Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology

Seventh Edition
Elaine N. Marieb

Week 13
The Lymphatic System
and Body Defenses

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings

 The Lymphatic System
∙ Two parts
∙ Lymphatic vessels
∙ Lymphoid tissues and organs
∙ Lymphatic system functions
∙ Transport fluids back to the blood
∙ Play essential roles in body defense and
resistance to disease
∙ Absorb digested fat at the intestinal villi

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.1
 Lymphatic Characteristics
∙ Lymph – excess tissue fluid carried by
lymphatic vessels
∙ Properties of lymphatic vessels
∙ One way system toward the heart
∙ No pump
∙ Lymph moves toward the heart
∙ Milking action of skeletal muscle
∙ Rhythmic contraction of smooth muscle
in vessel walls
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 Lymphatic Vessels

Figure 12.1

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 Lymphatic Vessels
∙ Lymphatic
collecting vessels
∙ Collects lymph from
lymph capillaries
∙ Carries lymph to
and away from
lymph nodes
∙ Returns fluid to
circulatory veins
near the heart

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 12.2 Slide
 Lymph
∙ Materials returned to the blood
∙ Water
∙ Blood cells
∙ Proteins
∙ Harmful materials that enter lymph
vessels
∙ Bacteria
∙ Viruses
∙ Cancer cells
∙ Cell debris
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 Lymph Nodes

∙ Filter lymph before it is returned to the

blood
∙ Defense cells within lymph nodes
∙ Macrophages – engulf and destroy foreign
substances
∙ Lymphocytes – provide immune response to
antigens

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 Lymph Nodes

Figure 12.3

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 Other Lymphoid Organs

∙ Several other
organs contribute
to lymphatic
function
∙ Spleen
∙ Thymus
∙ Tonsils
∙ Peyer’s patches
Figure 12.5
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide 12.9
 The Spleen

∙ Located on the left side of the abdomen

∙ Filters blood
∙ Destroys worn out blood cells
∙ Forms blood cells in the fetus
∙ Acts as a blood reservoir

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 The Thymus

∙ Located low in the throat, overlying the

heart
∙ Functions at peak levels only during
childhood
∙ Produces hormones (like thymosin) to
program lymphocytes

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 Tonsils

∙ Small masses of lymphoid tissue around

the pharynx
∙ Trap and remove bacteria and other
foreign materials
∙ Tonsillitis is caused by congestion with
bacteria

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 Peyer’s Patches

∙ Found in the wall of the small intestine

∙ Resemble tonsils in structure
∙ Capture and destroy bacteria in the
intestine

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 Body Defenses
∙ The body is constantly in contact with
bacteria, fungi, and viruses (pathogens)
∙ The body has two defense systems for
foreign materials
∙ Nonspecific defense system
∙ Mechanisms protect against a variety of
invaders
∙ Responds immediately to protect body
from foreign materials
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 Body Defenses & Nonspecific Body
Defenses
∙ Specific defense system
∙ Specific defense is required for each type of invader
∙ Also known as the immune system
Body surface coverings
∙ Intact skin
∙ Mucous membranes
Specialized human cells
Chemicals produced by the body

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 Surface Membrane Barriers –
∙ The skin
First Line of Defense
∙ Physical barrier to foreign materials
∙ pH of the skin is acidic to inhibit bacterial growth
∙ Sebum is toxic to bacteria & vaginal secretions are
very acidic
∙ Stomach mucosa
∙ Secretes hydrochloric acid & protein-digesting enzymes
∙ Saliva and lacrimal fluid contain lysozyme
∙ Mucus traps microogranisms in digestive and respiratory
pathways

Slide
 Defensive Cells

∙ Phagocytes
(neutrophils and
macrophages)
∙ Engulfs foreign
material into a
vacuole
∙ Enzymes from
lysosomes digest
the material
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 12.6b Slide
 Macrophage attacking e-coli.
•
 Defensive Cells

∙ Natural killer cells

∙ Can lyse and kill
cancer cells
∙ Can destroy virus-
infected cells

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Figure 12.6b Slide
 Inflammatory Response -
Second Line of Defense
∙ Triggered when body tissues are injured
∙ Produces four cardinal signs
∙ Redness
∙ Heat
∙ Swelling
∙ Pain
∙ Results in a chain of events leading to
protection and healing
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 Functions of the Inflammatory
Response

∙ Prevents spread of damaging agents

∙ Disposes of cell debris and pathogens
∙ Sets the stage for repair

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 Steps in the Inflammatory Response

Figure 12.7
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 Antimicrobial Chemicals
∙ Complement
∙ A group of at least
20 plasma
proteins
∙ Activated when
they encounter
and attach to cells
∙ Damage foreign
cell surfaces
∙ Will rupture or lyse
the foreign cell
membrane Figure 12.8

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 Antimicrobial Chemicals

∙ Interferon
∙ Secreted proteins of virus-infected cells
∙ Bind to healthy cell surfaces to inhibit viruses
binding

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Interferons are a family species-specific proteins synthesized by
eukaryotic cells in response to viruses and a variety of natural and
synthetic stimuli. There are several different interferons commonly used
as therapeutics, termed alpha, beta, and gamma. These peptides are
used to treat hairy cell leukemia, AIDS-related Kaposi's sarcoma,
laryngeal papillomatosis, genital warts, and chronic granulomatous
disease. Side effects include black tarry stools, blood in the urine,
confusion, and loss of balance.
 Fever

∙ Abnormally high body temperature

∙ Hypothalmus heat regulation can be
reset by pyrogens (secreted by white
blood cells)
∙ High temperatures inhibit the release of
iron and zinc from liver and spleen
needed by bacteria
∙ Fever also increases the speed of tissue
repair
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 Specific Defense: The Immune
System – Third Line of Defense

∙ Antigen specific – recognizes and acts

against particular foreign substances
∙ Systemic – not restricted to the initial
infection site
∙ Has memory – recognizes and mounts
a stronger attack on previously
encountered pathogens
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 Types of Immunity
∙ Humoral immunity
∙ Antibody-mediated immunity
∙ Cells produce chemicals for defense
∙ Cellular immunity
∙ Cell-mediated immunity
∙ Cells target virus infected cells

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide

 Antigens (Nonself)
∙ Any substance capable of exciting the
immune system and provoking an immune
response
∙ Examples of common antigens
∙ Foreign proteins
∙ Nucleic acids
∙ Large carbohydrates
∙ Some lipids
∙ Pollen grains
∙ Microorganisms
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 Self-Antigens
∙ Human cells have many surface proteins
∙ Our immune cells do not attack our own
proteins
∙ Our cells in another person’s body can
trigger an immune response because they
are foreign
∙ Restricts donors for transplants

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 Allergies
∙ Many small molecules (called haptens or
incomplete antigens) are not antigenic, but
link up with our own proteins
∙ The immune system may recognize and
respond to a protein-hapten combination
∙ The immune response is harmful rather
than protective because it attacks our own
cells

Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide

 Cells of the Immune System
∙ Lymphocytes
∙ Originate from hemocytoblasts in the red bone
marrow
∙ B lymphocytes become immunocompetent in
the bone marrow
∙ T lymphocytes become immunocompetent in
the thymus
∙ Macrophages
∙ Arise from monocytes
∙ Become widely distributed in lymphoid organs

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 Activation of Lymphocytes

Figure 12.9
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 Humoral (Antibody-Mediated)
Immune Response
∙ B lymphocytes with specific receptors bind to a specific
antigen
∙ The binding event activates the lymphocyte to undergo
clonal selection
∙ A large number of clones are produced (primary humoral
response)
∙ Most B cells become plasma cells
∙ Produce antibodies to destroy antigens
∙ Activity lasts for four or five days
∙ Some B cells become long-lived memory cells (secondary
humoral response)
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 Humoral Immune Response

Figure 12.10
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 Active Immunity

∙ Your B cells
encounter
antigens and
produce
antibodies
∙ Active immunity
can be naturally
or artificially
acquired
Figure 12.12

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 Passive Immunity

∙ Antibodies are obtained from someone

else
∙ Conferred naturally from a mother to her
fetus
∙ Conferred artificially from immune serum or
gamma globulin
∙ Immunological memory does not occur
∙ Protection provided by “borrowed
antibodies”
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 Antibodies (Immunoglobulins) (Igs)
∙ Soluble proteins secreted by B cells
(plasma cells)
∙ Carried in blood plasma
∙ Capable of binding specifically to an
antigen

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 Antibody Classes
∙ Antibodies of each class have slightly
different roles
∙ Five major immunoglobulin classes – (Do
Not Need to know!)
∙ IgM – can fix complement
∙ IgA – found mainly in mucus
∙ IgD – important in activation of B cell
∙ IgG – can cross the placental barrier
∙ IgE – involved in allergies

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 Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response
∙ Antigens must be presented by
macrophages to an immunocompetent T
cell (antigen presentation)
∙ T cells must recognize nonself and self
(double recognition)
∙ After antigen binding, clones form as with B
cells, but different classes of cells are
produced
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 Cellular (Cell-Mediated) Immune
Response

Figure 12.15

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 T Cell Clones
∙ Cytotoxic T cells
∙ Specialize in killing infected cells
∙ Insert a toxic chemical (perforin)
∙ Helper T cells
∙ Recruit other cells to fight the invaders
∙ Interact directly with B cells
∙ Suppressor T cells
∙ Release chemicals to suppress the activity of T and B
cells
∙ Stop the immune response to prevent uncontrolled
activity
∙ A few members of each clone are memory cells
Slide
 Summary of the Immune Response

Figure 12.16
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 Organ Transplants and Rejection
∙ Major types of grafts
∙ Autografts – tissue transplanted from one site
to another on the same person (ideal donors)
∙ Isografts – tissue grafts from an identical
person (ideal donors)
∙ Allografts – tissue taken from an unrelated
person (more successful with a closer tissue
match)
∙ Xenografts – tissue taken from a different
animal species (never successful)
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 Disorders of Immunity:
Immunodeficiencies

∙ Production or function of immune cells

or complement is abnormal
∙ May be congenital or acquired
∙ Includes AIDS – Acquired Immune
Deficiency Syndrome

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 Disorders of Immunity:
Autoimmune Diseases

∙ The immune system does not

distinguish between self and nonself
∙ The body produces antibodies and
sensitized T lymphocytes that attack its
own tissues

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 Disorders of Immunity:
Autoimmune Diseases
∙ Multiple sclerosis – white matter of brain and
spinal cord are destroyed
∙ Myasthenia gravis – impairs communication
between nerves and skeletal muscles
∙ Juvenile diabetes – destroys pancreatic beta cells
that produce insulin
∙ Rheumatoid arthritis – destroys joints
∙ Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) – affects
kidney, heart, lung and skin
∙ Glomerulonephritis – impairment of renal function
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings Slide