, p. 154) of the Combina- tion mine in the Gcldfield district. Bo- nangagrade gold ores occur in irregular, discontinuous masses within the ledge. The ledge follows a lithologic contact and flattens with depth,his honor in February, 1984 entitled: Geothermal Systemns and Ore Deposits. It clearly emphasized the ‘value of using active geothermal areas as models of fossil, ore-forming hydrothermal systems. "Thus, the evolution of understanding of the geology and genesis of epithermal precious-metal ‘deposits has followed a pathway from the early, vividly descriptive studies of mining districts such’ as the Comstock Lode, Nevada (Becker, 1882), Cripple Creek, Colorado (Lindgren and Ransome, 1906), and Waihi, New Zealand (Bell and Fraser, 1912) to the later, topical studies on structure (Wisser, 1960), alteration (Hemley and Jones, 1964), stable’ isotopes (Taylor, 1973), and fluid chemistry (Barton et al., 1977). The most recent research on epithermal deposits has built on these past studies and has emphasized the thermal land compositional roles of volcanic rock terranes; the ‘genesis, significance, and pattern of alteration miner- alogies; the sources of the geothermal fluids and the paleohydrology of the systems; and, the chemical con- ditions surrounding the deposition of the ore minerals. ‘The present volume is an attempt to provide a synthesis of the current state of geological and geochemical knowledge of epithermal precious-metal systems. It follows on, and. should be used in Conjunction with, the first volume in this series: Mineral-Fluid Equilibria in Hydrothermal Systems by Henley et al. (1984), In the present volume we have attempted to provide a framework for understanding the systematics of controls on fluid compositions and of metal and gangue transport and deposition. The structure, dynamics, and transport properties of active geothermal systems are used as a starting point. With active systems as a reference, the evolution of fluid ‘compositions and the constraints on metal and gangue transport and deposition in the epithermal environment are explored, The systematics of fluid inclusion and light stable-isotope applications is developed because these two approaches have been so useful in the development. of our understanding of epithermal processes, The importance of boiling, cooling, and oxidation in transport properties of epithermal systems is evaluated through a numerical modelling approach. With the foregoing as background, the observational ase and its interpretation for epithermal ore deposits in continental volcanic and sedimentary terranes is explored through summaries of the geologic, mineral- ‘gical, and geochemical characteristis of, and trace- element distributions in, some well-studied epithermal ‘ore deposits. The final chapter is devoted to the use ‘of our understanding of epithermal systems in the development of exploration strategies. This volume does not attempt to be the final word on epithermal ore deposits, nor does it claim comprehensive treatment. The absence of a chapter ‘on the hydrology of epithermal systems documents the fact that our current understanding of this aspect is, woefully inadequate. It does not reflect a lack of recognition of the importance of hydrologic controls. Similarly, this volume focuses on volcanic- and sediment-hosted epithermal deposits in the cordillera of western North America, particularly the United States. It does not treat aspects of alkaline- or basaltic-rock related deposits such as Cripple Creek, Colorado, and Vatacoula, Fiji, nor does it treat the relationship of epithermal systems to deeper hydro- thermal systems responsible for the formation of porphyry-type deposits. Again our reason is the lack of an adequate observational base. Our primary purpose in organizing this volume and the related Short Course has been to stimulate critical studies to improve our current understanding of epithermal deposits and processes rather than to document it. Perhaps our omissions will serve this purpose equally as well as our inclusions. REFERENCES Barton, P. B., Jr Bethke, P. M. Roedder, E.y 1977, Environment “of ore ‘deposition in the Creede mining district, San Juan Mountains, Colorado: Ml, Progress’ toward interpretation of the chemistry cf the ore-forming fluid for the OH vein: Economic Geology, v. 72, p. 1-25. Becker, G. F., 1882, Geology of the Comstock lode and the Washoe district: U.S. Geological Survey Monograph 3, 492 p. Bell, J. M., and Fraser, C., 1912, The great Waihi gold ‘mine: New Zealand Geological Survey, Bulletin 15. Burbank, W. S., 1933, Epithermal base-metal depos iin Ore deposits of the Western States: American Institute of Mining Metallurgical Engineers, New York, Part VI, p. 641-652. Ferguson, H. G., 1927, Geology and ore deposits of the ‘Mogollon mining district, New Mexico: Us Geological Survey Bulletin 787, 100 p. Ferguson, H. G., 1929, The mining districts of ‘Nevadat Economic Geology, v. 24, p. 131-181. Hemley, J. J., and Jones, W. R., 1964, Chemical ‘aspects of hydrothermal alteration with emphasis, fon hydrogen metasomatism: Economic Geology, vv. 594 pe 538-569. Henley, R. W., Truesdell, A, H.y and Barton, P. B.y Ire, 1984, Fluid-mineral equilibria in hydrothermal systems: Society of Economic Geologists, Review in Economic Geology, v. 1, p. 267. Lindgren, W., 1928, Mineral Deposi ‘McGraw Hill, New York, 1049 p. Lindgren, W., and Ransome, F. L., 1906, Geology and gold’ deposits of the Cripple Creek district, Colorado: U.S. Geological Survey, Professional Paper 54, 516 p. Nolan, T. B., 1933, Epithermal precious-metal deposits in Ore depesits of the Western States: American Institute of Mining Metallurgical Engineers, New York, Part YI, p. 623-640. Ransome, F. L, 1909, The geology and ore deposits of Third Edition, Goldfield, "Nevada: U.S. Geological Survey Professional Paper 66, 258,p- Taylor, H. Psy Ity 1973, '8/0!6/0 evidence for meteoric-hydrothermal alteration and ore deposition .n the Tonopah, Comstock Lode, and Goldfield mining districts, Nevada: Economic Geology, v. 68, p- 747-764,White, D. E., 1953, Thermal springs and epithermal ore _Wisser, E., 1960, Relation of ore deposi deposits: Economic Geology, Fiftieth Anniversary in’ the North American Cordiller: Volume, p. 99-154. Society of America, Memoir 77. White, D. E., 1981, Active geothermal systems and hydrothermal ore deposits: Economic Geology, Seventy-fifth Anniversary Volume, p. 392-423. jon to doming GeologicalACKNOWLEDGMENTS Asis true for any effort of the scope of this vol- ‘ume, many people in addition to the editors played key roles along the road to final publication. The time and effort expended by each author is greatly appreciated fas are the contributions of the large cadre of individual reviewers who have offered insights and alternative perspectives to the authors. Technical Support to the editors including manuscript preparation ‘and revision, final formatting for publication, and badgering of both editors and authors was provided by the Editorial Support Group, Branch of Exploration Geochemistry, U.S. Geological Survey. Within this group we would especially like to thank Pamela Detra, Dorothy Wesson, Marilyn Billone, and Candy Vassalluzzo. An’ earlier version of this text was assembled for use at the Society of Economic Geologists Short Course by the Branch of Exploration Geochemistry Clerical Support Group. Finally, we would like to express appreciation for the patience of Jamie Robertson, Series Editor, Reviews in Economic Geology, and the support of the Society of Economic Geologists. Byron R. Berger Philip M. BethkeBIOGRAPHIES BYRON R. BERGER received a B.A. degree in Economics/Geology from Occidental College in 1966 and aM. in Geology from. the University of California, Los Angeles in 1973, He worked a5 a Petroleum’ exploration geologist’ for’ Standard Oil Company of California from 1968-1970 and a minerals exploration geologist and research scientist for Continental Gil Company from 1971-1977. He joined the U.S. Geological Survey in 1977, and has been involved’ in. research on -epithermal” precious-metal deposits and the relationship of magma genesis to ore genesis. “He is currently the Chief of the Branch of Exploration Geochemistry. He is an adjunct assistant professor of geology in the Department of Geological Sciences at the University of Colorado, Boulder, where he has taught courses on the geology and geochemistry of epithermal ore deposits and exploration geo chemistry. He is a member of several professional Societies including the Geological Society of America and the American Geophysical Union. PHILIP M, BETHKE received a B.A. degtee in Geology from Ainherst College in 1952 and a Ph.D. in Geology (pecialization in Mineralogy and Ore Deposits) from Columbia University in 1957. He was Assistant Professor of Geology at the Missouri School of Mines and Metallurgy (now the University of Missouri-Rolla) from 1955 t0 1959. He joined the U.S. Geological Survey as a WAE research geologist in 1957 and transferred to full time in 1959. His research has combined field and laboratory approaches to the study of hydrothermal ore deposits, particularly to epithermal vein systems. He has held several administrative positions with the U.S.G.S.. most recently, Chief of the Branch of Experimental Geochemistry and Mineralogy. He is a member of several professional societies and is currently a Councillor of the Society of Economic Geologists. He has been active in the establishment of the SEG Short Course Series, and is currently Chairman of the Short Course Committee, SAMUEL S. ADAMS received B.A. and M.A. degrees from Dartmouth College in 1959 and 1961, and a Ph.D. degree from Harvard University in 1967. From 1964 to 1977 he served as mine geologist, exploration geologist, exploration manager, and exploration vice president, employed by International Minerals and Chemica!’ Corporation and then the Anaconda Company. During this period, his work emphasized sediment-hosted mineral deposits, particularly potash and uranium. Since 1977 he has served as a lecturer and consultant to industry, research organizations, and government agencies in the areas of mineral deposits, exploration, and resource assessment. His principal research interest is the representation of data and concepts for all types of mineral deposits in coherent ‘and predictive models ‘or exploration and resource studies. He is currently a Councillor of the Society of Economic Geologists and the Geological Society of America, WILLIAM C. BABGY received a Ph.D. degree in Earth Science from the University of California, Santa Cruz, in 1979 based on petrogenetic research of Tertiary volcanic rocks in the Sierra Madre Occidental, Mexico. His industry experience includes geologic evaluation of volcaniz-hosted uranium in the MeDermitt caldera complex, Nevada, and the bulk mineability potential of the amythest silver vein system at Creede, Colorado. Industry research included development of an occurrence model for hot spring-related gold deposition based on the McLaughlin gold deposit in Californiz, Present research interests ‘are focused on the genetic aspects of sediment-hosted Precious-metal deposits. ROBERT J. BODNAR received an M.S. degree from the University of Arizona and a Ph.D, degree from The Pennsylvania State University and has been involved in various aspects of fluid-inclusion research for the past 10 years. He worked for I year as a research geochemist in the Ore Deposits Group of Chevron Oil Field Research Company and is currently an assistant professor in the Department of Geological Sciences at Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. KEVIN BROWN received an M.S. degree in Chemistry in 1969 and a Ph.D, degree in Chemical Crystallography in 1972 from the University of Auckland, New Zealand. Except for a two-year sojourn at the E.T.H. in Zurich, he has worked at the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Zealand. Initially in Wellington, his research interest. centered around the crystal structures of organic reaction intermediates, but he gradually came down to earth with the crystal structures of some new epithermal minerals. In 1981, he shifted to the Geothermal Section at Wairakel, where his present research is concerned with experimental studies of mineral deposition from geothermal fluids. CYRUS W. FIELD received a B.A. degree in Geology from Dartiriouth College in 1956 and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Economic Geology, Geochemistry, and Petrology from Yale University in 1957 and 1961,respectively, He worked as an exploration geologist during the summers of 1955, 1956, and 1957 for the Oliver Iron Mining Company and Quebec Cartier Mining Company subsidiaries of the U.S, Steel Corporation, and served as a research geologist from 1960 to 1963 with the Bear Creek Mining Company division of Kennecott Copper Corporation. In 1963, he joined the faculty of Oregon State University where he is currently Professor of Geology. His research interests are largely concerned with the geology and geochemistry of hydrothermal mineral deposits; particularly the application of stable isotope and major-minor-trace element investigations to their genesis, He is a member of several professional societies and was Vice President of the Society of Economic Geologists in 1981. RICHARD H. FIFAREK received a B.S. degree in Geology from the University of Washington in 1974, and M.S. and Ph.D. degrees in Geology (specialization in Economic Geology) from Oregon State University in 1982 and 1985, respectively. From 1974 to 1986, he worked periodically as an exploration geologist (+ yrs.) for several mining companies, as a research assistant/ scientist (I yr.) at the facilities of the Branch of Tsotope Geciogy (Denver), U.S. Geological Survey, and as an instructor for "Oregon State University. Presently, he is an assistant professor in the Department of Geology at Southern Illinois University where he teaches and conducts research in economic geology and isotope geochemistry. His research Interests include integrated geologic (field) and geochemical investigation of massive sulfide and epithermal Au-Ag deposits, and modeling the isotopic evolution of fluids and rocks in hydrothermal systems. NORA K. FOLEY received a B.S. degree in Geology ‘and Mineralogy fom the University of Michigan in 1978 and an M.S. degree in Geological Sciences from Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University in 1980. She is currently working towards a doctoral degree in Geology through Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University. Since 1980, she has been a research geologist at the U.S. Geological Survey in Reston, Virginia, Her research has included fluid-inclusion and isotopic studies of different types of ore deposits, including Ag- and base-metal-bearing, epithermal deposits, sediment-hosted, stratabound, Pb-Zn deposits, and Kuroko-type massive sulfides. ROBERT ©. FOURNIER received an A.B. degree in Geology in 1954 from Harvard College and a Ph.D. in Geology (specializing in Economic Geology, in general, and the Ely porphyry copper deposit, in particular) from the University of California at Berkeley in 1958. Since then, he has been a research geologist with” the U.S. Geological Survey. His research interests have ranged from laboratory studies of mineral-water interactions at hydrothermal conditions appropriate for shallow levels in the crust, to field studies of presently active hydrothermal’ systems, including Yellowstone National Park, Coso and Long Valley, California, and Zunil, Guatemala. Experimental studies have emphasized solubilities of silica species in water and saline solutions. He has also been a leader in the development of several chemical geothe:mometers and mixing models that are now widely used in the exploration for geothermal resources. His present research focuses mainly on internally consis:ent chemical, isotopic, and hydrologic models of presently active hydrothermal systems. He has served on NATO committees to review geothermal energy development programs in Iceland, France, Greece, Portugal, and Turkey, and other committees to review geothermal exploration programs in Argentina and Thailand, He was Chairman of the Organizing Committee for the 1975 United Nations International Synposium on Geothermal Energy, and Chairman of the Technical Program Committee for the 1985 GRC International Symposium on Geothermal Energy. He now serves on panels to oversee geothermal developments in Costa Rica and Panama, and several US. Continental Scientific Drilling Committees. He is a member of several societies and has served on the Board of Directors of the Geochemical Society and the Geothermal Resources Council. DANIEL ©. HAYBA received a B.A. degree in Geology from the College of Wooster in 1976 and an M.S. degree in Geochemistry and Mineralogy from the Pennsylvania State University in 1979 following a study of the Salton Sea geothermal system. From 1978 to 1980, he worked for Exxon Production Research Company on computer modeling of ore deposits. Since that time, he has been a research geologist with the U.S, Geological Survey where his research has been directed towards understanding the ore-forming processes in epitiermal systems. PAMELA HEALD received a B.A. degree in Geology in T971 from Vassar College and an M.S. degree in Geology from George Washington University in 1977. She has been a research geologist at the U.S. Geological Survey since 1972, Her research has included spectra, reflectance and structural studies in Nevada, with a focus on ore deposits, and ‘mineralogical and geochemical studies to evaluate ore~ forming processes in epithermal precious- and base~ metal deposits. RICHARD W. HENLEY received a B.S. degree in Geology in 1968 from the University of London and a Ph.D. degree in Geochemistry from The University of Manchester in 1971 following experimental studies of gold transport in hydrothermal solutions and. the genesis of some Precambrian gold deposits. He was Lecturer in Economic Geology Memorial University of Otago, New Zealand, from 1971 to 1975, and at Memorial University, Newfoundland, until 1977. Research interests have focused on the mode of origin of a number of different types of ore deposits including post-metamorphic gold-tungsten veins, porphyry copper, massive sulfide, and placer gold deposits. He is currently with the Geothermal Chemistry Section of the Department of Scientific and Industrial Research at Wairakei, New Zealand, and a visiting lecturer at the Auckland GeothermalInstitute. Through 1983-84, he was a Fulbright Fellow and Guest Investigator at the U.S. Geological Survey and during that time produced Volume I of this Review series. His present research includes a number of isotope and chemical studies relating to the exploration and development of geothermal systems land geothermal implications for the origin of ore deposits. C. A. KUEHN received an M.S, degree from the Bennsylvania State University and has 7 years of experience in exploration for sediment-hosted gold deposits. He is currently an NSF Research Assistant and Ph.D. candidate at the Pennsylvania State University’ and part-time employee of the U.S. Geological Survey working on the Carlin gold deposit. MARK H, REED received a B.A. degree in Chemistry land in’ Geology from Carleton College in 1971 and M.A. and Ph.D. degrees in Geology at the University of California, Berkeley, in 1977, His Ph.D. research was ‘on the geology and geochemistry of the massive sulfide deposits of the West Shasta District, California. From 1977 through 1979, he worked for the Anaconda Minerals Company at Butte, Montana. Since that time, he has taught and conducted research at the University of Oregon, where he is currently Associate Professor of Geology. His research has focused on alteration and metal zoning in the porphyry copper and large vein deposits at Butte and the geochemistry of hydrothermal. alteration, metal transport, and ore deposition in massive sulfide and epithermal ‘systems. 1. REYNOLDS received an M.S. degree from the fsity of Arizona and has been an exploration in the application of fluid degree from the City University of New York and’ M.S. and Ph.D. degrees from the University of Rochester, New York. He is a member of the Branch of Exploration Geo- chemistry of the U.S. Geological Survey, with current assignments to the Redding, California (CUSMAP) project, and to the study of the geochemistry of voleani¢ and metamorphic-hosted gold deposits in the western U.S. and northern Mexico, Previous work for the US:G.S, included geochronological, geochemical, and regional geological studies of precious- and base- ‘metal deposits in the Great Basin and Alaska, and tectonic syntheses with particular focus on the relationships of hydrothermal precious-metal deposits ‘to magmatic and metamorphic evolution. Between tours at the U.S.G.S., he designed and supervised exploration programs for precious-metal deposits in the Great Basin for the Anaconda Minerals Company. NICOLAS F. SPYCHER received a B.S. degree in Earth ‘Sciences in 1979 and a Dipl. es Sc. in Exploration Geophysics in 1980 from the University of Geneva, Switzerland. He is now a Ph.D. candidate and research assistant at the University of Oregon. His present research includes studies of the transport of arsenic and antimony in hydrothermal solutions, the mixing properties of geothermal gases, and the geochemical modeling of hot spring systems.Chapter 1 THE GEOTHERMAL FRAMEWORK OF EPITHERMAL DEPOSITS R. W. Henley INTRODUCTION In the context of exploration for epithermal deposits, why study geothermal systems at all? After all, not one exploited system to date has been shown by" drilling to harbor any economically significant metal resource--but then until recently not one had beer drilled for other than geothermal energy exploration.* The latter involves drilling to depths of 500-3000 meters in search of high temperatures and Zones of high permeability which may sustain fluid flow to production wells for steam separation and clectricity generation. In many cases such explora Wells have discovered disseminated base-metal sulfides With some silver and argilie-propylitic alteration equivalent to that commonly associated with ore- bearing epithermal systems (Browne, 1978; Henley and Ellis, 1983) Hayba et al., 1985, this volume). In general, however, geothermal drilling ignores the Upper few hundred meters of the active systems and aril sites are situated well away from natural features such as hot springs or geysers, the very features whose characteristics Gilica sinter, hydrothermal breccias) fare recognizable in a number of epithermal precious- metal deposits (see, for example, White, 1955; Henley and Ellis, 1983; White, 1981; Berger and Eimon, 1983 Hedenquist and Henley, 1985a; and earlier workers such as Lindgren, 1933). Knowledge of the upper few hundred meters of active geothermal systems is scant and largely based on interpretation of hot-spring chemistry. Tantalizingly, in a number of hot springs, transitory. red-orange precipitates occur which are found to be ore grade in gold and silver and which carry a suite of elements (As, Sby Hg) TI) now Tecogpized as characteristic of epithermal gold deposits (Weissberg, 1969). ‘Kennecott has recently announced significant gold discoveries in still active geothermal fields on Lihir and Simberi Islands, Papua, New Guinea. Today's active geothermal systems occupy the same tectono-velcanic niche as those hydrothermal, systems, preserved from the past, which hosted the near-surface (0-1000 m) formation of epithermal ore deposits in the Tertiary volcanic terranes of the Circum-Pacific region and elsewhere--the relatively shallow origin of these deposits resulting in their loss by erosion from erstwhile similar, but older, terranes. Formed at deeper levels (2-5 km’or so) beneath calc alkaline volcanoes in these same volcanic terranes (illitoe, 1973; Henley and McNabb, 1978), porphyry- type copper and molybdenum deposits are preserved in both Tertiary and much older hydrothermal systems. ‘The purpose of this chapter is to review some of the principal chemical and physical characteristics of the active geothermal systems which are essential to the understanding of the origin of epithermal ore deposits ‘and therefore to their successful exploration. For more detailed information, the reader is referred to the publications cited in the text. HYDROTHERMAL SYSTEMS IN GENERAL The term "hydrothermal" encompasses all types of hot-water phenomena in the earth's crust although most commonly the term is used in reference to those associated with impressive geyser activity, aesthetically attractive hot pools, etc. These features ‘are most common in volcanic areas such as Yellowstone National Park, U.S.A. Iceland, or in the Taupo Volcanic Zone of New Zealand, ‘but other terranes also host hydrothermal activity even though subsurface temperatures may be relatively low and surface features less impressive. Warm springs in the Rocky Mountains, the European or New Zealand Alps, or in the sedimentary massifs of central Europe are examples, and it is clearly important for mineral exploration to ciscriminate these types of systems from those in more favorable geological environments. Geothermal systems are extraordinarily abundant Jn the tectonically active zones of the earth's crust and may be broadly classified according to their plate tectonic setting and principal source of heat (fable 1.1). Ctemical differences arise from the sources of recherge water and contribution of gases from magmatic or metamorphic sources. Warm springs also occur in the tectonically stable crust where the deep crustal penetration of groundwater ‘occurs in favoreble sedimentary formations such as limestones and the heat supply is the ambient continental heat flow. Each of these classes of geothermal systems appears to have some correlative preserved in the geologic past and most commonly recognized as one or another of the various families of hydrothermal ore deposits. For magma-related hydrothermal systems, these range from ophiolite-hosted massive sulfides through the polymetallic massive sulfides of island ares to the porpiyry copper and epithermal precious- metal deposits of terrestrial continental terranes, while for amagmatic systems these range from the Mississippi Valley and related base-metal deposits in sedimentary basins to the post-metamorphic vein deposits associated with orogeny.2 (CHAPTER 1 de 1 Crustal setting of hydrothermal systems classified according to princtpal heat-source and crustal host. CRUSTAL HOsT/ HEAT SOURCE MAGMATIC AYAGMATIC Oceante Ridge, hot spot, back-arc basin Magnatic are Continental, Crustal extension Plate colliston (lot spot, rife) Plate-interior basing Collision-Related Amagmatic Hydrothermal Systems Only recently have data become available from geothermal investigations in mountain belts. In the Southern Alps of New Zealand, for example, hot springs occur in the central, relatively aseismic region with the highest uplift rate (10-20 mm/year) where the combination of uplift and erosion "exposes" a thermal anticline with near-surface gradients up to 150°C/km (Allis et al., 1979). A similar environment is proposed for hot springs in other collision-related mountain belts. Recent drilling at Yangbajing (Tibet) and in the Parbati Valley (N. India), for example, has located hot waters up to 170°C (Giggenbach et al, 1983) which re predominantly meteoric in origin, but contain low 7He to ‘He ratios typical of helium of deep crustal origin. ‘The uplift setting of these hydrothermal systems is perhaps analogous to that of Late Mesozoic post- metamorphic gold and scheelite veins on the South Island (New Zealand) and, by inference, similar deposits in much older terranes. Examples are the gold veins of the Valdez Group (S. Alaska), Mother Lode (California), Yellowknife (Northwest Territories) and Kalgoorlie (W. Australia). In each of these, in Contrast to the epithermal precious-metal deposits discussed below, vein quartz is enriched in '80 relative to host’ rocks. This feature has led many workers (e.g., Henley et al., 1976; Fyfe and Kerrich, 1984) to ‘suggest a metamorphic origin for the hydrothermal fluids vein formation occurring from fluids of metamorphic dehydration origin in response to post-metamorphic uplift and/or overthrusting. It may also be possible, however, to generate these same Isotope characteristics by interaction of meteoric water and rocks at a low water to rock ratio opening the possibility that such deposits may be much shallower* in origin than the 10 to 20 km generally considered. ‘In this paper the term "shallow" is used rather irreverantly to refer to depths less than about 500 meters. In ore deposit research, depths (estimated perhaps from fluid-inclusion data) are generally also Used irreverantly, taking no account of the importance of topographic relief; of the order of +100 m in silicic volcanic terranes, 21000 m in andesitic volcanic terranes and for the mountain belt systems, 2000 m. Terrestrial Magma-Related Hydrothermal Systems y contrast, systems in voleapjc terranes have nigh Me“to te cation and thes 0 of alteration Iinerals are, with few exceptions, depleted relative to primary minerals. Temperatures encountered. during Grilling range up to 400C (Batini et aly 1983) and Waters are’ predominantly meteoric. in” origin, and typified by the presence of chloride ion with mcy" > Smsoy= ~-they are here, for convenience, desigtited chlonde waters. Althosgh some highly dallne uids fate evolved in rift zones such as the Imperial Valley (California), salinities ere typically low, clustering around 10,000 mg/kg Cl (1.6 wt.-% NaCl equivalent) in Andesitic volcanic. terranes, 1000 mg/kg in rhyolite volcanic terranes and much lower in basaltic volcanic terranes. Dissolved gas, always preponderantly CO>, affects a major contrast between systems and ranges from very low (0.01 wt-% CO) at Wairakei (New Zealand) ‘and Ahvachapan (Ei. Salvador) to. several wt-% at Broadlands and Ngawha (New Zealand) (see Table 1.3). Other dissolved Components are controlled by mineral-fluld and gie-gas reactions. Alteration azsemblages In. these types of geothermal systems Correspond closely to those encountered in epithermal and porphyry-style mineral deposits. ‘The deep hyérologic structure of the terrestrial geothermal systems is controlled by the convective upflow of chloride waters (evolved by water-rock + magma interaction at depths of 5 to 8 km) but above depths. of around 1 km surface topography plays. 8 major role in the dispersion of the chloride water by Introducing a" lateral. flow \ component ~ toward topographic lows. Bolling occurs ae chloride water Tlses" through the system the resultant. steam migrating to the surface independently where near- Surface condensation and oxidation of o-transported HS" produces sulfate-dominated | steam-heated waters. These features ave incorporated in the general Model of “the structure of a geothermal. system reproduced In Figure la (irom Henley and El 1983).R. W. HENLEY Seo Ye foung, Volcanics Approx Tevet “in Sediments Seale cold Groundwater Recharge oo 1kn adv argillic alteration with Neoe Meteoric Kod) neutral pH voter Sulphate & Chloride Dilute Argittie biarbonate boiling Chioride alteration Het Soins Sorng Springs Propylitie alteration HEAT AND MASS (NaCl, Cp, $0. H70..) TRANSFER FROM MAGMA SYSTEMS. Pre-Volcanic Basement Intrusive Voteanics 3 bow Peeatiity Stotum fg. Mudstones Key Stean-hea'ed Acid SO, /C0p-ie [TI] s0j-c0° voters trig tb) Neat neutral Chloride waters (within 200° Isotherm approx) GE] we Phase Region Water Ligud + Steam {+ Gas) h waters Figure Ila. Generalized structure of a typical geothermal system in silicic-voloanic terrane, Notice the overall size of the system relative to the size of the discharge features (i.e, ‘hot springs, etc.). The temperature distribution shown is based on the Wairakei system where a west-to-east flow occurs in the upper portion of the systen and boiling occurs above about. in Figure 1-2, more or less lateral flow may occur. Boiling may extend to much greater depths if CO, contents are high (see text), and higher temperatures may occur at shallower depths than shdwn in this figure, as at Mokai (Fig. 500 meters. In other systems such as those 1.24).4 CHAPTER 1 The relatively high relief of andesite volcanic terranes results in lateral flows of hot chloride water {for up to 20 km while the occurrence of near-surface magmas exsolving gases (HCl, SOz, etc.) often produces high temperature fumaroles and/or acid sulfate-chloride crater lakes, such as those on Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand (Plate 1.1) and El Chichon, Mexico (Giggenbach, 1974 Kyosu and Kurahashi, 1986; Casadevall et al, 1984). These latter features, with their associated ‘intense advanced argillic alteration, are possible correlatives of the upper portions of the type of hydrothermal systems responsible for the formation of gold--(enargite) sulfide deposits of the "Goldfield type" (Ransome, 1909) such as Goldfield (Nevada), Summitville (Colorado), Bor (Yugoslavia), and elsewhere. Figure I.1b provides a. general structural model for this geothermal environment. They may also be related in some cases to the upper portions of developing porphyry copper deposits Gillitoe, 1983). The geochemistry and structure of magma- related hydrothermal systems have been reviewed in a umber of recent texts to which the reader is referred for background reading and discussion of hydrothermal chemistry--see, for example, Ellis and Mahon, 19775 Henley and Ellis, 1983; Henley et al, 1984. A brief summary of hydrothermal chemistry is given in Henley and Brown (1985, this volume). In the remainder of ‘this chapter attention is focused on those aspects of ‘the chemistry and structure of geothermal systems relevant to the understanding of the formation of TERRESTRIAL MAGMATIC-HYDROTHERMAL, ‘SYSTEMS Large-Scale Structure Early in the commercial development of the Wairakei geothermal field in New Zealand, the accumulating data from exploration wells showed (a) that the fluids present were not directly exsolved from shallow bodies of crystallizing magma and (b) that the hydrothermal activity seen at the surface was a minor phenomenon associated with the discharge of a very large, deeply convecting body of heated groundwater (Elder, 1966), Using analog and numerical modelling, Elder 'and other research scientists showed that convection, with a depth scale of at least 5 km, was Co § hay eae b Vaer tae Near neutat pt Figure 1b, Structure of a typical geothermal system in andesitic-volcanic terranes emphasizing (2) ‘extensive lateral flow and (2) generation of a large advanced-argillic alteration zone in response to high-level volcanism. (Modified and reproduced with permission from Henley and Ellis, 1963.)R. W. HENLEY 5 Plate 1.1. Oblique, aerial view of the Waiotapu system, New Zealand from the southeast. Topo- ‘graphic features may be related to the system map (Fig. 1.2}. Mount Tarawera (on the hori Zon) is a composite rhyolite done which, in 188, violently erupted basalt through an axial. Tift. Associated phenomena were the destruction of the Pink and White Silica Terraces (Henley @t ale, 1984, Plate 1.2), and a number of hydrothermal eruptions in the Rotomahana-Wainangu geothernal system. ‘The natural discharge dominating the surface expression of the system is the Champagne Pool (middle right) which occupies a hydrothermal eruption vent formed 900 years ago and which may overlie sone 0-1 million ounces of gold formed by boiling in the conduit of the pool. Surface Sntinony-arsenic precipitates occur which are ore-grade in silver and gold (photo D. Is Homer, N. 2, Geological Survey).6 CHAPTER I responsible for the extreme thermal gradients and temperature patterns observed in the exploration drilling. At the same time, at Wairakei and in other fields, the effects of near-surface (depths less than 1000 m) stratigraphy and structure and of relief controlled groundwater flow became evident largely through geophysical techniques, especially resistivity surveying (Healy and Hochstein, 1973). Hanaoka (1980) has numerically modelled the effects of topographic relief on near-surface hot-water flow and its dispersion by cold groundwater. This effect is partly responsible for the mushrooming of isotherms shown in many convective models and field cross sections. Figure 1.2 provides some examples of the lateral-fiow characteristics and distribution of natural discharges in a number of geothermal fields explored by drilling, with perhaps the Mokai field in New Zealand (ig. 1.20) being a. particularly” good illustration of lateral flow as shown in cross-section in Figure 1.24. In geothermal systems hosted by silicic volcanic’ rocks, surface topography is primarily controlled by ‘block-faulting or caldera collapse Providing relief of a few hundred meters and Consequent lateral flow over distances of up to about 5 km, In the higher relief terrane typical of andesitic Volcanism, more extreme lateral flow occurs up to about 20 km. An additional feature of active andesitic volcanic terranes is the occurrence of high-level volcanism which allows volcanic gas to vent to summit fumaroles or to summit crater lakes (Giggenbach, 1974) and to maintain high-level "perched" aquifers containing very acid sulfate-dominated waters. Exploration wells at high elevation in such terranes ‘often encounter vapor-dominated geothermal environments. In the majority of systems, liquid water provides ‘the continuum for fluid flow but in other, far less common systems, water vapor dominates the discharges of deep exploration wells. The pre- exploitation states of these "vapor-dominated" systems are poorly known and various models have been Produced based on production data from exploited fields. For example, for the Geysers (California) and for Larderello (Italy, White et al. (1971) suggest the presence of a very deep convecting brine overlain by an “alteration-sealed" cap of vapor. Of particular Interest is the association of these systems with epithermal mercury and gold mineralization (e.g, McLaughlin, California), but both the Geysers and Larderello also contain base-metal sulfides and other "ore-related" mineral phases in drill core (Belkin et al 1983; Sternfeld, 1981) which suggest that the present system has evolved from some previous liqui dominated state. Others have suggested that elevated gas-content (dominantly CO2) perhaps coupled with relatively low host-rock porosity, may account for the vapor-dominated character of’ well-discharges and post-exploitation pressure data. It is interesting to note that most of the explored "liquid-dominant" geothermal systems, in silicic voleanic terranes especially, are associated with tectonic subsidence (about -5 mm per year in the Taupo Volcanic Zone in New Zealand), but both the Geysers and Larderello occur in regions of high tectonic uplift associated with volcanism. Quantitative data irom the Geysers region are not available, alttough regional topography and erosion are suggestive of high uplift rates. At Larderello uplift rates are of the order +5 to 10 mm per year (M. Puxeddu, personal communication) and ‘are evidenced by the coastline migration of the Pisa area. The high heat flow and geothermal activity of the Larderello region appears to be related to the emplacement of a post-orogenic batholith into continental crust (Batini et al., 1983b; Puxeddu, 1984). Natural Discharges Hot water convecting into the near-surface part of a large hydrothermal system may be dispersed by mixing with laterally flowing cold groundwater of discharged directly to the surface. Only a minor amount of heat energy is lost by conduction, but most is dispersed as hot water and vapor flows at the surface. The processes affecting a deep fluid penetrating to the surface depend on a variety of factors. Direct discharge depends on the availability of a suitable fracture system (or hydrothermal eruption vent, see below) and gives rise to a boiling spring, high in chloride and mantled by silica sinter. Examples are the Champagne Pool, Waiotapu and the Pink and White Terraces of Rotomahana, New Zealand (Plate 1.1; and see Henley et al., 1984), ‘Geysers are a special class of boiling discharge which have a periodic discharge due to the geometry of the conduit (Kieffer, 1984). "Often dilution precedes boiling of the mixed fluid as it finally moves to the surface as in the Ohaaki Pool at Broadlands (Oaaki) or the boiling springs of the Wairakei and Tauhara systems (Fig. 1.ta). Fluids which are dluted with respect to the deep chloride water form where interaction with near~ surface aquifers occurs either due to high surface relief and groundwater ‘low or to the proximity of the system margin. The natural discharges of the Wairakel-Tauhara and Mokai systems are examples (Fig. 1.2). Figure 1.3a shows schematically the pressure distribution associated with various» discharge Phenomena. Drill-hole data suggest that pressure gradients in the deepe: system are generally about 10% above hydrostatic pressure with the excess Pressure due to the buoyancy of hot water relative to Surrounding cold groundwater (Elder, 1966) Cathles, 1977; Grant et al 1932), and in some cases (e.g., Mokai) a demonstrable component of hydrostatic head due to recharge from areas of relatively high relief. An excess pressure gradient is a requirement for flow through permeable media. Below a hot-spring vent, fluid expansion leads tc two-phase flow in the high permeability conduit. Phase separation may occur with the vapor discharging independently at the surface as a fumarole or interacting with groundwater to produce a steam-heated water. As suggested in Figure 1.3a, minor throttling may occur along the flow path, but pressure drops are unlikely to be greater than L bar. Where silicification isolates the conduit from the surrounding groundwater system, boiling, deep- system fluid exits the surface; but, where only partial isolation occurs through mineral deposition, the liquid may itself interact with surficial groundwater before reaching the surface as a hot or warm spring. In theR. W. HENLEY 1 Figure 1.2. Distribution of natural discharges in Some active geothermal systems. ‘The field boundaries shown are based on the maximum resistivity gradient located by field surveys reflecting the contrast be~ tween unmineralized groundwater and the chloride water present in the upper 500 meters of the geothermal systems. Fuma~ roles, steaming ground, and outflows of steam-heated waters are indicated by the (© symbol and hot-water discharges by the © symbol. The location of the principal convective upflow for each field is indi- cated by the ¥. Notice that geothermal exploration and production wells are situ ated well away fron natural features. Nu- merals designate features shown in the mixing diagrams of Figure 148 CHAPTER 1 Figure 1.2 (cont'd) a). Wairakei~Tauhara, New Zealand. These two fields are interconnected as shown by the resistivity boundary and both show the occurrence of vapor discharge in the cen- tral region and hot-water discharge on the margins following dilution. There is no evidence that water from Lake Taupo penetrates either field, recharge being derived fron groundwaters to the east and west. b). Waiotapu, New Zealand. ‘This field has an extensive north-to-south lateral flow originating in the vicinity of the 160,000 years Ip. dacite domes to the north. ‘Thermal features are related to major faults and a number of hydrothermal eruption craters have been recognized (major centers shown by the circles)—for full discussion see Hedenquist and Henley, 1985a. c). Nokai, New Zealand. Extensive lateral flow occurs from the vicinity of the caldera wall in the south toward the Waikato River to the north. Dilute hot springs ‘occur north of the “field boundary" in the gorge of a stream following a major fault. d). Cross-section of the Mokai geothermal field showing the effect of iateral flow and dispersion on the thermal structure of the system and distribution of natural features. (The cross section runs from the top right-hand corner of Figure 1.2c to the caldera wall south of well Mike). Plate 1.2. Crater Lake, Ruapehu, New Zealand. Condensation of volcanic gas into the Crater Lake waters produces a fluid of pH 1.5 at about 55°C. The lake seldom overflows despite the presence of an incised channel (foreground) suggesting that much of the acid fluid drains through the core of the active andesite volcano producing an extensive high-level zone of advanced-argillic alteration. Interaction of this fluid with an underlying near-neutral pH hudzothernal eysten may generate a gold deposit of the Goldfield type (photo by permission, R B. Glover, DSIR).R. W. HENLEY 9 PRESSURE 0 20 2) bars oLO-WarER HYDROSTATIC VAPOR TO FUNAROLES OR SHALLOW GROUNDWATER i INTERACTION DEPTH (meters) Pigure 13a, Pressure-depth relations in the upper portion of a geothermal system. The diagram shows the transition between the deep systen pressure and the pressure with- in the high permeability fracture network or conduit below a hot spring. Below the hot springs, the pressure at a specified depth is due to the weight of a standing column of hot water? the pressure-depth relation is here designated "hot hydrostat- ict. Deeper in a system pressures exceed hydrostatic so that flow is maintained through the permeable aquifer--this is shown as the “hot hydrodynamic" curve. Some minor pressure discontinuities are shown to indicate the possible occurrence of minor throttles which may occur due to fracture geometry or silicification, but these are probably rare. Phase separation may occur resulting in the presence of fumaroles or (acid) stean-heated waters in the vicinity of a boiling hot spring (eg Norris Geyser Basin, Yellowstone, Champagne Pool, Waiotapu). ‘The effect of raising or lowering the ambient groundwater piezomet- ric surface may be gauged by redrawing the curve for cold-water hydrostatic pressure. For example, if the cold-water piezometric surface is at +20 meters and the hot-spring conduit is not isolated by mineral deposi= tion, dilution may occur near surface. Dilution occurs on the margin of a hydro- thermal system due to the relative pressure of cold groundwater over that of the hot water system. example shown (Fig. 1.3a), deep mixing may occur where the pressure of cold water exceeds that of the hot uptlow. Exercise The effect of relief, through a higher or lower piezometric surface, may be gauged by adding cold water pressure curves to. Figure 1.33 corresponding t0 higher and lower piezometric surfaces. Try it by drawing curves parallel to the reference cold-water curve in the figure. Haas (1971) has described the _ limiting hydrostatic conditions for temperature as a function of depth in hydrothermal systems. The limiting condition (Fig. 1.36) is the phase change to vapor; liquid water rising within a system boils at the phase boundary with consequent formation of a low-density vapor fraction and a. decrease in temperature (for a discussion of reversible and irreversible boiling in hydrothermal systems, see Barton and Toulmin, 1961). As discussed above, hydrodynamic pressures ‘prevail at depth in geothermal systems so that at, for example, 250°C the Boiling-point depth is at about 400 rather than 462 meters. The effect of salinity on the boiling point- depth relation is well known, but more recently the effect of gas pressure has been recognized (Sutton and McNabb, 1977) as shown in Figure 1.3b. The latter effect makes it particularly difficult to obtain reliable depth information from estimates of temperature (eg, from fluid inclusions) in fossil. hydrothermal systems (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985b; Bodnar et al., 1985, this volume). The distritution of springs relative to the geothermal system as a whole is evident from the field maps shown in Figure 1.2. Areas occupied by hot- water discharge seldom represent more than about 5% of the area of the hydrothermal field itself. It is also evident from these field examples that the distribution of discharges is strongly controlled by topography, the presence of faults, etc. Tn general, features associated with vapor-flow trom the deep ‘system occupy higher ground. They range from fumaroles to hot springs fed by steam- heated surficial groundwaters to steaming ground which results {rom the boiling of steam-heated waters. The latter originate above two-phase (oiling!) zones in the deep convective system from which CO and HyS-rich vapor escapes, but are adsorbed into surficial groundwater or condensate. Where HS oxidation occurs due to shallow interaction with the atmosphere, low pH steam-heated waters ‘occur which are characterized by the presence of sulfate and absence of significant chloride in solution {as well as the lack of significant silica sinter around the hot spring. COg-rich steam-heated waters, associated with illitic Alteration, are also common marginal to many fields (Mahon et ales 1980; Hedenquist and Stewart, 1985) to depths of several hundred meters; pl's are around 5 due to dissolved Oz and often result in extreme corrosion of10 CHAPTER 1 TEMPERATURE 100 200 400 800 DEPTH (meters) eS Figure 1.3b. Hydrostatic boiling-point versus, depth relations of hydrothermal fluids, showing the contrasting effects of salinity and gas content. As discussed in the text, observations from active systems suggest. that pressure gradients at depth are about 108 greater than hydrostatic allowing high- er temperatures at shallower depth than shown here. geothermal well casings. COz exsolution following mixing of hydrothermal fluid with cool groundwater, and dissolution of the CO into groundwater may be ‘the dominant process in their formation rather than adiabatic boiling. Note: The term "solfatara encompasses steam Gischarges such as fumaroles, but is now most commonly used to refer to” volcanic gas/steam discharges associated with sulfur deposition and advanced-argillic alteration. It is often used incorrectly in the discussion of metal transport in sub- sea floor systems! As noted above, acid sulfate-chloride waters derived by condensation of volcanic gas occur at high levels in andesitic terrane and sometimes they may mix with meteoric water and accumulate to form crater lakes. Downward movement of such high-level waters is of special interest and is now well known in explored geothermal fields in the Philippines and Taiwan, At Ruapehu, New Zealand, for example, the crater lake (Plate | 1.2) overflows discontinuously despite continuous input of volcanic vapor, meteoric water, and glacial melt. The crater lake itself has been shown to be over 300 meters deep and is occupied by an acid sulfate-chloride water with pH = 1,25 at 55°C. Presumably, the bulk of this acid fluid drains downward through the flanks of the volcano causing advanced-argillic alteration en route, and may encounter a normal hydrothermal system at depth. Silica- and iron-enriched springs occur on the flank of the volcano at lower elevations. These processes, as noted, may be responsible for the acid- sulfate type ore environments (see Hayba et al., 1985, this volume) and raises all sorts of problems with respect to terminology like hypogene and supergene! Hydrothermal Eruption Vents The hot springs described above are passive features of the topography, but in some cases the system itself may gererate high-permeability flow ths to the surface. For example, at Waiotapu Fig. 1.2, Plate 1.1) the largest single discharge of liquid from the deep system--the Champagne Pool Independent of the stratigraphy and original topography and occupies the vent of a hydrothermal eruption crater formec some 900 years b.p. Such eruption vents are nov known to have formed in almost all of the New Zealand geothermal systems, but are less well known elsewhere due to the frequent Confusion of the eruptive products with voleaniclastic breccias which may also be common in the vicinity. Hydrothermal eruption breccias are characterized by fan absence of primary voleanie material and are generally polylithic and matrix supported. Clasts have 8 range of alteration styles and, together with stratigraphic data, indicate an origin from depths up to about 300 meters. An origin by gas exsolution has been proposed by Henley etal. (1984) and by Hedenquist and Henley (1985a). Eruption breccias of shallower origin are also common in geothermal areas and result from the interaction of vapor with surficial groundwater or local removal of confining pressure, as appears to be the case for eruptions in Yellowstone (Muffler et al, 1971). Heat and Mass Flow in Geothermal Systems Table 1.2 shows heat and mass output data from some geothermal systems. These are obtained by integration of ground temperature data and physical measurements of the outflow rates and temperatures of discharging hot springs and fumaroles. In some cases an independent estimate of the upflow is obtainable using measurements of the chloride content of river water up and downstream of a geothermal field (Ellis and Wilson, 1955; Fournier et al., 1975). These data may be related to the convective uptlow of high-temperature fluid in the system assuming some knowledge of the upflow temperature. For exampl at Waiotapu the measured surface gat _flow is ooMW(h) (600 MW(h) = 600 x 10° Joules/s). Exploration drilling and geochemical data suggest that the fluid feeding the field is at about 300°C. The enthalpy of steam-saturated water at 300°C is about 1350 Joules/gm (see Henley and Brown, 1985, thisR. W. HENLEY n Table 1.2--Sumary of heat and mass flows in some New Zealand geothermal fields Field Total Heat Flow Equivalent upflow Wairakei 400 mw 350 kg/s (260°C) Tauhara 100 vw 88 kg/s (260°C) Waiotapy 600 Mi 440 kg/s (300°C) Ohaaki (Broadlands) 100 75 kg/s (300°C) Mokai 100 75 kg/s (300°C) volume, Fig. 2.3) s0 that the mass flux of 300°C fluid is obtained by (600 x 106)/1350 x 103 = 40 grn/s. Exercise: The Champagne Pool at Waiotapu (Plate 1.1) hhas a discharge of about 10 kg/s of 70°C water and, we estimate, about 7 kg/s of steam. Calculate ‘the Proportion of the total convective uptlow of heat and ass in the system which is discharged by this feature alone (the enthalpy of 70°C water is about 300 oules/gm and of steam about 2600 Joules/gm). Within the heat-flow budget the most difficult factor to assess is the proportion of the upflow which may be dissipated by subsurface groundwater flow. On the basis of the size of the field and its deep ‘temperatures, at Broadlands (Ohaaki), the total heat flow is thought to be greater than’ 100 MW(h) and equivalent to >75 kg/s of chloride water, but the observed surface heat flow is less than a third of this estimate. The principal outflow of hot water from this field is the Ohaaki Pool but, at 10 kg/s, this accounts for only about 5 MW(h). CHEMISTRY OF GEOTHERMAL DISCHARGES Table 1.3 compares the chemistry of waters from natural features with the chemistry of deep waters encountered by deep drilling. The principal discriminating features with respect to origin have already been noted, i,e., deep fluid characterized by C1SO, and surficial steam-heated waters by 50,>>Cl. “In a given field, comparison of chloride contents in hot springs provides information about mixing processes and flow directions. Careful application of cremical geothermometer techniques may also provide some unique insights into temperature patterns in the underlying system and processes occurring during outflow (Fournier, 1981), and therefore provide an important guide for geothermal exploration. Chemical relations between natural discharges and the deeper chloride-water system are most commonly illustrated by means of "mixing-diagrams." Figure 1.4 provides examples where two conservative quantities are compared; in this case_ chloride concentration and heat content (enthalpy). The latter is frequently assumed to be conservative during Table 1.3-~Sunmary of the chemistry of hot springs and geothermal fluids Concentrations in mg/kg Field Feature 8c pL) CL SHS Oy Waiotapy Champagne Pool = 705471934103 Well 7 25° 518 102668389 Waiotapy —Chanpagne Pool 98 8.0 177028 Well 80 200° «6.4 12608 5 230 Tauhara Crow's Nest. 98 8.0 «125055 Kathleen Spring 61 10140 Well 1 257 6.01525 29 549 Wokai Northern Springs 56 6.33708 well 3 315 18506 8 196 Tongonan Banat Spring 988.25 33973 Well 405, 260 «51h 80002 34-4060n CHAPTER 1 a = Wairahe walls & springs Tabara. 3 ENTHALPY. hu/ig Y CHLORIDE ng/g 3 ENTHALPY kJ/kg eine 199% agptine 1000 2000 CHLORIDE mg/kg =] SS ye Figure 1.4a, b, and c: Fluid-mixing relations for the geothermal systems shown in Pigure Led hydrothermal processes since conductive heat transfer Js a minor component ef the overall heat budget and systems are assumed to be in a steady-state with respect to heat and mass transfer (heat released by alteration reactions is also a minor component). The Principal processes occurring are dilution (mixing) and adiabatic boiling during the irreversible expansion of the deeper system fluid as it rises and is subject to less confining pressure. AS discussed above, chemical trends due to these processes are clearly shown in the diagrams which then allow the interpretation of the origin of individual thermal features. (In many cases, local mixing involves a steam- or conductively heated water with a temperature in the vicinity of 130°C.) Some of the Wairakei-Tauhara springs, for example, show evidence of dilution prior to boiling below a hot spring, while others, as at Mokai, are simply derived by dilution (Figs. Ita’ and.c). The Champagne Pool at Waiotapu is an example of the direct discharge to the surface of deep fluid (Fig. 1.4b). EPITHERMAL ORE-FORMING SYSTEMS Requirements for Ore Deposition ‘The transport chemistry of the epithermal group of metals has been reviewed by Barnes (1975), Weisberg et al, (1979), and Henley and Brown (1985, this volume). In this chapter, these data are built into the geothermal system framework to provide an understanding of the erigin of epithermal mineral deposits in general based on the solution chemistry of the metals and their response to the two principal Processes operating in the upper levels of these systems-dilution and adiabatic boiling. It is also important to discuss two important’ interrelated criteria for ore deposition, These are (a) the availability of metals in solution and (b) the time required for the ore depositing system to operate. Figures 1.5a and t show the solubilities of gold, silver, and lead (representing the base metals) as functions of temperature and ligand concentration. AS shown elsewhere (Ellisy 1970; Giggenbach, 1981; Henley et al 1984; Henley and Brown, 1985, this volume), the pH of hydrothermal fluids in active and fossil systems is buffered by fluid + alumino-silicate reactions such as the conversion of plagioclase to mica andjor clay minerals. Fer low salinity fluids (C1 = 1000 mg/kg), pH's are around 6.1 at 250°C (i.e., on the alkaline side of neutral pH) but about I pH unit more acid (5.1) for fluids an order of magnitude higher in salinity at the same temperature. For lead the dominant dissolution reaction in chloride solutions is PbS + 2H* + 2CI" = PbCly + HyS 0 that pH, chloride concentration and HS content are the solubility controlling variables “at a given temperature. Clearly, the higher the salinity and lower the pit, the more metal is dissolved, whereas high H,S contents lim the solubility (Fig. 15a). (ote that in low chloride concentrations at near2 e z R. W. HENLEY 2B HzS_ 10%mg/ag Au (103¢)) Au OCI age AoE) S © Brodlands ‘ot 6Bmg HzS /kg 200 Bo 300 Temperature *C 260°C GOLD maiko suLveR === ze Jog C1 morkg aa His mavtg + + + + Leg i maras Figure 1.5. Gold, galena, and argentite solu- bility (ng/kg) versus (a) temperature and (b) ligand concentration for mineral-buf- fered hydrothermal fluids (calculated fron the data sunmarized in Henley et ale, 1984, Chapter 9). In Figures 1.5a, b, and c, the fluid is considered buffered with respect to pH by the assemblage Kmica-Kfeldspar- quartz and with respect to fy by the em- pirical relation for the assemblage pyrite— Fe-silicate-quartz derived by Giggenbach (1980). The pH of the fluid decreases to the right and fy» increases upward. Fig ures 1.5a, b, and-c refer to examples dis- cussed in the text. Metal contents of the Broadlands systen fluids (66 mg/kg H,S) are shown for reference. AS an exercisé, con vert these data to values representing solutions containing 100 mg/kg HS. ‘The slopes of the solubility curves shown relate to well-established thernody- namic date for the metal complexes con— sidered, but relative solubilities may be in error cue to the absence of reliable solubility constants for PbS and Ag,S. In the low-salinity fluids (see text), ‘bisul- fide complexes of silver and hydroxy-carbo- nate complexes of lead may allow higher solubilities than calculated on the basis of chloride complexing alone. The stizpled region in Figure 1.5a en- phasizes the temperature-salinity-metal concentration range of principal interest in epithernal studies. Figure 15c, for 250°C, includes an estimate of the solubility of Ag,S as Ag(HS),” at low salinities and as chforice compléxes at higher salinity. ‘The ordinate in the case shows total reduced sulfur rather than HS, and this introduces the curvature at fow salinities (from Henley, 1986).4 CHAPTER neutral pH, hydrolyzed hydroxy- or carbonate complexes may be more important than chloride complexes, but in these media the total dissolved base ‘metal is only about 10 parts per billion, too low for the formation of base metal ores.) For gold, transported as a bisulfide complex, the relative redox state--or fyjy--of the fluid is also a controlling variables Au + 2HQ5 = Au(HS)2" + HY + 0.54 ‘As shown by Giggenbach (1980), the ratio of Hy to HS in natural hydrothermal systems appears” to be constrained by iron sulfide + iron alumino-silicate reactions, The empirical relationship between Ha/H2S, and temperature may be used to obtain the redox state of the fluid for the calculation of the gold content of hydrothermal system fluids as @ function of HoS, Cl, and temperature, (Note that fyyp may also be expressed as fgy--a vanishingly Small number _by compatison--see Henley et al., 1984, Chapter 8). For metals transported as bisulfide complexes, the relative effects of HS and pH are opposite to those for cchloride-compfexed metals. For these metals, therefore, increasing HS increases solubility while increasing salinity lowers the solubility because of the PH decrease due to the silicate buffer. Using the same buffering constraints, Figure 1.5b shows the solubilities of these metals as a function of temperature at 100 mg/kg of HS--a typical value for {assy geothermal systems. For comparison the metal Contents of fluids in the Broadlands system (66 mg H,S/kg) are shown--see Henley and Brown, 1985, this volume, Note that solubilities range only up to 100 parts per billion but that because gold has such a high economic value compared to say lead, this range is quite sufficient to result in ore deposition. There is strong field evidence (Brown, 1985; Henley and Brown, 1985, this volume) and some low- temperature experimental data’ (Barnes and Czamanske, 1968) that a bisulfide complex of silver may contribute to the solubility in low-salinity, high- gas geothermal fluids. It is clear from Figure 1.5a that its contribution just be negligible at salinities of more than about 107 mg/kg, where pl's are I to 2 units lower than in the’ relatively low-salinity Broadlands fluid. Its contribution is, however, important in considering silver transport in iow salinity systems. The topology of the solubility of argentite at 250°C in_mineral-butfered systems is explored in Figure 1.5¢ (Henley, 1986) based on the Broadlands field data and an assumption of Ag(HS)3 as. the dominant silver species. The solubility of sphalerite is, shown on this diagram in place of galena, As arule of thumb, its solubility is about ten times that of galena under the same conditions. Figures 1.5a and b provide important information fon the chemical nature ‘of the hydrothermal systems responsible for ore deposition, but they also provide some basic constraints on the time required for an ore deposit to form. There is, as already indicated, a variable economic factor inherent in determining the amount and distribution of metal required for "ore", but the calculations below are well above this boundary condition. Consider the two discharges A and B located in Figure 1.5b. A has the salinity and gas content of systems like Broadlands and Waiotapu, and B that of the Salton Sea system. For case A, with dissolved gold = 14 x 10"> mg/kg, a single discharge to the surface at 10 kg/s would, with quantitative deposition of metals, deposit 0.13 million ounces of gold per 1000 years or, 1,3 million ounces in only 10,000 years. 10. kg/s represents only the flow of a Single spring like the Waiotapu Champagne Pool, so it is evident that the time required for deposition of say 6 million ounces of gold--a respectable deposit--is only about 30,000 years. The time required to bring a typical geothermal sygtem to a steady-state condition is also of the order 10 years (Henley and Ellis, 1983), so this figure may usefully be taken as the minimum time for ore deposition to occur (Fig. 1.7). White et al. (1968) have, suggested that hydeotherinal activity at Steamboaj Springs, Nevada, was spread intermittantly over 10 years. For case A (Fig. 1.50), the relative amounts of ‘metal which may be quantitatively deposited are as follows: gold, 40 x 10° gm (1.3 million ounces}; silver, 9x 108 gm (300,000 ounces); and lead 3000 gm. Since only chloride complexing of silver has been assumed, the ratio, Au/Ag, for the resulting deposit would be about 4.5. As noted above, field evidence spe: for this type of fluid indicates that silver complexes dominate silver transport under most epithermal conditions, so that total gold and silver transport are of the same magnitude and the resulting Au/Ag ratio is close to I. At these very low sali chloride transport of lead and zine is insignifica some hydroxy or bicarbonate complexing may allow transport of these metals to be two to three orders of magnitude higher~-still insufficient to constitute a base-metal ore body. In this calculation a saturation of 1 is assumed for each metal, but it is clear that, based on typical modest) discharge rates for active geothermal system features, a major gold deposit “may be produced in a relatively short timespan, For case B (Fig. 1.5b),,with chloride = 10° mg/kg, a modest discharge fof 10" years would proguce the followipg deposits 107 tonnes lead; 9 x 10” tonnes (Gx 10" ‘million ounces) silver; and 1 tonne (0.03 million ounces) gold, Notice that for these high- salinity fluids, silver transport is dominated by chloride complexing because of the relative abundance of chloride over 175 in solution and the lower pH of the more saline solution relative to case A. An important limitation appears 11 this case as the molal metal content approaches the molality of dissolved sulfur and there is, therefore, an interesting trade-off between the HzS content and the mass of sulfide which may be deposited as a given salinity. Case C in Figure 1.5 represents the Kuroko-type deposits which were formed through the seafloor venting of sea-water based geothermal systems--the Kuroko-type deposits are, afterall, simply telescoped sea-floor equivalents of! the terrestrial. epithermal systems! For seawater salinity, the relative amounts of metals formed during the same 1g year discharge history at say 10 kg/s are about 10? tonnes lead, 30 million ounces silver, and 0.1 million ounces goid.RW. Table L from a ai HENLEY 1s “Sunnary of precioue- and base-wetal production or reserves ber of geothermal deposits, natural features and the test cases discussed in the text Deposit million carlin, Nevada Round Mountain, Nevada Goldfield, Nevada Creede, Colorado Pachuca, Mexico Fresnilio, Mexico Waihi, New Zealand Kuroko 3 case A per 104 years 1.33 Care 0103 casec |" out Ohaaki Pool 85 glk, BR 22 scale 3m Magmamax, Calif, scale As Pb Au/ag ounces tonnes 0.3 trace 16.2 0.01% 15. 1% 79.3 1.5 x 105 1232 2 290 3.2 x 10% 30 2 300 3x 10% 0.3" 3 x 1073 3x 104 1x 107 30 1x 103 500 mg/kg 25 me/kg 30% O.1k 80 mg/kg 1.3, “Ao noted in the text, field data suggest that higher silver solubilities occur in low-salinity, high-llyS solutions than indicated by chloride complexing alone; a wore realistic ratio for case A therefore about 1 as observed in the precipitate from well BR 22. ‘Again these figures are comparable to metal production figures for this type of deposit (Table 1.) hotwithstanding the inherent assumptions in the calculation and the single reference temperature, 300°C, employed. Tt is evident from Figures 1.5a_ and by again assuming quantitative deposition of metals, that the metal ratio of a given ore deposit is a function of temperature, salinity, HS content, chemical process, and proportion of remaining metal. This is reflected in the “data of Ewers and Keays (1977) from the Broadlands field which shows @ clear, gradation of AulAg from 1 at about 200 m to 10“ at 1200 m, Therefore, a precise correspondence is not to be expected in comparing the ratios calculated in cases A through C to those of exploited ore deposits (Fig. 16, Table 1.t). The range of Au/Ag ratios (and. suggestion of bimodality) relative to (Au Ag) is consistent with the solution chemistry as well as the distribution of salinities for crustal fluids discussed above. These data do, however, suggest that the calculated solution compositions are broadly correct for the metal suite considered. Lead and silver production data for Creede, Colorado, and Pachuca, Mexico, are consistent with’ the solution model; fluid inclusion data fpr these deposits suggest salinities of the order # x 10! mg CI/kge jure 1.7 relates the assumptions of nal efficiency and saturation to deposited ore ‘Order of depos metal and depositional time for case A. magnitude changes in either of these parameters still allow ore deposition to be completed well within the lifespan estimated for the active geothermal systems, ies, 0.3 to 1.0 million years. ‘The most significant iscovery, which bears on the modelling of epithermal ore deposition, is that chalcopyrite scales containing 4.5 wt.-% gold and 25 wt. silver occur in surface pipework of discharging wells at Broadlands (Brown, 1985). These scales and other field experiments ' also imply that gold concentrations in the deep fluid at Broadlands are close to saturation (Brown, 1985), Prior to this, data from atmospheric pressure discharges had suggested that saturations for gold in the deep Broadlands fluids were less than 0.01 mg/kg, so that reconciliation of the chemistry of active systems and their discharge rates with the formation of significant gold deposits, required either that the system host-rocks should be conveniently pre-enriched in gold--or some pretty nifty chemical footwork was necessary! This of course provided also the opportunity for a wide range of speculations concerning other complexes of gold and the role of host rocks. The new data not only confirm boiling as an extraordinarly efficient deposition process for gold and silver, but also infers that all geothermal system fluids are close to saturation with gold (as a bisulfide complex) and probably silver, the absolute concentrations reflecting HS content’ and salinity-pH control through deep —_fluid-rock. interaction.16 CHAPTER 1 Mittion ounces Au + Ag 1 19 190 1900 0.01 o.1 fast Ten 1 Ag: Au 1 Pest 10: ne suit 100. 1000 Figure 1.6. Au-Ag as a function of total gold and silver for a number of precious-metal deposits and the examples discussed in the text (modified from Graybeal, 1981). Note that the ratio shown for case A is based on chloride complexing of silver, so that a more appropriate estimate for low-salinity fluids may be gauged from the ratio ob- served in the Broadlands BR 22 precipitate. The host rocks of the Broadlands system are really quite unremarkable silicic volcanic rocks and, at depth, greywackes. Irrespective of the host rock Composition, as shown above, significant gold transport and deposition can occur in relatively. short time periods, The formation of an economic deposit is therefore more a function of the hydrology and chemistry of the system than it is of the availability of Uunusual host-rock gold contents. Availability of the metals) to solution is, however, a factor which may Contribute to the transport and deposition efficiency fof the system as a whole, In essence, for ore exploration the recognition of the source of ore metals may pale into insignificance relative to the recognition ‘of a Source for the metal-transporting ligand. ‘At. Waiotapu, Hedenquist and Henley (1985a) showed, using appropriate estimates of the pH, fy12, and mpigg of the deep fluid, that the size of the system Was such as to be able to supply all the equired metal for at least 10" years. In that cas 108 years, with a constant heat and, mass flux equivalent to the present, about 3.6 x 107 grams (1.2 ‘million ounces) of gold could have been transported, but since the hydrology of the near-surface system appears to allow only one site with the focused ots Figure 1.7. Gold deposition as a function of ‘time, flow rate (10 kg/s) and process effi- ciency for a fluid initially at 300% (see Fig. 1.5). ‘The flow rate relates to that of 4 typical hot spring whereas the total flow of most gecthermal systems is ten to forty tines larger. How does this affect the position of the curves? Maximum and minimum Lifetimes for hydrothermal systems are shown for reference (for discussion, see Henley and Ellis, 1983). depositional process, the overall efficiency of the hydrothermal system as a metal concentrator is quite low, around 10%, the remaining 90% being disseminated widely through the shallow boiling zones. Chemistry of Systems Responsible for Ore Formation It is immediately ebvious from Figure 1.5a, that the prime requirement for the formation of a gold deposit is 4, fluid relatively high in HS but of low salinity (10% mg/kg CD). The system tersperature is of lower significance, as’ shown by Figure 1.35. By contrast, silver-rich base-metal deposits require fluids of high salinity ( seawater) and the effect of HS concentration is secondary. The temperatue coefficients of solubility for these metals are large, but of less significance than salinity in determining metal transport capability. In reviewing ‘luid-inclusion data from available studies on epithermal systems, Hedenquist and Henley (19855) confirmed the validity of these salinity Griteria, In many cases she low salinities of the fluids Fesponsible for gold deposition were obscured by the presence in solution of dissolved gas, predominantly E02, which contributes to the freezing point of theR. W. HENLEY 7 inclusion fluid in the same way as other solutes. For example, 4 wt.-% CO in solution depresses the freezing point by the same amount, -1.7°K, as 2.8 wt-% NaCl. Since the molar CO/H3S ratio of active geothermal-system fluids range from 10 to 100 Giggenbach, 1980), the high CO. implies high HS as required by the solution model, Bue to the scarcity of fellable gas analyses for fluid inclusions, the correlation of high- salinity, low-gas fluids with base metal-silver deposition has yet to be fully demonstrated. ‘Although no statistical analysis of fluid compositions is possible, it appears from the data available from well-explored geothermal systems that salinities reflect host rock and crustal setting. This is shown schematically in Figure 1.8, which makes the ad hoc assumption of normal frequency distributions for fluid compositions in different crustal environments. Salinities for basalt-hosted systems are lower than those for systems hosted by silicic volcanic and these in turn are lower than for andesite-hosted systems. Doesn't this broadly reflect the ore-host relationships seen in many districts? Fluid-inclusion data suggest that silver deposits of the Creede-type formed from fluids of even higher salinity. As discussed elsewhere (Hedenquist and Henley, 1985b), such high-salinity {fluids are encountered in some terrestrial geothermal systems. Such fluids, some with extremely high salinity, occur in systems typified by those of the Imperial Valley, California, within which evaporites are present (Rex, 1983), reflecting both the tectonic setting, crustal

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