KNOWLEDGE OF HEALTH IMPLICATIONS, SAFETY MEASURE ADOPTION,

ATTITUDE AND THE PRACTICE OF COOKING OIL REUSE

AMONG FRIED SNACK VENDORS IN PORTHARCOURT RIVERS STATE.

BY

CHUKWUNONSO CHIDINMA FAVOUR

TO THE

DEPARTMENT OF NUTRITION AND DIETETICS

UNIVERSITY OF PORT HARCOURT TEACHING HOSPITAL,

RIVERS STATE
 NOVEMBER 2022

CERTIFICATION

This to certify that Chukwunonso Chidinma Favour carried out this work titled Knowledge of
health implications, safety measure adoption, attitude and the practice of repeated
cooking oil reuse among fried snack vendors in OBIO-akpor L.G.A. Rivers state.

In partial fulfilment for the requirement of Registered Dietitians Association of Nigeria (RDN)
with Dietitians Association of Nigeria (DAN). Under the supervision of

................................ ...............................

Samuel Okafor (RDN,) Date

(Project Supervisor)

.................................. ...............................

Ekweh Obioma . (RDN) Date

(Internship Coordinator)
.................................... ...............................

ODAZIE ECHEFU. (RDN) Date

(Head of Department)

DEDICATION

This project work is dedicated to the Almighty God for the grace he bestowed on me all through
this project period.
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I sincerely thank the Almighty God for granting me his infinite grace, favour and mercy to
complete this research work. My heart felt gratitude goes to my Husband for giving me the push
and all needed support to carry out the internship programme.

I immensely acknowledge my supervisor Samuel OKAFOR (RDN) and Ngozi(RDN) that

made out time to go through the manuscript not minding their tight schedule, I pray that God
will grant you all your heart desires. My thanks go to all Dietitians and junior staff of Nutrition
and Dietetics for all their Support and help throughout my stay in University of Port Harcourt
Teaching Hospital Rivers state.
I also appreciate my friends: Chinaza Okafor, Chidinma Osuagwu and Rita Akalazu who in
one way or the other contributed to make this work a success. May the God almighty reward
you all.
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Title page i
Certification ii
Dedication iii
Acknowledgement iv
Table of content v
List of figure viii
List of tables ix
Abstract x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Problem Statement

1.2 Research Questions

1.3 Objectives of the Study

1.4 Justification of the Study

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1
2.2

2.3
2.4

2.5

2.6

2.7

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1 Area of the Study

3.2 Study Population

3.3 Inclusion Criteria

3.4 Exclusion Criteria

3.5 Sample Size Determination

3.6 Sampling Method/Technique

3.7 Data Collection: Tools and Protocol

3.8 Data Analysis

3.9 Ethical Consideration

CHAPTER FOUR RESULTS
4.1 Social Demographic Characteristics
4.2 Knowledge about health implications of repeated reuse of cooking oil
4.3 Attitude towards repeated reuse of cooking oil
4.4 Practice of cooking oil reuse among fried snack vendors

4.5 Knowledge and practice of food safety during frying process

CHAPTER FIVE DISCUSSION
5.1 Discussion
5.2 Conclusion
5.3 Recommendation
REFERENCES
Appendices

CHAPTER 1

1.0 INTRODUCTION
Oil is a major ingredient in most Nigerian cooking traditions. A number of studies tell us that
reheating cooking oil can release harmful toxins, increase the percentage of trans- fats in it,
becomes rancid, gives rise to free radicals, and gives rise to some very harmful reactions. (Zhuo
et al., 2015).

Reheating oil can take a toll on people’s health by resulting in several harmful effects. Not
overheating the oil for a lot of time, not adding salt to foods before deep-frying, and minimizing
food contamination by avoiding the accumulation of food particles in the oil are all suggested as
some viable measures to reduce the harmful effects that result while reheating oil. (Shahidi et
al., 2012). However, strictly regulating the reuse of edible oil can help save the domestic as well
as restaurant customers from the ill-effects of reheated cooking oil.

It is a common practice in the household or in the commercial sector to use the same frying oil
repeatedly to save cost. The oil is discarded only when it becomes foamy, emits bad odor or
when the color turns dark.

Chemical reactions such as oxidation, hydrolysis and thermal polymerization occur when
cooking oil is heated during the deep-frying process. Deep frying is a frying process where the
food is completely immersed in the frying oil at temperatures of between 160-190°C in the
presence of air and moisture.

The quality of oil deteriorates with increased length of frying time due to the accelerated
formation of oxidized and polymerized lipid species in the frying medium. Repeatedly heated
oil can cause changes also in physical appearance of the oil such as increased viscosity,
darkening in color, increased foaming and decrease in smoke point of the oil. If the physico-
chemical properties of cooking oil deteriorate, the oil must be discarded because it can prove to
be harmful for human consumption. (Shahidi et al., 2012).
1.1BACKGROUND OF STUDY

Cooking oil is a major ingredient in preparing roadside foods like buns, fried yam, suya, puff
puff, fried fish and akara. Reused cooking oils have been found to be high in trans -fat
content which exposes consumers to the risk of Cardiovascular Diseases (CVDs). (Stier,
R.F. 2012.)
Repeatedly heated cooking oils (RCO) can generate varieties of compounds, including
polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH), some of which have been reported as
carcinogenic. RCO is one of the commonly consumed cooking and frying medium. These
RCO consumption and inhalation of cooking fumes can pose a serious health hazard.
Furthermore, the large consumption of RCO has been associated with a number of
malignancies, including lung, colorectal, breast, and prostate cancers. (Sahari et al 2013).
In Nigeria, consumption of fried foods made in road side eateries, food outlets, in markets
and restaurants is quite common. Socioeconomic status of people determines their food
intake pattern. For example, people from low-income group subsist on fried foods in
roadside stalls. It has been reported in a survey that 48% of people consumed fried food 1–6
times/week. Snacks account for 21% of all meals with the major types of snacks consumed
constituting shallow and deep-fried foods. Repeated heating of oils at high temperatures
(160–190 °C) over a long period of time predisposes the oil to thermal oxidation, hydrolysis
and polymerization with a configuration change of fatty acid from cis to trans isomers and
accelerates the formation of oxidized and polymerized lipid species in the frying medium.
Repeated heating changes the physical appearance of the oil with increase in its viscosity,
darkening in color, foaming and decrease in smoke point making it harmful for human
consumption.

Several investigations that have been carried out in animals demonstrate that consumption
of RHCO increases the presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and thus a decreased
 radical scavenging activity and thereby oxidative stress. Use of RHCO is known to
induce genotoxicity and there by carcinogenicity . Deleterious health effects of consumption
of RHCO like increased pressure , risk of cardiovascular diseases 
endothelial dysfunction , impaired vasorelaxation responses hypertension , increased lipid
peroxidation and LDL  and atherosclerosis  are available in literature. Several investigations
in rats also revealed functional changes in blood vessels, changes in serum
alkaline phosphatase, aspartate aminotransferase and alanine aminotransferase
levels  intestinal damage and impaired function, with increased blood pressure ( Phiri et al.,
2017).
The present research work asses the level of knowledge of these health implications by fried
snack vendors, their attitude and degree of practice of cooking oil reuse.

1.2STATEMENT OF PROBLEM

According to WHO Report on Global Trans Fat Elimination 2020,’ the global health body
revealed how Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs) are responsible for the death of about 41
million people each year. This is equivalent to 71% of all deaths globally, with CVDs topping
deaths associated with NCDs. Research has also shown that increased intake of Trans fatty acid
(TAs) correlates with increased risk of CVDs which accounts for 16% deaths globally as stated
by the Director-General of WHO, Dr Tedros Adhanom Ghebreyesus, in the report.

According to the Institute for Health Metrics and Evaluation (IHME) Global Burden of Disease
data 2019 (GBD) Result Tool), there was an estimated 854,000 deaths in Nigeria, of which 137,
000 were cardiovascular deaths and 3,229 attributed to trans fatty acids (TFA)-related
cardiovascular deaths. Trans fat which has been found to be present in cooking oil,
including reused ones, is becoming a dangerous silent cause of death.
Trans Fat  (TFA), are formed through the chemical process of hydrogenation of oils mainly
used for domestic purposes such as cooking and frying. The hydrogenation process solidifies
the liquid oil which makes it possible to increase the shelf life and taste of food products
prepared with such oil.
This number is worrisome for a country without a TFA policy and whose citizens are also
ignorant of the dangers in consuming foods high in trans fat.

1.3OBJECTIVE OF THE STUDY

The general objective of this study was to determine the level of knowledge of health risk of
cooking oil reuse, attitude and its practice among fried snack vendors in port harcourt Nigeria.

The specific objectives are to:

i. ascertain the knowledge of fried food vendors about health implications of cooking oil
reuse
ii. understand the extent to which vendors recycle cooking oil for fried food
iii. investigate the oil source and the quality of cooking oil used in the deep frying process
iv. assess safety measures taken by roadside fried food vendors during deep frying

1.4SIGNIFICANCE OF STUDY
With an estimated 854,000 deaths in Nigeria, and 3,229 attributed to trans fatty acids (TFA)
-related cardiovascular death INSTITUTE FOR HEALTH METRICS AND
EVALUATIONs(,IHME),2019. . The consumption of such oils increase the risk of heart
diseases which the World Health Organization (WHO) 2019 fact sheet on CVDs stated as
the “number one cause of death globally.” This means that more people die annually from
heart-related diseases than from any other reason. The findings of the study bare the
significances relative to the respective categories of people.
This research will help ascertain the degree of oil reuse among vendors and help structure
nutrition education materials for both vendors and consumers of fried snacks. To the policy
makers and planners, the findings of the study will give an informed basis to address issues
related to repeated use of vegetable oil during frying to ensure the health of the populace is
not put at risk. The findings of the study will provide literature in the future to researchers
who will wish to carry out studies in fields related areas.

CHAPTER TWO
2.0 HEALTH IMPLICATIONS OF COOKING OIL REUSE

 Effect of reheated vegetable oils on antioxidant activity

Excessive generation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), coupled with a reduced availability of
antioxidants, predisposes the human cells to a state of oxidative stress. ROS are highly reactive
and unstable in nature. Antioxidants present in oil inhibit oxidative deterioration in vegetable
oils during the frying process and scavenge free radicals and ROS.

Enzymatic and non-enzymatic antioxidants ensure the balance of ROS level and repair
oxidative cellular damage. Enzymatic antioxidants such as superoxide dismutase, catalase and
glutathione peroxidase, which are directly involved in the neutralization of ROS, are known as
the first line defense system (Lobo et al., 2015). On the other hand, the second line of defense is
represented by non-enzymatic radical scavenging antioxidants, which include ascorbic acid,
carotenoids, tocopherols and plant phytochemicals such as phenolic compounds (polyphenols)
that inhibit the initiation of the oxidation chain and prevent chain propagation [ Rahman K].
These antioxidants protect cells and biomacromolecules against the harmful effects of free
radicals and prevent oxidative degradation.

Reheating of vegetable oil at high temperatures leads to oxidation, which produces rancid odor
and flavor [Garcia AB.]. Subsequently, the oxidation process reduces both the nutritional value as
well as the safety of fried food products through the formation of secondary products due to
peroxidation of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) []. The extent of oil degradation is
measured by the peroxide index. The peroxide index evaluates the amount of peroxides formed
in the vegetable oil during the oxidation process. The extent of oxidation rancidity is influenced
by the number of frying episodes. The more frequently the vegetable oil is reheated, the higher
is the peroxide index [Aladedunye FA,]. The chemical stability of the frying oil is influenced by
peroxide formation. A higher peroxide value indicates lower chemical stability of the oil.

Heating causes changes in the physical and chemical characteristics of oils. Repeatedly heating
the oil leads to the degradation in the oil quality, with formation of more saturated compounds
such as hydroperoxides, monomers, dimers, trimers and high-molecular-weight compounds
along with less proportion of unsaturated fats. Lipid peroxidation may be initially prevented by
antioxidants. However, repeated heating eventually decreases the antioxidant content of the oil.
As a consequence, the remaining depleted antioxidants in the oil will not be capable of exerting
any protective effect against free radicals and oxidative damage.

Endogenous antioxidants contained in vegetable oil provide a natural resistance to oxidative

deterioration. The antioxidant activity of the phenolic extract of virgin olive oil was found to be
very low after the sixth frying process [Gómez-Alonso S,]. Cooking oil is more susceptible to
oxidation following repeated heating due to the increased concentrations of polar compounds,
and oxidized triacylglycerol monomers, dimers and polymers [ Gómez-Alonso S,]. Similarly, total
loss of antioxidant activity due to deep-fat frying after the 12th frying processes has been
reported [Gómez-Alonso S,]. Vitamin E consists of tocopherols and tocotrienols isomers, which
are the major antioxidants of vegetable oils. Adam et al. reported that reheating palm and
soybean oils significantly reduced the content of the various vitamin E fractions. The stability
of the vitamin E isomers varies during heating because it depends on the type of oil and the
content of vitamin E in those edible oils. Palm oil is rich in tocopherols and tocotrienols.
Tocotrienol has been exhibited to have more potent antioxidant activity [Maniam S, Mohamed N]
than tocopherol, which is found in soybean oils. In addition, soybean oil is high in PUFA
content compared to palm oil, which has approximately 1:1 ratio of saturated and unsaturated
fatty acids with lower PUFA levels. Hence, soybean oil is more prone to oxidation than palm oil
following repeated heating [Jaarin K].

Deterioration of natural antioxidant such as phenolic compounds and tocopherols is observed

when virgin olive oil and sunflower oil are heated repeatedly [ Andrikopoulos NK. Evuen et al.
conducted a study to investigate the toxicological effects of heating of vegetable oils on their
natural antioxidant levels. The oils were repeatedly heated for three consecutive days. Refined,
deodorized palm olein, groundnut oil, congealed and locally made vegetable oil samples
showed a reduction in alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene levels as the frying oils were
repeatedly heated. The effect of antioxidants on the stability of rapeseed oil during heating at
80°C and during deep-fat frying were evaluated by determination of the production of
polymers, its peroxide index and tocopherol content [ Gordon MH, K]. Repeated heating reduced
the stability of the rapeseed oil, with a lowering of the tocopherol content and an elevation in
the levels of lipid peroxidation products. A study carried out by Koh et al. demonstrated that
with increased frying cycles, antioxidant activities reduced significantly in palm oil and rice
bran oil. Tocotrienol and tocopherol concentrations decreased in both vegetable oils. However,
it was reported that tocotrienol is more susceptible to degradation when compared to
tocopherol. Both vitamin E homologues are potent antioxidants. Nevertheless, tocotrienol was
shown to possess greater antioxidant capacity [Maniam S]. Hence, it might be less stable and be
oxidized first to protect the other antioxidant, i.e. tocopherol.

 Effect of reheated vegetable oils on Lipid peroxidation

Excessive free radicals cause alterations in the redox state of human body, leading to lipid
peroxidation. Although lipid peroxidation is a natural process, unabated, it is a crucial step in
basic deteriorative mechanisms that include cell injury, enzyme damage and nucleic acid
mutagenesis [Ayala A]. Lipid peroxidation is one of the key mechanisms causing oxidative
modification of physiologically important lipids in cell membranes. Lipids, particularly PUFAs,
are key targets of this modification because they contain oxidizable double bonds [ McIntyre
TM,]. The basis for this is the hydrogen adhering to the carbon atom between two adjacent
double bonds is the weakest bond in the fatty acid, which makes it susceptible to oxidative
attack. Unstable free radicals readily stabilize themselves by abstracting electrons from
membrane lipids to initiate a self-propagating chain reaction. Structural rearrangement of the
lipids ensues, and the rate of bond cleavage is greatly increased until the molecule is stabilized.

Oxidative damage to lipid architectures can ultimately lead to disorganization and dysfunction
of, as well as damage to membranes, enzymes and proteins [ Halliwell]. Subsequently, lipid
peroxidation impairs the membrane functions, inactivates membrane-bound receptors or
enzymes, and disturbs ions permeability and fluidity, which eventually leads to membrane
rupture Gutteridge jm[]. Moreover, reactive electrophilic end products of such lipid peroxidation
reactions, namely a- and β-aldehydes are also detrimental to cell viability Skrzydlewska E [].
Lipid peroxidation provokes alteration in gene expression and immunologic responses [44].
Oxidative damage may accumulate over time, thereby contributing to cell injury and
pathologies, including cardiovascular diseases Siegel G and inflammatory disorders.

As various oxidative reactions are initiated by thermal treatment, the antioxidant defense system
of the body appears to be actively challenged by the free radicals present in reheated oils
Papadimitriou]. A previous study has found a higher content of oxidized compounds in the body
fat of rats fed oxidized soybean oil , suggesting the important role of reheated oil in altering the
redox steady state. Depletion of the natural antioxidants, such as phenolic compounds [51],
tocopherols and tocotrienols [30] of cooking oil further renders cell membranes vulnerable to
lipid peroxidation. Moreover, some end products of oil deterioration such as ketones, alcohols
and aldehydes are cytotoxic, the ingestion of reheated oil may lead to cell necrosis and
apoptosis [52]. Dung CH,

Various techniques are available for the detection and measurement of lipid peroxidation, which
include measurement of unsaturated fatty acids levels, estimation of conjugated dienes in
lipoprotein fractions, quantification of lipid hydroperoxide and F2- isoprostane
radioimmunoassay. The thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) assay is most
commonly used to quantitate malondialdehyde, which is the end product of lipid peroxidation.
Generally, consumption of reheated oil increases lipid peroxidation in both animal and human
models. Adam et al. [Adam SK,] found that ingestion of reheated soybean oil exacerbated the
lipid peroxidation induced during the post-menopausal stage in rats. The result suggests that
thermal treatment generates free radicals in oil, which enhance oxidative stress in the animals.
Similarly, post-prandial oxidative stress after the intake of reheated oil has also been reported in
human subjects Perez-Herrera A. Increased oxidative stress in human may lead to lipid
peroxidation, which subsequently impairs endothelial function in the regulation of vasomotion
Esper RJ,.. All of these results demonstrate that thermally oxidative modification of the fatty acid
composition in diet may increase cell susceptibility to lipid peroxidation.

In addition to being the physical barrier between vessel wall and the blood, the endothelium is
an important structure that possesses both endocrine and paracrine functions. Furthermore, the
endothelial cell is able to respond to physical and chemical signals that regulate vascular tone,
cellular adhesion, platelet aggregation, smooth muscle cell proliferation and inflammation
[56,57]. Vasomotion by the endothelium is responsible for the balance of tissue oxygen supply
and metabolic demand by regulation of vascular tone and diameter, in addition to being
involved in the remodeling of vascular structure and long-term organ perfusion [58].
Measurement of endothelial function has become an important means to detect arterial
abnormalities and represents an early marker of cardiovascular diseases.
When exposed to deep-frying temperatures, fatty acids in the vegetable cooking oil undergo
chemical configurational changes from cis to trans isomers. In addition, generation of oxidized
products due to the reheating process leads to a deleterious effect on the vascular function.
Nitric oxide (NO), which is also known as endothelium derived relaxing factor, is released by
the endothelium to regulate homeostasis of the vascular system to preserve its integrity. NO
causes vascular smooth muscle relaxation through cyclic guonosine monophosphate.
Endothelial dysfunction is associated with abnormal endothelium-dependent relaxation.
Previous research findings in our laboratory clearly showed that repeatedly heated palm oil and
soybean oil cause impairment in endothelium-dependent vasorelaxations and augmentation of
contractile responses in adult male Sprague-Dawley rats [33]. Similarly, it has been documented
that long-term intake of thermally oxidized palm oil alters the function of aorta isolated from
the rat [59]. This indicates an increase in vascular reactivity, which would contribute to
increasing vascular tone, eventually elevates blood pressure levels. Similarly, intake of
repeatedly heated oil was observed to produce harmful effects on endothelial function in normal
young healthy volunteers when they were given heated olive, soybean or palm oils that had
undergone either 10 or 20 deep-frying rounds [60].

In a study by Williams et al. [55], ingestion of a meal rich in fat previously used for deep-frying
in a commercial setting resulted in impaired arterial endothelial function in healthy men. Their
findings suggest that intake of deteriorated products of heated dietary oil may contribute to
endothelial dysfunction. Plotnick et al. [61] reported that pre-treatment with the antioxidant
vitamin C and E is able to restore endothelial function, suggesting an oxidative mechanism. In
our earlier studies [3,4], consumption of repeatedly heated vegetable oil has been shown to
significantly reduce NO levels in rats. Reheating of vegetable oil promotes oxidative stress,
causing NO sequestration and inactivation. The ability of endothelial cells to release NO may
be down-regulated in the presence of oxidized low-density lipoprotein cholesterol and oxidative
stress. Peroxynitrite, generated from the reaction between NO and ROS, is a potent pro-oxidant
that may play a role in the development of endothelial dysfunction. Reduced endothelium-
derived NO bioavailability further enhances contraction of vascular smooth muscle. Thus,
consumption of repeatedly heated vegetable oil leads to endothelial dysfunction (Figure 1).
Conclusion

Long-term intake of diet comprising reheated vegetable oil leads to endothelial dysfunction.
Repeatedly heated dietary vegetable oil promotes oxidative stress, resulting in NO inactivation
and reduced bioavailability. Moreover, antioxidant effect of fresh vegetable oil against free
radicals may be reduced gradually as the oil is repeatedly heated. Production of free radicals
and reduction of antioxidant and vitamin levels eventually lead to oxidative stress. Oxidative
stress and endothelial dysfunction play pivotal roles in the pathogenesis of cardiovascular
diseases, which may be controlled by diet modification. Ingestion of repeatedly heated
vegetable oil should be restricted due to the detrimental consequences on health.

Cause Of Repeated Use Of Cooking Oil

In this fast-paced society, frying remains as one of the popular and tastier methods in food
preparation. In developing countries consumption of ready-made food is in much demand.
And if it is deep-fried then its demand becomes even higher. Frying improves the sensory
quality of food by formation of compounds rich in aroma, attractive colour, crust and texture,
all highly appreciated by the consumers .Edible vegetable oil is the major ingredient in these
fried food products. Therefore, the cost of the oil becomes the most important factor to be
considered in terms of economy. As a result, vegetable oil is often heated repeatedly to
ensure cost effectiveness.
cutting down the cost of fried food items and to save money, many of the fried food vendors use
the same cooking oil repeatedly for frying different items. The oil is reused repeatedly and it is
discarded and replaced with fresh oil, only when it becomes foamy, highly viscous, emits bad
odour and become dark coloured [1] and many a times it is never replaced at all, instead fresh
oil is added to already heated ,thick and highly viscous oil

CHANGES DURING THE REHEATING OF THE OIL

Although eating limited quantity of fried food items does not cause any kind of health problem
in normal human being. The problem begins when the same oil is used again and again by
repeated heating. During deep-frying of food at temperatures between 170° – 200°C, the
oil used undergo following changes:
1. Hydrolysis ;
Moisture from the food being fried vaporizes and hydrolyses triglycerides (TGs) in the frying
oil to glycerol, free fatty acids (FFA s ) , monoglycerides (MGs) and diglycerides
(DGs);
2. Oxidation
Triglyceride molecules in the frying oil undergo primary oxidation to unstable lipid species
called ―hydro peroxides‖ which cleave to form secondary oxidation products which
comprise non-volatile and volatile compounds. Some of these secondary products polymerize
( t e r t i a r y o x i d a t i o n ), increasing the oil viscosity, cause browning on the surface, and
darken the oil[3]
3. Thermal Polymerization–
High temperatures of the frying operation produce high molecular cyclic fatty acid (FA)
monomers, and TG dimers and oligomers[4,5,6]. Fried food may absorb many oxidative
products such as hydro peroxide and aldehydes, which are produced during this process
[7] thus affecting the quality of oil. The quality of oil deteriorates with increased length of
frying time due to the accelerated formation of oxidized and polymerized lipid species in the
frying medium. If the physico-chemical properties of cooking oil deteriorate, the oil must be
discarded because it can prove to be harmful for human consumption. The rate of formation of
cooking oil decomposition products depends on the type of food being fried, the type of oil used
and the design of the fryer ,etc. The reactions in oil rich frying depend on factors such as
replenishment of fresh oil, frying conditions, original quality of frying oil, food
materials,type of fryer, antioxidants, and oxygen concentration. Antioxidant decreases the
frying oil oxidation, but the effectiveness of antioxidant decreases with high frying temperature.
. PROCEDURE

One- fourthkg of potato were taken , sliced, air dried for4-5 hours and then fried in app. 3 litre
of each of the
above mentionedcooking oils separately, which were heated to 170-180⁰ C. Frying was carried
out in a stainless
steel pan. After the frying was completed,once heated oil was obtained. This sample was then
cooled overnight
and again fresh potatoes were taken, sliced, air dried and then fried.The leftover oil was again
cooled overnight.
The same process was repeated for 4 times to get5 times reheated oil.Small amount of oil each
time was taken
for analysis (viscosity and peroxide determination). The sample quantity was proportionately
adjusted with the
amount of cooking oil left. No fresh oil was added in between the frying processes to make up
for the loss due to
uptake by the frying materials. A comparative study of the physiochemical changes of
the different oils
including viscosity change and peroxide value was studied. Viscosity is a fluid's resistance to
flow. Fluids resist
the motion of layers with differing velocities within them. Viscosity can be measured by
using Redwood
viscometer 1 and 2.Redwood viscometer 1 is used to findout the viscosity of light oil, whereas
viscometer is
used to measure the viscosity of heavy oils. In this analysis, Redwood viscometer no.1(Aditya
make) is used.
An oil of different frying was taken and their viscosities were measured at 30°C. Results are
listed in Table1.

VI. THE PEROXIDE VALUE

Peroxide values of the heated oils were determined according to American Oil Chemists’
Society (AOCS)
Official Methods Cd 8–53 [8].In this 5 g of the oil samplewas taken into a 250 mL conical flask
then 30 mL of
acetic acid-chloroform (3:2)was added in it. The flask was swirled and then 0.5 mL of
saturated potassium
iodide was added. Then, the solution was mixed again for 1 minute and few drops of starch
solution (10%) were
added. The solution was titrated against previously standardized 0.01 N sodium thiosulphate
solution (Na2S2O3),
until the blue colour disappeared. The peroxide value was expressed in miliequivalents of
peroxide per kg of the
sample calculated as:
Peroxide value (meq/kg) = [(Va-Vb) N × 1000]/W
Where;
Va = volume of sodium thiosulphate solution (mL)
Vb = volume of sodium thiosulphate solution (mL) used for the blank
N = normality of sodium thiosulphate
W = weight of the test portion (g)

VII. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Several chemical and physical processes took place ,when the oil was used for frying, namely:
i) the fried food
being absorbs oil as well as releases some of its own lipid content (sometimes colored) into the
frying medium,
ii) food particles were charred and due to lipid browning the oil darkens[9]. During
frying the potentially
hazardous non-volatile polar compounds which are formed as secondary oxidation products-
like epoxides,
polar dimmers, oxidized polymers, ketones and aldehydes ,and hydrolysis products of
triglycerides such as free
fatty acids, monoglycerides and diglycerides.[4]. According to the compiled studies, in order
to preserve bioactive components of the edible oils,heating time
should be reduced to the minimum. It was shown in the present study that the peroxide values
were increased
with the increasing frequency of heating in all types of oil. Increased values indicate increased
lipid peroxidation
by-products content, mainly the peroxides that were formed in the oil during heating
process[10]. The extent of
oxidation in the oils was affected by the number of frying. Also the viscosity of the oil
increased with the
increasing number of fryings

EFFECT ON HUMAN HEALTH

Frying makes the eatables tasty. Frying of edible items includes the usage of large amount of
oil. Increased oil
consumption is not considered to be good for human health[4]. Even though a certain
amount of potentially
toxic products are produced during frying (such as polar compounds or polymers), fried foods
are generally
considered safe [11,12,13]. It is only when frying oil is used repeatedly that it becomes
toxic for human
consumption [14]. Repeated heating of the oil accelerates oxidative degradation of lipids,
forming hazardous
reactive oxygen species and depleting the natural antioxidant contents of the cooking oil. Long-
term ingestion of
food prepared using reheated oil could severely compromise one’s antioxidant defence
network, leading to
pathologies such as hypertension, diabetes and vascular inflammation[15,16,17]. Lipid
oxidation causes a high
risk for the development of coronary heart diseases. The human body is constantly subjected
to a significant
oxidative stress as a result of the misbalance between ant oxidative protective systems and
the formation of
strong oxidizing substances, including free radicals. This stress can damage DNA,
proteins, lipids and
carbohydrates and could cause negative effect to intracellular signal transmission.

IX. METHODS SUGGESTED TO REDUCE THE HARMFUL EFFECTS

The oil can be made safe for human consumption and the harm caused by the use of repeated
heated oil can be
minimised by a number of ways.Theuse of natural antioxidants [18]in cooking oil as
adsorbents can make the
oil safe by retarding the formation of oildeterioration products .Antioxidants adds
Tocopherols,

500 | P a g e
butylatedhydroxyanisole (BHA), butylatedhydroxytoluene(BHT), propyl gallate(PG), and
tert-
butylhydroquinone (TBHQ) which slowdown the oxidation of oil at room temperature.
However, they become
less effective at frying temperature due to losses through volatilization or decomposition
(Boskou 1988; Choe
and Lee 1998).Addition of different antioxidantslike sugarcane bagasse, rosemary
extract,turmeric extract,etc
during frying have been found to reduce the harmful effect of the deterioration products . Also
this rancidity of
the oil can be reduced by taking blended oil or an oil mixture of different types with varying
concentration of
the different oils mixed.
Turmeric Extract As An Antioxidant:Addition of Curcumin, a natural antioxidant present in
Turmeric olantof
zingiberaceae family can reduce the harmful effects of oil deterioration products . There was a
decrease in trans
fatty acid content in the fried food with addition of turmeric extract at the concentrations of
0.03%. This was
related to curcumin that inhibit the auto-oxidation rate by modifying the lipid radical into more
stable form, that
commonly inhibit the fat oxidationreaction[9]. The presence of antioxidant added into the
repeatedly used
cooking oil can decelerate the oil oxidation rate during frying and contribute to sensory
acceptance of fried
foods. The findings of this study are supported by the statement of [19] that the addition of
antioxidant in
cooking oil determine the stability of oxidation during frying; and according to Tuba and
[20], curcumin is
effective to be used as antioxidant because it can scavenge free radical by donating H atom
from phenolic as its
active group.
Apart from this many adsorbents such as sugarcane bagasse ash ,magnesol XL, etc. can also be
used to reduce
the formation of deterioration products produced by repeated frying CONCLUSION

Above studies clearly indicate that edible oil becomes highly viscous and presence of
harmful products
increases when oil is heated repeatedly. This oil now becomes dangerous for human
consumption. Therefore oil
should not be heated again and again and the formation of harmful products can be minimised
by discarding it
(for making soap at small scale) or using it with certain antioxidants .

2.6 FRYING AS A COOKING METHOD

It is difficult to determine when and where frying was first used by mankind. However, there is
evidence that man used fried products long before modern civilization reinvented fried
products.

Despite problems related to the intake of excessive calories and health concerns regarding the
ingestion of trans-fatty acids, the flavor and texture of fried food continue to be greatly
appreciated. One of the easiest and time efficient foods is the fries. These are relatively easy and
convenient to prepare. Deep frying is the most common cooking method of preparing fried
snacks such as potato chips, cassava chips, fish balls, Akara, chicken, among others. Deep
frying is mainly done by cooking the food material at about 180°C – by dipping the largest
percent of it in fully heated oil. Fried food is considered to be tastier than non-fried. cooking oil
used for frying is usually heated repeatedly. Anytime one cook’s food; it runs the risk of
creating heat-induced damage; frying with vegetable oils are among the most susceptible
phenomena

( Tekeoka et al., ).

Frying of food is routinely practiced at house-hold level and by the food industry for
preparation of fried products. Several vegetable oil are recommended for use in frying. Frying
or thermal processing of vegetable oils is known to cause undesirable changes in their chemical
characteristics. Also most of edible oils used for frying purposes undergo certain degree of
refining. They tend to deteriorate as a result of frequent use in conventional frying. Repeated
frying or reuse of vegetable cooking oils is commonly exercised as a cost serving and profit
maximization strategy though the practice exposes cooking oils to thermal
degradation. (Sanchez-Muniz et al., ;)

The cooking oils in a non-degraded form have nutritional and health supremacy, which are
attributed to their fatty acid composition and other minor components. However, the products of
thermal degradation due to repetitive use of cooking oil are implicated to destroy their
nutritional and health benefits. Besides, the consumption of food products fried with reused oil
on the other hand is indicated to pose health risks to the consumers ranging from histo-
pathological alterations, damage to the alimentary canal (duodenum and colon) and vital organs
(change in size of the liver including swelling heart, kidney and testes cells) and rise in blood
pressure BP. Though some mitigation approaches are available including the use of antioxidant
and adsorbent extracts, their applicability at household and in other catering service settings can
hardly be practiced. It’s thus important for stakeholders to limit the repetitive use of cooking oil
to protect the consumers (Chung et al., 2004).

Deep frying is the process in which food material is cooked through continued contact with hot
oil that usually ranges between 180oC and 205 oC. The frying process involves simultaneous
heat and mass transfer. The heat is transferred from the oil into the food material while moisture
is transferred from within the food material to the oil. Once moisture evaporates from the
interior of the food material, void species are created. Oil is then able to occupy the spaces
(Tompkins et al; 2000).

There are two basic modes of heat transfer involved in the process of deep-fat frying, and those
are convection and conduction. The oil serves as the heating medium. Heat is transferred from
the oil to the surface of the product by way of convection. It is then transferred from the surface
to the center by conduction. Thermal properties of the food material such as the specific heat,
thermal conductivity and density affect the rate at which heat is conducted. The magnitudes of
these properties change throughout the frying process.

Water is an important factor in convective heat transfer. Water migrates from the central portion
of the food material rapidly outward to the walls and edges to replace water by dehydration at
the surface. As the phase change from liquid water to steam occurs, thermal energy from the
frying oil is carried off, which prevents burning caused by excessive dehydration. Due to the
ability of the water to remove thermal energy from the oil, the temperature of the food material
only reaches approximately 100 oC even though the oil temperature may be around 180 oC. As
water escapes from the inner portion of the products and comes into contact with the hot oil
bubbles form and move vigorously through the oil, therefore, causing turbulence. General,
turbulent condition promotes more rapid transfer. The amount of water vapor bubbles decreases
with increased frying time due to the decreased amount of remaining moisture within the
product. The rate of moisture transfer is directly related to frying time and oil temperature.
Moisture diffusion during the frying of French fries is proportional to the square root of the
frying time. Rapid drying is critical for ensuring desirable texture of the final product. However,
it is undesirable to have excessive moisture loss as it may result in greater absorption of oil by
the product. Sustaining higher moisture content in the final product normally results in products
having a low final fat content. The oil absorption into the product is influenced by oil
temperature, frying time, moisture content, product surface area, and pressure. A linear
relationship exists between the surface and the amount of fat uptake. More specifically, the
ratios of product weight to frying oil volume and product surface area are extremely important
because they determine the extent to which oil is able to penetrate the food material. An
increase in the mass ratio of the product will yield and increase in the amount of oil absorption
by the product. Food containing fat undergoes two fat transfer periods during the frying
process: fat absorption and fat desorption. During the absorption period, oil diffuses into the
product. The fat desorption period is marked by the migration of fat from the product to the
surroundings due to capillary forces in the pores. It has been postulated that fat is able to be
absorbed into the product due to the moisture migration from within the product. When the
moisture is evaporated from the surface, void space is left behind in the product. Fat is then
absorbed and fills that void space. Another interpretation for the mechanism of oil absorption in
fried products proposed that most of the oil inters the product from adhering oil being pelled
into the product when it is removed from the frying, due to the condensation of steam in the
product pores which produces a vacuum. This oil absorption mainly occurs during the post
frying period. The formation of golden brown, crispy layer on the outer surface of the product is
perhaps the most recognizable characteristic of fried foods. This layer known as the crust is
formed within minutes after the product comes into contact with the oil. The crust is formed by
both chemical and structural changes in the product. The golden colour of the crust can be
attributed to Maillard reaction involving chemical changes in the sugar compounds in the
product surface. Low water content in combination with high temperature causes Maillar to
occur. The crust is a dry layer that acts as a barrier between the inner portion of the food
material and the surrounding oil. Due to its dry nature and ability to efficiently conduct heat, the
crust becomes heat transfer limiting. The development of the crust influences an oil uptake as
well. As the crust layer begins to thicken as a result of increased frying time, it no longer
permits oil to be passed through.

The key elements of good frying oil are a bland flavour, pale colour and good oxidative and
thermal stability during the frying operation, beside some economic factors such as availability
and cost of oil.

Effect of frying on quality attribute of vegetable oils:

During deep frying, the oil is continuously or repeatedly used at elevated temperature in the
presence of air. Under such conditions, both thermal and oxidative decomposition of oil may
take place. (Chang,2007). Such unavoidable chemical reactions cause formation of both volatile
and nonvolatile decomposition products. They also cause foaming when moist foods are deep
fried in the oil. Food fried in such oils during the period prior to the foaming may contain a
sufficient amount of decomposition products to cause adverse effects to the safety, flavour,
stability, colour and texture of the fried food. In addition, such decomposition products, both
volatile and nonvolatile products, may affect human health. Also (Fritsch,2008) reported the
changes that occur during deep frying when fat is exposed continuously or repeatedly to
elevated temperature in the presence of air and moisture. A number of chemical reactions
including oxidation and hydrolysis occur during this time, due to thermal decomposition. As
these reactions precede, the functional, sensory and nutritional quality of the fat changes and
may eventually reach a point where it is no longer possible to prepare high quality fried
products and the frying fat will have to be discarded. Quality effect of repetitive use of frying
oil by street food vendors on quality of the oil All (100%) respondents reused frying oil
frequently and mixed fresh oil with degraded oil constantly. Majority (80%) of the vendors did
not store the oil properly after each use. The amount of peroxides (43.125- 95.625mEeq/kg) in
oil samples exceeded the maximum level of Codex standards (10mEq/kg). The range (0.7% to
3.29 %) of free fatty acids of the oil samples also exceeded the maximum accepted level of
0.3%.

 Conclusion: There was a high level of deterioration and rancidity in all the oil samples
due to poor storage and excessive repetitive use by the street vendors. E.O. Ngozi
 Olamiposi H. Giwa
 B.K. Adeoye
 I.F. Ani
 N.C. Ajuzie
 T.I. Olutayo

The chemical changes in the frying fats also result in changes in the physical characteristics.
The colour of the fat become darker with increasing content of polymers, viscosity increased
and greater foaming of the oil occurs. Some of the volatile components such as free fatty acids
accumulate to the point where the smoke point is decreased. The aroma and the flavour of the
oil also change with increased frying time, as do the colour and the flavour of the food fried in
the oil. It has also been stated that the higher the degree of unsaturation of oil or fat, the more
susceptible it would be towards oxidative deterioration. Cottonseed oil which has a lower
content of unsaturated sites, would likely be more stable to heating than sunflower oil relative to
its lower percent decrease in linoleic content. As for comparing the frying performance of
market samples of palm olein, corn and Soya oil, the result showed that lesser amounts of
unsaturated fatty acids were exposed to oxidation in palm olein than in corn and Soya oils.

of frying oil and foods, are primarily used in industrial settings and involve large-scale
production. Fryers can be operated under atmospheric, high or low pressure, and even under
vacuum (Mallikarjunan, Ngadi, & Chinnan, 2010). However, most large-scale production is
done under atmospheric conditions.

PROPERTIES OF FRIED FOOD

Fats and oils play important functional and sensory roles in food products. They are responsible
for carrying, enhancing, and releasing the flavor of other ingredients, as well as for interacting
with other ingredients to develop the texture and mouth-feel characteristics of fried foods
(Giese, 1996). One of the fundamental objectives of frying is to make food more acceptable. Fat
is the natural palatable agent par excellence. When frying food, the hot frying fat that has
penetrated into it replaces part of the water it contains, making the food considerably more
palatable (Varela et al., 1988). This absorbed fat exerts a tenderizing effect on the crust, as well
as a wetting effect on the food, and thus contributes for the popularity of deep fried foods,
namely, their flavor, crispness and pleasant eating (Stevenson, Vaisey- Genser, & Eskin, 1984).
The typical fried flavor is mainly due to lipid degradation products originating from frying oils
(Pokorny & Elmadfa, 1999). Foods fried at the optimum temperature and time has golden
brown color, is properly cooked and crispy, and has optimal oil absorption. Under-fried foods at
lower temperature or shorter frying time than the optimum have white or slightly brown color at
the edge and have ungelatinized or partially cooked starch at the center (Choe & Min, 2007).

NUTRITIONAL ASPECT OF FRIED FOOD

There is a constant concern to pinpoint the effects that the various factors involved in a thermal,
industrial, or culinary process have on the nutritive value of the food that is processed. When
the fat penetrates the food, it may selectively modify the composition of the food, as if in a kind
of chromatographic process. The changes produced depend on numerous factors, such as the
composition of frying fat and of the food, the texture, size, and shape of the food, and the frying
conditions such as temperature, duration, etc. All these factors influence the changes that occur
in the nutritive value of the fried food (Varela et al., 1998). Undesirable changes may occur
concurrently with desirable modifications, one of such change being the loss of nutrients, and
especially vitamins, during the frying process (Fillion et al 1998). These are the changes that
occur in the nutritional aspect of fried food.

Changes in the lipid fraction of foods: Some lipids present in fried food are oxidized, may be
accelerated by temperature increasing and oxygen concentration. Although nutritional effects
are difficult to be estimated due to some of interfering factors, most especially the lipid such as
the type of oil, history of thermal treatment, and portion retained in the food (Fellows, 2006).
Due to oil incorporation, it is important that the choice of the frying oil is based not only on its
technological characteristics but also on its nutritional features (Mellema, 2003). The increase
in energy intake is one of the principal problems associated with consumption of frying foods.
The fat content of food increases due to absorption and retention of oil, which implies an
increase in energy intake on average in 42% in French fries and 53% in hamburgers (USDA,
2013). Digestibility of fat is also changed when the process is accomplished using reused
oils/fats. Even if a frying oil regulation is established, limiting polar compounds to 25% and
polymer content to 12%, potentially toxic compounds can appear in oil (Ziaiifar et al., 2008).

Changes in protein content: Nutritive value of food proteins is a combination of quality and
quantity. Quality represents functional content of the protein consumed and used by the
organism. Quantity represents the protein content in the food. Heat treatment can reduce the
amount of protein and destroy some amino acids, changing the quality of protein composition in
food (Henry, 1998). Nevertheless, the protein content increased after frying in grass carp fillet
(Zhang et al., 2013). In another study, proteins of the fried sardine were higher than those of the
untreated ones. This may be due to the formation of new products similar to protein during the
frying processes and could have influenced the determination of protein content using Kjeldahl
method (Ismail et al 2004). Deep-fat frying had been reported to decrease the available lysine of
fish fillets by about 17% and by 25% when the fish oil had been used for continuous frying for
48 h as a result of interactions between the amino group of lysine and carbonyl compounds
(Oluwaniyi et al., 2010). Nevertheless, no significant effect of the frying practices was found on
the amino acid content (lysine, histidi,K.ne, threonine, valine, methionine, leucine, isoleucine,
phenylalanine, arginine, aspartic acid, serine, glutamic acid, proline, glycine, alanine, cysteine,
and tyrosine) of selected fish (Ismail & Ikram, 2004). A study on the amino acid contents of
raw, cooked, and fried fish no found differences in individual amino acids as result of frying
(Steiner-Aseidu, et al 1991).

HEALTH RISK ASSOCIATED WITH REUSE OF COOKING OIL

According to researchers at the Swedish National Food Administration and Stockholm

University, acrylamide can be found in a variety of fried and oven-baked foods, scientists from
all over the world have joined to look at how this compound forms in foods and determine
whether it is truly a food safety risk.

Acrylamide has long been seen as a risk factor in some foods. It develops as a natural by-
product in food whereby a chemical reaction occurs between amino acids and reducing sugars.
Acrylamide in food happens when foods with high starch content such as bread, potatoes and
root vegetables are fried, roasted or baked at a temperature of over 120°C. if starchy food like
potatoes are fried in oil and that oil is reused, it can build up to dangerous levels. oil that is used
daily beyond its working life can see a build up of acrylamide which may cause harm to
customers.
SAFETY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR FRYING

1. frying pans are not to be overload as this increases frying times.

2. Any food particles left in the fryer may potentially have high levels of acrylamide – it is
therefore very important to regularly skim oil to remove these. Daily filtration of the oil
in the fryer will remove any fine particles with potentially high levels of acrylamide
leftover after frying.
3. One of the best ways to ensure that cooking oil is safe to use is to invest in a food oil
monitor, handheld portable instruments that are extremely easy to use which quickly
measure Total Polar Compounds (TPC) levels, making businesses safer as well as more
efficient by preventing oil wastage. It is recommended that oil should be replaced when it
reaches 25% TPC. it’s widely acknowledged that oils with high TPC levels contain
higher levels of acrylamide.
4. starchy foods are to be stored above 6C
5. Starchy foods are to be fried with a minimum content of reducing sugars and should
always be wash in water to remove excess starch / sugar.
6. Adhere to colour guide when frying: Light Golden: yes Golden Yellow: yes Golden
Brown: no Aim for a light golden finish to your fried product
 CHAPTER 3

MATERIALS AND METHOD

3.1SCOPE OF STUDY

This study covers snack vendors from areas under obio akpor LGA, port Harcourt, rivers state.
It also specifically includes vendors of fried foods such as Akara, buns, potatoes, puff puff,
yam, and plantain. The instrument used for this study was only questionnaire, designed based
on frequency of use of oil where the vendors were directly asked about their oil sources, oil
reuse, food safety measure while reusing oil, and willingness to adopt changes for a healthy
society.

According to Champ et al., (2015) a well-designed and prudently administered household

surveys of actual or hypothetical scenario can provide reliable and feasible information on
economic value for environmental goods or services.

3.2STUDY DESIGN

The study was descriptive and cross sectional in design, which collected information on
certain variables among fried food vendors in obior akopr L.G.A Rivers state.

3.3STUDY AREA
The study area is obio- Akpor L.G.A in rivers state. Obio-Akpor is a local government area in
the metropolis of Port Harcourt, one of the major centers of economic activities in Nigeria, and
one of the major cities of the Niger Delta, located in Rivers State. The local government area
covers 260 km2 and at the 2006 Census held a population of 464,789. Obio-Akpor has its
headquarters at Rumuodomaya and it is peopled by the IkwerreAlakahia. The following
localities are within obio akpor:

Atal, Ada-George Road, Awalama, Choba, Egbelu, Elelenwo, Ellingham, Elimgbu,

Elioparanwo, Eliozu, Eneka, Eligbolo, Iriebe, Mgbuesilaru, Mgbuoba, Mgbuosimini,
Mpakurche. Nkpa. Nkpelu, Ogbogoro, Oginigba, Oro-Igwe, Oroazi, Ozuoba, Rukpakwolusi,
Rukpokwu, Rumuadaolu, Rumuaghaolu, Rumualogu, Rumuchiorlu, Rumudara, Rumudogo,
Rumuekin, Rumuekwe, Rumueme, Rumuepirikom, Rumuesara, Rumuewhara, Rumuibekwe,
Rumuigbo, Rumukalagbor, Rumunduru, Rumuobiokani, Rumuogba, Rumuokparali,
Rumuolumeni, Rumuobochi, Rumuodomaya, Rumuoji Rumuokoro, Rumuokwu,
Rumuokwachi, Rumuokwuota, Rumuokwurusi, Rumuola, Rumuolukwu, Rumuomasi,
Rumuomoi, Rumuosi, Rumuoto, Rumurol, Rumuwaji, Rumuwegwu, Trans Amadi, and Woji.

3.4 STUDY POPULATION

The study population were vendors of fried foods such as fish, buns, akara, potatoes, plantain
and yam within obio- akpor LGA Rivers state. The study involved convenience sampling of
152 fried food vendors at 10 selected locations in operators per selected area; n=100). These
locations include areas such as Rumokoro, Choba Eliozu, Nkpelu, Rupoku, Rumuaghaolu,
Rumudara, Rumokwuta, Rumola, Eligbolo

3.4INCLUSION CRITERIA
 A. All road side vendors of deep fried food in the selected locations 18 years and above with
experience in using as well as handling cooking oil for deep frying.
B. Willingness to participate in the study

3.6 EXCLUSION CRITERIA

A. Those who decline to participate in the study.

B. Those who do not satisfy the criteria.

3.7 SAMPLE SIZE DETERMINATION

The determination of sample size was based on the single population proportion formula. It was
considered as anticipated population proportion of 10%,
The sample size was estimated using the Cochran formula (Naing et al., 2006) as follows:
z2 pq
N⁼
D2

Where:
N=Required Sample Size
z=Confidence level at 95% (Standard value is1.96)
D = Desired Level of precision (5%) = 0.05

P=10% = (0.1)

q=1-p =0.9

1.96× 1.96 ×0.1 ×0.9

N= 2
=138
0.05

The minimum number of snack vendors to be use in this study is 138, to cover up for
contingency

10% was added to cater for non-response = 13.8

Hence the sample size = 138 + 13.8= 152.

3.6 Sampling Method/Technique

Systematic random sampling was done. The sampling interval was obtained as shown below:

Sampling interval = Expected number of fried snack vendors

Sample size
60/15=4

The expected number of fried food vendors in each selected locality, was estimated by
observing the trend of fried food vendors in the area. After determining the sampling interval, a
random number was picked using the computer to identify the first study participant to be
included in the study. The subsequent participants were then selected based on the sampling
interval. If an eligible person declined to participate in the study, the next eligible person was
picked.

3.7 DATA COLLECTION: TOOLS AND PROTOCOL

This is a cross-sectional descriptive survey. The study population were fried snack food vendors
in obio- akpor LGA rivers state. The research instrument for the study was a self-developed
questionnaire with closed ended questions. It is designed to assess the knowledge, attitude and
practice of repeated cooking oil reuse among fried snack food vendors in obio-akpor L.G.A.
(18-45years). It is divided into five sections.
Section A: Social Demographic Characteristics
Section B: Knowledge about health implications of repeated reuse of cooking oil
Section C: Attitude towards repeated reuse of cooking oil

Section D: Practice of cooking oil reuse among fried snack vendors

Section E: Knowledge and practice of food safety during frying process

The questionnaire was tested for content validity which lead to the modification of some of the
items.

3.8Data analysis

All data were entered and analyzed using Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS) version
21.0 for window (Chicago K. USA). Data obtained was analyzed using descriptive statistics
such as frequency, and percentages. Level of significance was set at P<0.05.

3.9 Ethical Consideration

Ethical approval was sought from the research and ethical clearance committee OBIO-akpor
L.G.A, Rivers state. Before data collection commenced, a careful explanation of the objective
and implication of the study was made known to participants who gave their consent and were
given assurance of confidentiality and anonymity.
 Following these principles will maintain oil quality and allow
processors and restaurant operators to maximize oil life. One tool that can help processors to
better understand frying is the Frying Oil Quality Curve, developed by Dr. Blumenthal (Figure
1). The curve describes five stages of oil degradation: break-in, fresh, optimum, degrading and
runaway. If one looks at French fry cooking, these changes can be seen throughout the life of
the oil. When frying is initiated in a clean fryer with fresh oil, fries are light in color and do not
have the rich smell one would expect in the product. This fresh oil has few surfactants, so the
oil and food do not remain in contact long enough to properly cook the food. Water that escapes
from the potato pushs the oil away from the product surface so the surface does not brown and
the interior is not properly cooked.

As surfactants build in the oil, food quality increases to a point at which the oil is considered
“optimum.” This is where one gets quality fried foods. The goal of both industrial and
foodservice frying is to maintain the oil in this condition for the longest possible time. This is
easier to accomplish in industrial operations, especially when cooking foods that absorb a great
deal of oil such as potato chips. Such operations literally reach a steady state and can be
maintained If users allow the oil to go beyond this stage to degrading and runaway stages, food
quality becomes progressively worse. Products become darker, surfaces are case hardened,
coatings are lost and taste is poor. Figure 2 shows French fries that have been fried in
progressively degraded oils.

Once oil begins to break down, the process is irreversible. Failure to follow the basic quality
guidelines noted will speed up the process of degradation. If one fails to properly clean a fryer,
residual soaps will react with the oil and speed the breakdown process. The presence of metals,
particularly metals such as copper and bronze, can destroy oil in a very short time. One
industrial operator discovered this the hard way. The company was losing several fryer vats of
oil each week and couldn’t figure why. What they eventually found was that a night shift
employee was cooking his dinner in the industrial fryer. He would lower his food into the oil
using a brass clothes hanger. The little bit of metal from the hanger was enough to start a
cascading degradation reaction. So, if repairs are required on your fryer, don’t use a brass
fitting.

Ensuring Food Safety in Frying

One would think that frying foods in oils that range in temperature from 350F to 400F would be
a no-brainer when it comes to food safety. What self-respecting pathogen could survive such
temperatures? As with any other food processing operation, processors and foodservice
operators need to take a Hazard Analysis and Critical Control Points (HACCP)-based approach
to their frying operations and determine if there are any significant risks. How many people are
aware that there was recently a Salmonella outbreak that was attributed to potato chips? The
cause was a contaminated seasoning, so it is important that operators take a long look at frying
to determine if foods are truly safe.

Pathogens. There are many foods that are fried. These range literally from fish to fowl to
vegetables to potatoes to pastries. Is there a chance that a fried food could harbor a potential
pathogen? The Almond Board of California recently funded work to evaluate the effects of
different processing methods on almonds in response to two outbreaks of salmonellosis
attributed to consumption of raw almonds.[8] The work indicated that normal industrial frying
processes would be adequate to ensure over a 5-log reduction of Salmonella.

There are no documented outbreaks that have been attributed to fried foods, but there may be
potential concerns. According to Blumenthal, there is a potential that pathogens may survive
frying if oils are not maintained properly.[9] A study that addresses this is being prepared for
publication. Abused oils may not adequately cook foods, such as breaded chicken, allowing
pathogens such as Salmonella to survive what would normally be considered an adequate and
safe cook. Blumenthal used differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) followed by fluorescence
microscopy to better understand water migration and pooling. These studies showed that due to
migration of water from frying foods, particularly near the bone of meats, there is a chance that
foods could be undercooked.

Allergens. What may pose a greater risk in frying is food allergens. At the 5th International
Symposium on Deep-Fat Frying, this author warned that allergens could pose a potential risk in
frying, in particular restaurant operations.[10] There are many operations that fry different
products in a single fryer. There is, therefore, a potential that allergens from one food may be
transferred to the oil and onto some other item. These concerns were echoed by Dr. Steve
Taylor of the University of Nebraska at a short course on deep-fat frying sponsored by the
Institute of Food Technologists.[11] According to Taylor, there have been allergen incidents
that have been linked to foodservice frying. These are anecdotal and very few are cited in the
literature.

Both urged that the industry conduct studies to determine what kind of risk such operations do
pose and whether there are processes that might minimize these potential risks. The most
obvious issue is to ensure that foods are fried in separate fryers and that operators pay close
attention to cleanup operations. Risks in industrial frying would be less, but there is still a
chance for cross-contamination; for example, if a fish processor reused old oil from shellfish
frying when doing a fin fish. That oil could contain shellfish proteins and could elicit an allergic
response from a sensitive individual. One possible means of reducing allergen risks is filtration.
Filters will remove particulates but is there a chance that smaller molecules might get through a
product. Active systems have greater capacities to remove materials, so they might be a more
effective option. Unfortunately, the work has yet to be done to demonstrate whether such
processes will minimize risk.

Concerns with Abused Oil. In the early 1970s, German regulatory agencies received a number
of complaints from consumers about fried food quality. This prompted scientists in that country
to initiate studies into the quality of oil in restaurant frying. The most common index index of
oil abuse is total polar materials. The simplest definition of polar materials is the non-
triglyceride materials found in heated oils. Fresh oils are almost pure triglyceride. If an operator
abuses his oil to the point that the operation is out-of-compliance (24-25% polars), there is a
good chance that the food being produced is of very poor quality.

Matthaus et all have reported that potato variety, raw product storage temperatures and frying
temperature affect formation of acrylamide.[15] Reducing frying temperature can reduce the
concentration of acrylamides in foods. This is also a step that can help minimize damage to the
oil.

RESULTS
Demographic data
A total of 158 respondents consisting of fried food operators in obio akpor LGA were enrolled
in this survey. The age of respondents ranged from 19 to 73, with a mean of 41.1 ± 12.9. The
largest number of respondents was in the 30- 40 age group, whereas the smallest number of
respondents was in the 55-70 age group (Table I). A majority of the respondents were females
(80.0%). Most of the respondents were IKWERRE (91.0%). The majority of the respondents’
educational level was up to primary school level. All food vendors interviewed claimed to use
vegetable oil for frying food (100%). Other details of the demographic data are shown in Table
I. Knowledge of the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil More than half of the respondents
(67.0%) agreed that the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil is a good practice. The majority
of respondents (70.0%) agreed that the quality of cooking oil remains the same regardless of
how
many times it has been re-used for frying. Most of the respondents (71.0%) also agree that
cooking oil can be used many times for frying and only be discarded when it turns dark. most of
the respondents (45.0%) disagreed that there will be loss of nutrients in the repeatedly heated
cooking oil. half (24.0%) of the respondents agreed that the type of cooking oil utilized
influence the type of by-products produced from the repeatedly heated cooking oil. The
majority (69.0%) of the respondents disagreed that the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil is
bad for
health. Other details about the knowledge of repeatedly heated cooking oil are shown in Table
II. Level of knowledge regarding the usage of repeatedly heated
cooking oil amongst night market food operators After scoring was done according to the
procedure described in the materials and methods section, it was found that out of the 158
fried food vendors who took part in this survey, 18 respondents (18.0%) had low level of
knowledge, 53 (53.0%) had moderate level of knowledge and 29 respondents (29.0%) had high
level of knowledge. There was no significant association between the food vendors educational
status and their level of knowledge regarding the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil (χ
2=2.21, p=0.70). Attitude and practice regarding the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil
More than half of the 158 night market food outlet operators (63.0%) admitted that they used
cooking oil repeatedly for deep frying food. For the 37 night market operators who did not use
cooking oil repeatedly for frying, 20 individuals stated that such practice would make their food
look bad and only 13 individuals thought that such practice is harmful to health. Four
respondents who did not use cooking oil repeatedly thought that such practice would increase
the cholesterol level of cooking oil. For the 63 night market operators who used cooking oil
repeatedly for deep frying, more than half of them (33 individuals) admitted that they never use
the oil more than twice, whereas 7 night market operators admitted re-using cooking oil up to
four times or more. None of the night market food operators interviewed had heard or followed
any official or unofficial guidelines, directives and instructions regarding the proper usage of
cooking oil for deep frying food. Our survey of 158 food vendors showed that newspapers are
their main source of information regarding the dangers of using repeatedly heated cooking oil
(40.0%); however, 31.0% of them have never heard about this issue before. The majority of our
158 night food vendors (69.0%) wanted to know more about this issue. Other details about the
attitude and practice of the respondents regarding the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil are
shown in Table III. There was no significant association between the night market food outlet
operators’ level of knowledge and their attitude and practice regarding the usage of repeatedly
heated cooking oil (χ 2=3.05, p=0.55).
 DISCUSSION
The term repeatedly heated cooking (frying) oil has been used interchangeably with thermally
oxidized oils or recycled oils. Due to repeated heating, the quality, colour, smell and taste of
cooking oil changes due to the formation of polymers and polar compounds. The process of
repeated heating will oxidize the lipid content to potentially toxic lipid peroxidation products21.
The resulting lipid hydroperoxides decomposes to highly cytotoxic products especially
aldehydes which are partly absorbed into the systemic circulation22,23. Peroxyl radicals and
aldehydes can impart severe damage on membrane proteins and thus capable of inactivating
receptors and membrane-bound enzymes24. This study surveyed a representative sample of
night market food outlet operators in Kuala Lumpur on their knowledge, attitude and practice
regarding the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil. Since Malaysians are fond of consuming
food bought from night markets, the way in which night market food outlet operators handle
cooking oil can have major impact on the health of Malaysians.
All night market food outlet operators (100%) surveyed in this study used palm oil or frying.
This is not surprising since Malaysia is currently the world’s largest producer and exporter of
palm oil25. The fact that palm oil is cheaper and widely available in Malaysia also helps in
making it a popular choice of cooking oil. This is in concordance with the finding that palm oil
is the major source of cooking oil in many developing countries26. Other types of cooking oil
such as soy and corn oil are not used at all by the night market food outlet operators surveyed
and this might probably be due to the fact that these oils are more expensive. The situation is
different in Costa Rica, a developing Latin American country, whereby soy, corn and sunflower
oils are the preferred choices even though palm oil costs less. This is brought about by
aggressive marketing and advertising campaign by the respective stake-holders, as well as the
perception created by these influential industries that their oils are ‘healthier’ than palm oil27.
These perceptions and influences are not that widespread in Malaysia, where there has been a
strong and successful government-backed public campaign which promotes the useful health
benefits of using palm oil as cooking oil28,29. A large proportion of the night market food
operators surveyed were aware that consumption of repeatedly heated cooking oil is not
healthy, even though they don’t exactly know why it is so. Their source of information
regarding this issue was limited and some of the night market operators had never heard of this
issue before. Awareness of this issue is important because it had been shown that degradation
due to the re-use of vegetable oils is an independent risk factor for hypertension4. However, if
the practice of using oil repeatedly for frying is necessary due to economic reasons, then palm
oil would be the better choice. Palm oil seems to be able to withstand being repeatedly heated
better than soy oil.

Previous studies have suggested that the unique composition of palm oil allows it to withstand
heat better than soy oil. Firstly, it is rich in monounsaturated fatty acids (MUFA) but has low
level of polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) compared
to soy oil30. PUFA is more easily oxidized compared to MUFA31. Repeated heating of
vegetable oil high in PUFA results in formation of toxic compounds that increased the risk of
hypertension, whereas oils that are rich in MUFA such as palm oil and olive oil can better
withstand oxidation and formed less degradation products when they are heated4.

Secondly, palm oil is rich in vitamin E, which may play an important role in its ability to
withstand thermal oxidative changes. Inclusion of α-tocopherol to frying oil was found to
render PUFA more resistant to oxidation32. Vitamin E, which effectively protects fatty acids in
the oil from oxidation, deteriorates after each frying episode33. Therefore, repeated heating of
frying oils destroys the vitamin E content and exposes the fatty acids to oxidation. The vitamin
E content of palm oil mainly consists of tocotrienols, while the main vitamin E in soy oil is
tocopherols34. Tocotrienols have better antioxidant capacity than tocopherols35,36 and this
may contribute to the better resistance to oxidative changes due to repeated heating of palm oil.
Using palm oil reflects a positive attitude and practice on the part of night market food outlet
operators, not only it is economically viable because it is produced locally, but also healthier
than soy oil even if repeatedly heated up to five times37.

There is currently no standard guideline to measure the quality of cooking oil used by
independent food outlet operators in this country. Therefore, how long and how many times the
cooking oil is used by independent food outlet operators before being discarded is not regulated.
Nearly two third of our respondents in the survey re-use cooking oil for frying 2-3 times before
discarding it. This is not too bad since all of them used palm oil for frying, which can withstand
thermal oxidation quite well, as mentioned above. Some of the night market food operators
surveyed used the cooking oil only once, but the oil was used continuously to deep fry food for
a long duration of time, which is a bad practice that renders the oil susceptible to thermal
oxidation and degradation. For some of the night market food operators, the reason they did not
re-use cooking oil was not because of their awareness of the dangers of consuming repeatedly
heated cooking oil, but due to their concerns about the physical attractiveness of food if deep
fried using re-used oil.

For others, the reason that they did not use repeatedly heated oil is because such practice is
detrimental to health. Some of them also believe that using repeatedly heated oil can increase
the cholesterol level in the oil. Although one of the reasons given is purely cosmetic and the
other is farcical, these are indeed positive attitudes to have in terms of disregarding the habit of
using repeatedly heated cooking oil. Some of the response given also emphasized the prevalent
lack of scientific knowledge amongst night market food outlet operators regarding the real
dangers of using of repeatedly heated cooking oil. There is also lack of knowledge on the
proper frying techniques amongst night market food outlet operators. The night market food
outlet operators in this survey were asked whether they followed any official or unofficial
(personally made) guidelines when deep frying food using cooking oil, for example, whether
they control the oil temperature using a thermometer and how long the oil is heated before they
are topped-up, replaced or discarded, in which all of them replied that they did not follow any
guidelines at all. This reflects a negative attitude on the part of food outlet operators with
regards to the usage of repeatedly heated oil, since they perceived that as long as the colour of
the oil looks acceptable, it is alright to use the oil repeatedly and continuously, even to be kept
for the next day for frying another batch of food, which is, of course, a very bad practice. Many
are not aware that the temperature of frying oil could affect the fat content of fried food.
Recommended optimal frying temperatures are around 180–1850C38,39. Frying at lower
temperatures will result in longer frying times and lack of crust formation on fried food surface,
which would increase the total absorption of fat into the fried food40. A higher frying
temperature leads to greater oil degradation, thus producing toxic by-products. Oil degradation
products can act as surfactants, thus further increasing the fat content of food that is being
fried14. Degraded fat also tends to stick on food due to its increased viscosity. It may also be
assumed that cooking oil quality problems could arise in batch frying operations by night
market food operators, especially where frying is usually discontinuous and often carried out by
relatively unskilled workers. Ideally, standardized frying temperature should be recommended
to and adhered by all food operators. By ensuring every food operator possesses and makes use
of a frying thermometer and providing a definitive guideline on frying temperature that has to
be complied by food operators could potentially improve the health of the general public.

Cooking oil turnover is an important determinant of cooking oil quality13. If the cooking oil
that is already being used for frying is frequently replenished with new cooking oil, the old oil
will be diluted and the resulting oil mixture will look fresh and its shelf life will be extended41.
Some of the night market food operators we surveyed claimed they did not re-use the same oil
for frying food for the next day, but we were not sure whether they practice the act of
replenishing older frying oil with fresh oil on the same frying day, as the day goes on. The
practice of replenishing cooking oil by partial replacement with fresh oil, rather than totally
replacing all the fat at once, is associated with significantly elevated levels of oil degradation
products which can be carcinogenic17. This is a good reason why a standard regulation on
food-frying techniques should be imposed on food operators in this country. Cooking oil quality
test kits that can adequately measure cooking oil quality are routinely used by fast-food chain
outlets in Malaysia. In order to further improve the health of Malaysians, we would like to
suggest that these cooking oil quality test kits also be randomly tested on cooking oil used by
night market food operators, and those found using oil of unsuitable quality (i.e. excessively
repeatedly heated cooking oil) should be educated on the proper usage of sssscooking oil.
Another important issue is how to judge whether deterioration of the cooking oil has reached
the point at which it needs to be discarded. In the food industry setting where there are proper
back-up laboratory facilities (especially Original Article 98 Med J Malaysia Vol 67 No 1
February 2012 in developed countries), the used cooking oil could be tested for definitive
change in colour, free fatty acids, total polar materials, polymeric triglycerides and ultraviolet
absorption (for the estimation of conjugated dienes)42. However, it is not practical to test for
these parameters in the field (e.g. at the night market setting) and the cost of implementing such
tests could be a huge financial burden for a developing country like Malaysia. In order to
simplify matters, it had been suggested that several criteria can be observed on-site in order to
measure the quality of cooking oil2. The criteria include observations regarding the crude
colour of oil, foaming, appearance of smoke, odour of frying oil, length of time used and
sensory (taste) evaluation of the resultant fried food2. The Peroxide Value (PV) is a useful
measure of oil quality. The PV is one of the most frequently determined quality parameters
during oil production, storage and marketing. It is an index to quantify the amount of
hydroperoxide in fats and oils20. Hydroperoxide is formed by the oxidation of fats and oils. PV
therefore indicates the degree of oxidation in the substance and measures the amount of total
hydroperoxides as a product of primary oil oxidation43. When cooking oil is heated, the PV
rises. However, peroxides are also rapidly decomposed at high temperatures. It has been
reported that weakly oxidized fats and oils at levels of only 100 mEqO2/kg of PV can be
neurotoxic44. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that the quantity of hydroperoxides in
cooking oil remains low so that the safety of fried food is not compromised. Currently, there is
no consensus cut-off point for PV of cooking oil that is agreed by all countries in the world. The
American (AOCS) PV cut-off point is only lower by 20 mEqO2/kg than the Japanese cut-off
point, simply because the AOCS would want to prevent the existence of lipid hydroperoxides in
their oil as much as possible. In our opinion, the Japanese cut-off point for PV in oils and fats is
more realistic because it was backed by both human (epidemiological) and animal studies.
Instant noodles are fried food, and therefore contain lots of fats and oils. In the early 1960s,
Japan had a few food poisoning epidemic caused by the degradation of fats and oils in instant
noodles. Many people who ate the degraded instant noodles developed acute symptoms such as
diarrhea, nausea, emesis, abdominal pain, fatigue and headache. These symptoms are strongly
related to the central nervous system. However, no death was reported. Laboratory tests done on
the deteriorated instant noodle samples showed that the mean PV values of the deteriorated
instant noodles was around 100 mEqO2/kg. After the incidents, the Japanese authorities began
to set certain standards for instant noodles in their Food Sanitation Law to protect against food
poisoning and to control the quality of instant noodles. In that law, peroxide value (PV) was
chosen as one of the index to control food safety and quality, and the standard PV was set at no
more than 30 mEqO2/kg. This value was chosen because it experimentally indicates the initial
stage of fat and oil deterioration in vitro. After setting this value, there have been no reported
cases of food poisoning caused by instant noodles in Japan45. PV of 100 mEqO2/kg might not
be very high, but animal studies that have since been done revealed that this level of
deteriorated fat and oil is neurotoxic. Rats that ate deteriorated fats and oils with a PV of at least
107.2 mEqO2/kg had significantly decreased locomotor activity compared to control rats. These
phenomena suggested that oxidized fats and oils with PV of at least 100 meq/kg induced
neurotoxicity44. During oxidation of fats and oils, a sudden surge in oxidation occurs during the
propagation phase of the oxidative process after the induction period, once all the antioxidants
contained in the fats and oils have all been used up. Although 30 mEqO2/kg is much less than
100 mEqO2/kg, once the sudden oxidation is initiated during the propagation period of lipid
peroxidation, the 100 mEqO2/kg level would easily be reached soon after the 30 mEqO2/kg
threshold level was noted in the oils. Consequently, setting a criterion of 30 mEqO2/kg as the
maximal PV in fats and oils is important to control food safety. One of the most effective ways
in order to achieve this is by not using repeatedly heated cooking oil.

After measuring the PV of cooking oil samples obtained from various night markets in Kuala
Lumpur, we found that more than half of the oils (62%) are within the safe limits of
consumption (PV ≤ 30 mEqO2/kg). However, it should be reiterated that the PV measured in
the laboratory on used cooking oil most probably reflects the oxidation occurring in the time
frame between sampling and analysis, and does not truly reflect the value of hydroperoxides in
real-time setting where the oil is actually being used for frying food at the night market in-situ
42. PV values also differ widely according to the type of food that is deep fried46. PV values of
oils can be very low after deep frying fruits, tubers, vegetables and other plant-based products
such as potato chips. PV values of oils can be very high after deep frying meat-based products
such as fried chicken, keropok lekor, fish cakes and sausages. The different brands of oils used
by different outlets, the types of oil used (packaged recycled palm oil as opposed to fresh palm
oil), deep frying temperature, the duration of deep frying, deep frying pattern (continuous or
intermittent) and the type of utensils used for frying also have very great impact on the PV of
cooking oils after frying food46. These various factors were thought to contribute to the huge
difference in the PV of cooking oil samples that were used for deep frying that we have
collected from various night market food outlets. Due to the various factors that could affect PV
value of oils used for deep frying, extreme caution should be made when interpreting the
laboratory-based PV results that were obtained in this study. Due to the huge variation in the
PV of our oil samples, the only significant difference in PV was found in the oil samples
obtained from Wangsa Maju and Taman Tun Dr. Ismail night markets. It might be tempting to
assume that the night market food operators in Taman Tun Dr. Ismail night market have better
knowledge, attitude and practice regarding the proper usage of cooking oil compared to those in
Wangsa Maju. However, due to the various factors that could affect PV of oils during and after
deep frying, it is hard to determine the actual reasons why the PV of oil samples taken from
Wangsa Maju night market was significantly higher than that of Taman Tun Dr. Ismail night
market. It could be that the oil samples taken from night market in Taman Tun Dr. Ismail were
mainly from stalls that deep fry plant-based food and oil samples taken from Wangsa Maju
were mainly from stalls that deep fry meat-based food. This was because during the Level of
Knowledge, Attitude and Practice of Night Market Food Outlet Operators Med J Malaysia Vol
67 No 1 February 2012 99 oil samples collection, we did not differentiate between food outlets
that sell plant-based fried food and meat-based fried food. We also did not take into account the
different brands of oils used by different outlets, the types of oil used (packaged recycled palm
oil as opposed to fresh palm oil), deep frying temperature, the duration of deep frying, deep
frying pattern (continuous or intermittent), whether the food operators replenish their oil during
their frying sessions and the type of utensils used for frying when we were collecting our
samples. In order to make the result more meaningful, further studies should consider all these
factors when determining the difference in PV of oils used for deep frying that are obtained
from various food outlets. Additionally, also probably due to these factors, we did not find any
significant association between different income areas (low, middle and high) and the PV of oil
samples taken from night markets of those areas. The lack of association between different
income areas and PV of oils collected from those areas might also be due to the fact that the
night market outlet operators are a heterogeneous lot in terms of their awareness on the proper
ways of deep frying and the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil.

During the survey, the night market food outlet operators were asked whether they would like to
obtain more information on this subject matter, which includes the proper ways to use cooking
oil for deep frying as well as the detrimental effects of using repeatedly heated cooking oil, in
which more than half of the respondents said that they would like to, which is a good attitude to
have in terms of improving one’s knowledge in healthy behaviour. Their attitude in seeking
information about the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil were also tested by asking if they
had previously known that using cooking oil repeatedly for frying food is not a healthy practice,
in which the majority of the respondents said that they had obtained such information from
reading the newspapers. This also indicated that their attitude towards using repeatedly heated
cooking oil might be affected by the information that they received from the newspapers,
although it might not necessarily translate into good practice of using cooking oil. However, we
also discovered that a considerable percentage (31.0%) of the night market food operators
surveyed in this study were totally unaware of this issue. This corresponds to the percentage
(30.0%) of night market food operators surveyed in this study which received only primary
education or no education at all. Therefore, apart from awareness campaign in the mass media,
which might not reach the uneducated night market operators, health officials and personnel
should go to the field and educate about this issue individually to night market operators,
especially to those who are not inclined to read newspapers or follow other popular mass media.
The results showed that there is no significant association between the night market food
operators’ knowledge and attitude and practice, attitude and practice and PV of oil samples
taken from them, as well as between the night market food operators’ educational level and
their knowledge regarding the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil. It is therefore highly
pertinent to further improve their knowledge and translate that into positive changes in their
attitude and practice regarding usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil. In order to improve
knowledge, more awareness campaign about this matter should be highlighted in the mass
media. Public health officials should go to the field and educate the night market food operators
individually about the perils of using repeatedly heated cooking oil. These measures would
address the prevalent lack of scientific knowledge amongst night market food outlet operators
regarding the real dangers of using of repeatedly heated cooking oil. In order to change practice,
voluntary training on the proper techniques of deep frying food should be given to these food
operators in government funded vocational schools that provide catering courses. Government
food inspectors should advice night market food outlet operators that deep fried food should be
drained from the frying oil as much as possible by shaking off excess oil when taking the fried
food out of the fryer, and placing the fried food on absorbent paper towels to absorb additional
excess oil for at least a few minutes before selling. Each night market food outlet that practice
deep frying should have a suitable cooking thermometer so that frying temperature can be
controlled. The food inspectors should also discourage food operators from replenishing
cooking oil by partial replacement with fresh oil, rather than totally replacing all the oil at once,
when they notice that the oil has changed colour during long frying sessions. Oil should be
filtered regularly using filter aids during daily frying sessions in order to maintain the good
quality of frying oil. However, the best advice given would always be not to use today’s frying
oil for next day’s frying sessions. There were some limitations in this study with regards to
knowledge, attitude and practice of night market food outlet operators as convenience sampling
was done in order to obtain our respondents for the survey due to time and financial constraints.
The data obtained on knowledge, attitude and practice regarding usage of repeatedly heated
cooking oil would have been more concrete if more night market food outlet operators were
identified within a targeted population that had been specifically selected and further stratified
according to their socioeconomic standing, educational and health status. More information
regarding healthy eating practices and behaviours of the night market food outlet operators
would have added greatly to the variables that suggest health awareness. It is also difficult to
interpret associations regarding race since the majority of the respondents were Malays. Other
factors relating to lifestyle or health awareness (frequency of exercise, reported history of
having chronic diseases such as diabetes or hypertension, as well as smoking status) which we
did not take into account in this study may also be important determinants with regards to the
practice of using repeatedly heated cooking oil amongst the night market food outlet operators.
There are also several limitations associated with our PV results. We did not take into account
the different types of foods that were being fried at different outlets when we collected the oil
samples. In other words, we did not differentiate between outlets that only sell deep fried plant-
based products from outlets that sell only deep fried meat-based products when we collected our
oil samples for PV testing. As stated before, the PV of oil samples after frying plant-based
products is very much lower than the PV of oils after frying meat-based products. This could
explain the big difference in PV amongst our samples. We also did not take into account the
frying temperature used in different outlets, how big the flame of the gas cooker was in
different outlets, the length of each frying sessions in different outlets, the different styles of
deep frying (continuous or intermittent frying) employed by different outlets, the different types
of utensils used for deep frying in different outlets, the different types of oil used (packaged
recycled palm oil or fresh palm oil) by different outlets or whether the food outlet operators
replenished their oils regularly during their daily frying sessions. All of these factors
contributed to the huge difference in PV of oils samples obtained from different food outlets.
Deep fried foods are well-liked by consumers due to their taste, smell and texture. Frying is also
one of the easiest and cheapest ways of cooking, thus making it a popular choice especially for
the lower income group. Even though a certain amount of potentially toxic products are
produced during frying (such as polar compounds or polymers), fried foods are generally
considered safe47. It is only when frying oil is used repeatedly that it becomes toxic for human
consumption. According to a study done in Japan, the recovered oil (repeatedly used/heated oil)
that has been used to deep fry food was still safe to use after deep frying was done at 1800C for
3 hours a day for 5 consecutive days. However, the same conclusion could not be made of the
foodstuff that had been deep fried with such oil. The researchers found that the oil within the
batter coatings of 4% of deep fried food (that was fried using the repeatedly heated cooking oil)
had high acidic
value content (which can affect food quality), and 4-22% of the oil trapped in the batter coating
also had properties worse than those of the repeatedly heated cooking oil. The authors of that
study therefore concluded that the best way to ensure the safe use of cooking oil would be to
shorten its usage span. This strengthens our position on not encouraging the usage of repeatedly
heated cooking oil to fry food.
 CONCLUSION

The level of knowledge of the night market food outlet operators in Kuala Lumpur regarding
the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil needs to be improved. More publicity and exposure
about this little-known health issue to food outlet operators should be given in the mass media
and also through individual one-to-one encounters. Awareness campaigns relating to this little-
known health issue that targets night market food outlet operators should be carried out by the
relevant health authorities. Further episodes of field studies should be executed in order to
measure the actual level of toxic and polar compounds that could be found in frying oils used
by night market food outlet operators, apart from just measuring the PV of the cooking oil. A
follow-up prospective cohort study is also warranted in order to observe whether there are
positive changes in the behavior and knowledge of the night market food operators that had
been surveyed and educated regarding the usage of repeatedly heated cooking oil.