CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION TO GRAPHIC COMMUNICATION

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:
a. define graphic communication
b. identify the different types of drawing
c. explain the difference between different types of drawings
d. mention some of the applications of engineering drawings

1.1 Drawing
A drawing is a graphical representation of an object or plan which is the result of analysis and
creative thinking of man.
Technically, drawing can be defined as a graphical representation of an idea, a concept or an
entity which actually or potentially exists in life.
The drawing itself is a way of communicating all necessary information about an abstract, an idea
or concept, or some entity represented through graphic, such as a machine part, house plan or tools.
Drawing is one of the oldest forms of communication.
According to F.E. Giesecke, drawing is a graphic representation of a real thing, a proposed
design for construction later.
When a person sketches a map in giving direction, it is a graphic communication. In Graphic
communication, it uses visual material(s) to communicate ideas.
Drawings, photographs, presentations, slides, transparencies, and sketches are all forms of
graphic communication.
There are two basic types of drawings: Artistic and Engineering drawings.

1.1.1 Artistic Drawings

Artistic Drawings range in the scope from the simplest line drawing to the most famous
paintings. Artistic drawings are used to express the feelings, beliefs, philosophies, and ideas of
the artist.

Figure 1.1 Artistic drawings

1.1.2 Engineering Drawings

The engineering drawing, on the other hand, is not abstract. It does not require an
understanding of the designer, instead an understanding of technical drawings.

An engineering drawing is a means of clearly and concisely communicating all of the

information necessary to transform an idea or a concept into reality. Therefore, such drawing
 often contains more than just a graphic representation of the subject. It also contains dimensions,
notes and specifications.

Figure 1.2 Engineering/Technical Drawing

A. Types of Projections in drawing

Technical drawings are based on the fundamental principles of projections. A projection is a
drawing or representation of an entity on an imaginary plane or planes. A projection involves four
components :
1. The actual object of the drawing or projection it represents
2. The eye of the viewer looking at the object
3. The imaginary projection plane
4. Imaginary lines of sight called Projectors

The two broad types of projections are parallel projection and perspective projection.

Parallel Projection
Parallel Projection is a type of projection where the line of sight is parallel and perpendicular to
the picture planes. It is subdivided in to the following three categories: Orthographic, Oblique and
Axonometric Projections.
Orthographic projections : are drawn as multi-view drawings, which show flat representations of
principal views of the subject. (front, two sides, rear, bottom, top views)
Oblique Projections: actually show the full size in three faces.
Axonometric Projections: are three-dimensional drawings, and are of three different varieties:
Isometric, Dimetric and Trimetric.
Figure 1.3 Orthographic multi-view drawing

Figure 1.4 Oblique drawing

Figure 1.5 Axonometric drawing

Perspective Projection
Perspective projections are drawings which attempt to replicate what the human eye actually
sees when it views an object. There are three types of perspective projections: One-point, Two-point
and Three-point Projections.

Figure 1.6 Perspective drawings

B. Purpose of Engineering Drawings
To appreciate the need for technical drawings, one must understand the design process. The
design process is an orderly, systematic procedure used in accomplishing a needed design.
Any product that is to be manufactured, fabricated, assembled, constructed, built, or subjected
to any other types of conversion process must first be designed or drawn. For example, a house must
be designed or drawn before it can be built.
C. Application of Engineering Drawings
Engineering drawings are used in many different applications. The most common applications
can be found in the fields of manufacturing, construction, and other engineering purposes.
For instance, Surveyors, civil engineers, sanitarians use technical drawings to document such
works as the layout of a new subdivisions, or the marking of the boundaries for a piece of property.
Contractors and construction personnel use drawings as their blue prints in converting engineering
designs into reality.

Figure 1.7 Technical drawing (architectural)

TEST
After reading, discussing and understanding Chapter 1, you are now ready to take the test below to
find out how much you have learned. Read carefully the direction before taking the test.
After completion of this test, check your answers by going back to the chapter. If everything is clear
and well understood, then you may proceed to the next chapter.

QUESTIONS:
Direction. Fill in the banks with the word or group of words that will make the statement complete and
correct. Write your answers in a separate sheet.
1-2. The two basic types of drawings are ______________ and ________________ drawings.
3. _______ drawings are used to express the feelings, beliefs, philosophies, and ideas of the artist.
4. A _______________ drawing is a means of clearly and concisely communicating all of the information
necessary to transform an idea or a concept into reality.
5. A _________________ is a drawing or representation of an entity on an imaginary plane or planes.
6. _______________ projection is a type of projection where the line of sight is parallel and perpendicular
to the picture planes.
7. ________________ projection is a drawing which attempt to replicate what the human eye actually
sees when it views an object.
8. ________________ projections are drawn as multi-view drawings, which show flat representations of
principal views of the subject. (front, two sides, rear, bottom, top views)
9. (2 pts). In your own words, what is graphic communication?
 CHAPTER TWO
DRAWING INSTRUMENTS AND THEIR USES

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:
a. list the main drawing instruments
b. discuss the use of different drawing instruments
2.1 Introduction
To record information on paper instruments and tools are needed. Engineering drawing is entirely
a graphic language hence instruments are essentially needed. Drawing must be clear, neat and legible
in order to serve its purpose. Hence it is extremely important for engineers to have good speed, accuracy,
legibility and neatness in the drawing work.

2.2 Drawing Tools/Equipment

All drawings are made by means of different instruments.

i. Drawing Paper
Drawing paper is the paper, on which drawing is to be made. The use of standard size
saves paper and ensures convenient storage of drawings. In the Philippines, the 8 ½” x 11”
(short), 8 ½” x 13” (long), 8” x 12” (A4), 9” x 12”, 11” x 17” and 20” x 30” are being used in drawing.
Title block is a rectangular frame that is located at the bottom of the sheet. It is recommended
that space should be provided in all title blocks for such information as description of title of the
drawing, dates, designer (drawer), and name of enterprise or educational institute, size (scale)
and border line.

Figure 2.1. Sample of Border lines and Title Block

ii. Triangles (setsquares)
They are used to construct the most common angles (i.e. 30 deg, 45 deg, 60 deg) in
technical drawings. The 45 deg x 45 deg and 30 deg x 60 deg triangles are the most commonly
used for ordinary work.

Figure 2.2 triangles or set squares

iii. T- square
It is used primarily to draw horizontal lines and for guiding the triangles when drawing
vertical and inclined lines.

Figure 2.3 T-square

iv. French curve

 It is used to draw irregular curves that are not circle/arcs.

Figure 2.4 French curves

v. Protractor
It is used for laying out and measuring angle.

Figure 2.5 Protractor

vi. Scale (ruler)

A number of kinds of scales are available for varied types of engineering design.

Figure 2.6 Scales (Rulers)

vii. Pencil
The student and professional man should be equipped with a selection of good, well-
sharpened pencil with leads of various degrees of hardness such as: 9H, 8H, 7H, and 6H (hard);
5H& 4H (medium hard); 3H and 2H (medium); and H & F (medium soft). The grade of pencil to
be used for various purposes depends on the type of line desired, the kind of paper employed,
and the humidity, which affects the surface of the paper. Standards for line quality usually will
govern the selection.
6H is used for light construction line.
4H is used for re-penciling light finished lines
(dimension lines, center lines, and invisible object lines)
2H is used for visible object lines
F and H are used for all lettering and freehand work.

Figure 2.7. Grade of pencil (lead)

viii. Compass
 It is used to draw circles and arcs both in pencil and ink. It consists of two legs pivoted
at the top. One leg is equipped with a steel needle attached with a screw, and other shorter
leg is, provided with a socket for detachable inserts.

Figure 2.8. Compass and divider

viiii. Divider
Used chiefly for transferring distances and occasionally for dividing spaces into equal
parts. i.e. for dividing curved and straight lines into any number of equal parts, and for transferring
measurements.
ix. Template
A template is a thin, flat piece of plastic containing various cutout shapes. It is designed
to speed the work of the drafter and to make the finished drawing more accurate. Templates are
available for drawing circles, ellipses, plumbing’s, fixtures etc. Templates come in many sizes to
fit the scale being used on the drawing. And it should be used wherever possible to increase
accuracy and speed.

Figure 2.9. Examples of Templates

Drawing board is a board whose top surface is perfectly smooth and level on which the drawing
paper is fastened. Usually a drawing board is inclined at desired inclination.
Clinograph (Adjustable set square)-its two sides are fixed at 90 degree and the third side can be
adjusted at any angle.
Rubber or eraser- extra lines or curves which are not required in the drawing are to be rubbed
out or erased. Hence a rubber or eraser are required in the drawing work. Erasers are available in many
degrees of hardness, size and shape.
Eraser shield –it is an important device to protect lines near those being erased. It is made up of
thin metal plate in which gaps of different widths and lengths are cut.
Tracing paper – it is a thin transparent paper. Figures below it can be seen easily and traced out
in pencil ink.
Drawing ink- it is used for making drawings in ink on tracing paper.
TEST
After reading, discussing and understanding Chapter 2, you are now ready to take the test
below to find out how much you have learned. Read carefully the direction before taking the test.
After completion of this test, check your answers by going back to the chapter. If everything is
clear and well understood, then you may proceed to the next chapter.

QUESTIONS:

Direction. Fill in the banks with the word or group of words that will make the statement complete and
correct. Write your answers in a separate sheet.

1. ______________ is used in laying out and measuring angles.

2. ______________ is used to draw irregular curves that are not circles/arcs.
3. A ____________ is used to draw circles and arcs both in pencil and ink which consist of two legs
pivoted at the top.
4. A _________________ is a thin transparent paper.
5. A _____________ is a thin, flat piece of plastic containing various cutout shapes.
6. ________________ is the paper, on which drawing is to be made.
7. _________________ is a board whose top surface is perfectly smooth and level on which the
drawing paper is fastened and drawn.
8. ________________ is also called as adjustable set square.
9-10. Drawing should be clear, ________ and _________ in order to serves its purpose.

FREE HAND LETTERING EXERCISE (Pre-test for letterings)

Direction:
1. On a clean sheet of bond paper, copy the following paragraphs below (all caps and bold).
2. Be sure that upper case as shown below should be followed and copied.
3. This is a test on penmanship.
4. Height and width of lettering is of desired option.
5. Just fit on the paper the paragraphs.

LETTER STYLES ARE GENERALLY CLASSIFIED AS GOTHIC, ROMAN, ITALIC AND

TEXT.
THE PLAINEST AND MOST LEGIBLE STYLE IS THE GOTHIC FROM WHICH OUR
SINGLE-STROKE ENGINEERING LETTERS ARE DERIVED.
“ANY NORMAL PERSON CAN LEARN TO LETTER IF HE IS PERSISTENT AND
INTELLIGENT IN HIS EFFORTS.” WHILE IT IS TRUE THAT “PRACTICE MAKES PERFECT,”
IT MUST BE UNDERSTOOD THAT PRACTICE ALONE IS NOT ENOUGH; IT MUST BE
ACCOMPANIED BY CONTINUOUS EFFORT TO IMPROVE.
THERE ARE THREE NECESSARY STEPS IN LEARNING TO LETTER:
1. KNOWLEDGE OF THE PROPORTIONS AND FORMS OF THE LETTERS, AND THE
ORDER OF THE STROKES.
2. KNOWLEDGE OF COMPOSITION- THE SPACING OF THE LETTERS AND WORDS.
3. PERSISTENT PRACTICE, WITH CONTINUOUS EFFORT TO IMPROVE.
GUIDELINES ARE ABSOLUTELY ESSENTIAL FOR GOOD LETTERING, AND SHOULD
BE REGARDED AS A WELCOME AID, NOT AS AN UNNECESSARY REQUIREMENT.
 CHAPTER THREE
LETTERING AND LINES

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:
a. Write letters according to the standard and correct stroke
b. Explain the different line types
c. Mention the application of each line type in technical drawings

3.1 Letter Styles

Letter styles are generally classified as Gothic, Roman, Italic and Text. They were all made with
speedball pens, and are therefore largely single-stroke letters. If the letters are drawn in outline and filled
in, they are referred to as “filled- in” letters.
The plainest and most legible style is the gothic from which our single-stroke engineering letters
are derived. The term roman refers to any letter having wide down ward strokes and thin connecting
strokes. Roman letters include old romans and modern roman , and may be vertical or inclined.
Inclined letters are also referred to as italic , regardless of the letter style; text letters are often referred
to as old English.

Figure 3.1 Classification of letter styles

Depending up on the spacing between words and thickness of strokes, letters may be classified
as follows:
Extended and Condensed Letters
To meet design or space requirements, letters may be narrower and spaced closer together, in
which case they are called “ Compressed” or “Condensed letters.” If the letters are wider than normal,
they are referred to as “ Extended letters.”
Light Face and Bold Face Letters
Letters also vary as to the thickness of the stems or strokes.
Letters having very thin stems are called Light Face Letters, while those having heavy stems are called
Bold Face Letters .

3.2 Technique of Lettering

“Any normal person can learn to letter if he is persistent and intelligent in his efforts.” While it is
true that “Practice makes perfect,” it must be understood that practice alone is not enough; it must
be accompanied by continuous effort to improve.
There are three necessary steps in learning to letter:
1. Knowledge of the proportions and forms of the letters, and the order of the strokes.
2. Knowledge of composition- the spacing of the letters and words.
3. Persistent practice, with continuous effort to improve.
Guide Lines
Extremely light horizontal guidelines are necessary to regulate the height of letters. In addition,
light vertical or inclined guidelines are needed to keep the letters uniformly vertical or inclined. Guidelines
are absolutely essential for good lettering, and should be regarded as a welcome aid, not as an
unnecessary requirement.

Figure 3.2 Guide lines

Make guidelines light, so that they can be erased after the lettering has been completed. Use a
relatively hard pencil such as a 4H to 6H, with a long, sharp, conical point.

Figure 3.3 Guide lines for capital letters

A. Guidelines for Capital Letters

On working drawings, capital letters are commonly made 3mm high, with the space between lines of
lettering from ¾ th to the full height of the letters. The vertical guidelines are not used to space the letters (as
this should always be done by eye while lettering), but only to keep the letters uniformly vertical, and they
should accordingly be drawn at random.
A guideline for inclined capital letters is somewhat different. The spacing of horizontal guidelines is
the same as for vertical capital lettering. The American Standard recommends slope of approximately 68.2
with the horizontal and may be established by drawing a “sloped triangle”, and drawing the guidelines at
random with T-square and triangles.

Figure 3.4 Guide lines for inclined capital letters

B. Guidelines for Lower-Case Letters

Lower-case letters have four horizontal guidelines, called the cap line, waistline, and base line
and drop line. Strokes of letters that extend up to the cap line are called ascenders, and those that
extend down to the drop line, descenders. Since there are only five letters (p, q.g, j, y) that have
descenders, the drop lines are little needed and are usually omitted. In spacing guidelines, space “a”
may very from 3/5to 2/3 of space “b”.
The term single stoke or one stoke does not mean that the entire letter is made without lifting the
pencil. But the width of the stroke is the width of the stem of the letter.
Single stroke lettering
The salient features of this type of lettering are:
- Greatest amount of lettering on drawings is done in a rapid single stroke letter i.e. either vertical,
or inclined.
- The ability to letter and perfectly can be acquired only by continued and careful practice.
- it is not a matter of artistic talent or event of dexterity in hand writing.
 Order of strokes
They are necessary to have legible and accurate letter styles.
In the following description an alphabet of slightly extended vertical capitals has-been arranged
in-group. Study the slope of each letter with the order and direction of the storks forming it. The proportion
of height and width of various letters must be known carefully to letter them perfectly.
The I-H-T Group
- The letter I is The Foundation Stroke .
- The top of T is drawn first to the full width of the square and the stem is started accurately at
its mid-point.
The L-E-F Group
- The L is made in two strokes.
- The first two strokes of the E are the same for the L, the third or the upper stoke is lightly shorter
than the lower and the last stroke is the third as long as the lower
- F has the same proportion as E
The V-A-K Group
- V is the same width as A, the A bridge is one third up from the bottom.
- The second stroke of K strikes stem one third up from the bottom and the third stroke branches
from it.
The M-W Group
- are the widest letters
- M may be made in consecutive strokes of the two verticals as of N
- W is made with two V’s
The O-Q-C-G Group
- The O families are made as full circles and made in two strokes with the left side a longer arc
than the right.
- A large size C and G can be made more accurately with an extra stroke at the top.
The D- U-J Group
- The top and bottom stokes of D must be horizontal, fail line to observe this is a common fault
with beginners
- U is formed by two parallel strokes to which the bottom stroke be added.
- J has the same construction as U, with the first stroke omitted.
The P-R-B Group
- The number of strokes depends up on the size of the letter.
- The middle line of P and R is on centerline of the vertical line.

Figure 3.5. Order and direction of strokes for vertical letters

 Figure 3.6. Order and direction of strokes for inclined letters

Figure 3.7.
Proportion Sizes of Letterings
 Figure 3.8. Order of Strokes for lower case letters and parts of outline

Words are spaced well apart, but letters within words should be spaced closely.
Make each word a compact unit well separated from the adjacent words. For either upper case
or lower-case lettering, make the spaces between words approximately equal to a capital O. Avoid
spacing letters too far apart and words too close together.
3.3 Conventional Lines
Each line on a technical drawing has a definite meaning and is drawn in certain ways. In technical
drawings, make construction lines so light that they can barely be seen, with a hard sharp pencil such as
4H to 6H. For visible lines, hidden lines, and other “thick” lines use relatively soft pencils, such as F or H.
All thin lines except construction line must be thin, but dark. They should be made with a sharp medium
grad pencil, such as H or 2H.
Drawing or Sketching of Lines
The following terms in drawing are defined for the students to understand and visualize more the
concepts used in freehand drawing.
Sketching is the method of drawing a symbol, character, an object, etc., freehand or without the
use of straight edge or drawing instrument except of a pencil.
Line Sketching is the skill in drawing the various types of lines like horizontal, vertical, inclined
and curved lines by freehand.
In sketching, one must follow the following:
1. Pencil should be sharpened to a conical or chisel point.
2. In drawing straight lines between two points, keep the eyes on the point to which the line will
go rather than on the point of the pencil.
3. Vertical strokes are drawn downwards (from top to bottom) with a finger movement in a series
of overlapping strokes.
4. Steep inclined lines running downward from right to left are drawn easily with the same
movement as vertical lines, but those running downward from left to right are much harder to
draw. They may be drawn by turning the paper and drawing them as horizontal line.
5. Circles may be drawn by marking the radius on each side of the center lines or by drawing
two diagonals on addition to center lines and marking points equidistant from the center of
the eight radii.
6.
TEST Questions
1. Discuss the different types of lines and explain the application of each line types in drawings.
2. Discuss the order of strokes of letters (upper and lower case)
PLATE NUMBER 1 – BORDER LINES AND TITLE BOX
1. Title Block will be discussed and explained by the instructor that contains border lines, title
of drawing, name of designer, plate number, dates, institution, etc..
2. Measurements of letterings, distances, and centering will be further explained.
3. Do not use lettering templates. Use HB or No. 3 pencil for border lines. Two strokes may
do.
4. Title box and Border lines is shown below. Use F, H or No. 2 (conical shape) for letterings.
5. Submit finished or unfinished.

PLATE NUMBER 2 – LETTERINGS AND NUMBERINGS (VERTICAL)

1. Draw the border line and title box being done in plate number 1.
2. Measurements of letterings, distances, and centering will be further explained.
3. Do not use lettering templates. Use H or No. 2 for letterings inside title box.
4. Use HB or No.3 Pencil in letters and numbers as required at the drawing area.
5. Never forget the previous notes in lettering.
6. Slightly make a vertical and horizontal guidelines 3 mm apart starting at 1 cm from the
upper and left border lines.
7. For the guidelines, do it as lightly since it will erased after lettering.
8. Follow the strokes and size proportioning as shown in Figure 3.5, 3,5a and 3.5b.
9. Using single stroke lettering, letters and numbers are arranged as shown below.
10. Spacing of Uppercase and lowercase is 1 unit while spacing of lowercase to next
uppercase letter is 3 units and spacing between next line of letters should be 4 units.
PLATE NUMBER 3 – LETTERINGS AND NUMBERINGS (INCLINED)
1. Draw the border line and title box being done in plate number 1.
2. Measurements of letterings, distances, and centering will be further explained.
3. Do not use lettering templates. Use H or No. 2 for letterings inside title box.
4. Use HB or No.3 Pencil in letterings and numberings.
5. Never forget the previous notes in lettering.
6. Slightly make a inclined and horizontal guidelines 3 mm apart starting at 1 cm from the
upper and left border lines.
7. For the guidelines, do it as lightly since it will erased after lettering.
8. Follow the strokes and size proportioning as shown in Figure 3.5, 3,5a and 3.5b.
9. Using single stroke lettering, letters and numbers are arranged as shown below.
10. Spacing of Uppercase and lowercase is 1 unit while spacing of lowercase to next
uppercase letter is 3 units and spacing between next line of letters should be 4 units.

PLATE NUMBER 4 – LINE SKETCHING (FREEHAND)

1. Draw the border line and title box being done in plate number 1.
2. Layout the rectangle to which the lines are to be drawn (5 cm horizontal by 6 cm
vertical).
3. Distance between rectangles is 2 cm..
4. Measure the length of border lines and center the rectangles to be laid out.
5. Draw the following line exercises using freehand. Observe the lines and draw with
accuracy, proper technique, neatness and speed.
PLATE NUMBER 5 – ARCS, CURVES AND CIRCLES (FREEHAND)
1. Draw the border line and title box being done in plate number 1.
2. Layout the rectangles to which the lines are to be drawn (5 cm horizontal by 6 cm vertical).
3. Distance between rectangles is 2 cm..
4. Measure the length of border lines and center the rectangles to be laid out.
5. Draw the following arcs, curves and circles exercises using freehand. Observe the figures
and draw with accuracy, proper technique, neatness and speed.

PLATE NUMBER 6 – INSTRUMENTAL LINE EXERCISES

1. Draw the border line and title box being done in plate number 1.
2. Layout the squares to which the figures are to be drawn (4 cm horizontal by 4 cm vertical).
3. Distance between boxes is 1 cm..
4. Measure the length of border lines within the drawing area and center the boxes to be laid
out.
5. Draw the following figures using correct drawing tools/equipment. Draw with accuracy,
proper technique, neatness and speed.
6. Ink the drawing including the border lines and title box.
7. Instructor will discuss for other measurements.
 CHAPTER FOUR
GEOMETRIC CONSTRUCTION

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter students should be able to:
a. Define geometric nomenclatures like angles, lines etc
b. Discuss the steps to construct different geometric figures using lines, arcs, polygon, ellipse,
etc.
4.1 Introduction
Geometric construction allows use of only the compass and an instrument for drawing straight
lines. In engineering drawing, the principles of geometry are employed constantly, but instruments are
not limited to the basics as T-squares, triangles, scales, curves etc. are used to make constructions with
speed and accuracy. It is assumed that students using this book understand the elements of plane
geometry and will be able to apply their knowledge.
4.2 GEOMETRIC NOMENCLATURE
A. POINTS IN SPACE
A point is an exact location in space or on a drawing surface. A point is actually represented on
the drawing by a crisscross at its exact location. Never represent a point on a drawing by a dot; except
for sketching locations.
B. LINE
Lines are elements that have no width, but are infinite in length (magnitude), and they can be
located by two points which are not on the same spot but fall along the line. Lines may be straight lines
or curved lines. It can be drawn in any direction.
Straight lines and curved lines are considered parallel if the distance between them remains
constant or the same. The symbol used for parallel line is //. Lines which are tangent and at 90 degree
are considered perpendicular. The symbol for perpendicular line is ┴.

Figure 4.1 Points and lines

C. ANGLE
An angle is formed by the intersection of two lines. There are three major kinds of angles: right
angels, acute angles and obtuse angles. The right angle is an angle of 90 degree, an acute angle is an
angle less than 90 degree, and an obtuse angle is an angle more than 90 degree. A straight line is 180
degree. To draw an angle, use a triangle and/or a protractor.

Figure 4.2 Angles

D. TRIANGLES
A triangle is a closed plane figure with three straight sides and their interior angles sum up exactly
180 degrees. The various kinds of triangles: a right triangle, an equilateral triangle, an isosceles triangle,
scalene triangle, and an obtuse triangle.
 Figure 4.3 Triangles
E. QUADRIALTERAL
It is a plane figure bounded by four straight sides. When opposite sides are parallel, the
quadrilateral is also considered to be a parallelogram.

Figure 4.4 Quadrilaterals

F. POLYGON
A polygon is a closed plane figure with three or more straight sides. The most important of these
polygons as they relate to drafting are probably the triangle with three sides, square with four sides, the
hexagon with six sides, and the octagon with eight sides.

Figure 4.5 Polygons

G. CIRCLE

Figure 4.6 Circles and its parts

H. SOLIDS
They are geometric figures bounded by plane surfaces. The surfaces are called faces , and if
these are equal regular polygons, the solids are regular polyhedra

Figure 4.7 Solids

4.3 Techniques of Geometric constructions
To construct the above mentioned geometric figures, we have to know some principles and
procedures of geometric construction. Thus, the remaining of this chapter is devoted to illustrate step-
by-step geometric construction procedures used by drafters and technicians to develop various
geometric forms.
A. How to Bisect a Line or an Arc
To bisect a line means to divide it in half or to find its center point. In the given process, a line will
also be constructed at the exact center point at exactly 90 degree.
Given: Line A-B
Step 1: Set the compass approximately two-thirds of the length of line A-B and swing an arc from point
A.
Step 2: Using the exact same compass setting, swing an arc from point B.
Step 3: At the two intersections of these arcs, locate points D and E
Step 4: Draw a straight-line connecting point D with point E. Where this line intersects line A-B, it bisects
line A-B. Line D-E is also perpendicular to line A-B at the exact center point.

Figure 4.8 Example on how to bisect a line or arc

B. How to Bisect an Angle

To bisect an angle means to divide it in half or to cut it in to two equal angles.
Given: Angle BAC
Step 1: Set the compass at any convenient radius and swing an arc from point A
Step 2: Locate points E and F on the legs of the angle, and swing two arcs of the same identical length
from points E and F, respectively.
Step 3: Where these arcs intersect, locate point D. Draw a straight line from A to D. This line will bisect
angle BAC and establish two equal angles: CAD and BAD.

Figure 4.9 Example on how to bisect an angle

C. How to Draw an Arc or Circle (Radius) Through Three Given Points

Given: Three points in space at random: A, Band C.
Step 1: With straight line, lightly connect points A to B, and B to C,
Step 2: Using the method outlined for bisecting a line, bisect lines A-B and B-C
Step 3: Locate point X where the two extended bisectors meet. Point X is the exact center of the arc or
circle.
Step 4: Place the point of the compass on point X and adjust the lead to any of the points A, B, or C (they
are the same distance), and swing the circle. If all work is done correctly, the arc or circle should pass
through each point.
 Figure 4.10 Example on how to draw an arc or circle

D. How to Draw a Line Parallel to a Straight Line at a Given Distance

Given: Line A-B, and a required distance to the parallel line.
Step 1: Set the compass at the required distance to the parallel line. Place the point of the compass at
any location on the given line, and swing a light arc whose radius is the required distance.
Step 2: Adjust the straight edge of either a drafting machine or an adjusted triangle so that it lines up with
line A-B, slide the straight edge up or down to the extreme high point, which is the tangent point, of the
arc, then draw the parallel line.

Figure 4.11 Example on how to draw parallel line

E. How to Draw a Line Parallel to a Line Curved Line at a Given Distance

Given: Curved line A-B, and a required distance to the parallel line,
Step 1: Set the compass at the required distance to the parallel line. Starting from either end of the curved
line, place the point of the compass on the given line, and swing a series of light arcs along the given
line.
Step 2: using an irregular curve, draw a line along the extreme high points of the arcs.

Figure 4.12 Example on how to draw parallel curved line

F. How to Draw a Perpendicular Lines to a Line at a Point Method 1

Given: Line A-B with point P on the same line.
Step 1: Using P as a center, make two arcs of equal radius or more continuous arc (R1) to intercept
line A-B on either side of point P, at points S and T.
Step 2: Swing larger but equal arcs (R2) from each of points S and T to cross each other at point U.
Step 3: A line from P to U is perpendicular to line A-B at point P.
 Figure 4.13 Example on how to draw a perpendicular line, to a point outside the line

G. How to Draw a Perpendicular to a Line at a Point Method 2

Given: Line A-B with point P on the line.
Step 1: Swing an arc of any convenient radius whose center O is at any convenient location NOT on line
A-B, but positioned to make the arc cross line A-B at points P and Q
Step 2: A line from point Q through center O intercepts the opposite side of the arc at point R
Step 3: Line R-P is perpendicular to line A-B (A right angle has been inscribed in a semi circle)

Figure 4.14 Example on how to draw a perpendicular line, to a point on the line

H. How to Draw a Perpendicular to a line from a Point Not on the Line

Given: Line A-B and point P
Step 1: Using P as a center, swing an arc (R1) to intercept line A-B at points G and H.
Step 2: Swing larger, but equal length arcs (R2) from each of the points G and H to intercept each other
at point J.
Step 3: Line P-J is perpendicular to line A-B

Figure 4.15 Example on how to draw a perpendicular line, to a point outside the line
I. How to Draw a Triangle with Known Lengths of Sides
Given: lengths 1, 2, and 3.
Step 1: Draw the longest length line, in this example length 3, with ends A and B. Swing an arc (R1) from
point A whos e radius is either length 1 or length 2; in this example length 1.
Step 2; using the radius length not used in step 1, swing an arc (R2) from point B to intercept the arc
swung from point A at point
Step 3: Connect A to C and B to C to complete the triangle

Figure 4.16 Example on how to draw triangles with given sides

J. How to Draw a Square

Method-1
Given: The locations of the center and the required distance across the sides of a square.
Step 1: Lightly draw a circle with a diameter equal to the distance around the sides of the square. Set the
compass at half the required diameter.
Step 2: Using triangles, lightly complete the square by constructing tangent lines to the circle. Allow the
light construction lines to project from the square, without erasing them.
Step 3: Check to see that there are four equal sides and, if so, darken in the actual square using the
correct line thickness.

Figure 4.17 Example on how to draw square with given side

Method-2
Given one side AB. Through point A, draw a perpendicular. With A as a center, and AB as radius;
draw the arc to intersect the perpendicular at C. With B and C as centers, and AB as radius, strike arcs
to intersect at D. Draw line CD and BD.

Figure 4.18 Example on how to draw square with given side

K. How to Draw A Pentagon (5 Sides)
Given: The locations of the pentagon center and the diameter that will circumscribe the pentagon.
Step 1: Bisect radius OD at C.
Step 2: With C as center, and CA as radius, strike arc AE. With A as center, and AE as radius, strike arc
EB.
Step 3: Draw line AB, then set off distances AB around the circumference of the circle, and draw the
sides through these points.

Figure 4.19 Example on how to draw pentagon with a given side

L. How to Draw A Hexagon (6 Sides)

Figure 4.20 Example on how to draw hexagon with a given side

M. To Draw Any Sided Regular Polygon

To construct a regular polygon with a specific number of sides, divide the given diameter using
the parallel line method as shown in fig below. In this example, let us assume seven-sided regular
polygon. Construct an equilateral triangle (0-7-8) with the diameter (0-7) as one of its sides. Draw a line
from the apex (point 8) through the second point on the line (point 2). Extend line 8-2 until it intersects
the circle at point 9. Radius 0-9 will be the size of each side of the figure. Using radius 0-9 step off the
corners of the seven sides polygon and connect the points.

Figure 4.21 Example on how to draw any sided regular polygon

N. To Draw A Circle Tangent to a Line at a Given Point

Given: Given line AB and a point on the line.
Step 1: At P erect a perpendicular to the line.
Step 2: Set off the radius of the required circle on the perpendicular.
Step 3: Draw circle with radius CP.
 Figure 4.22 Example on how to draw a tangent to a line

O. To Draw a Tangent to A Circle through a Point

Method-1
Given : Point P on the circle.
Move the T-square and triangle as a unit until one side of the triangle passes through the point P and the
center of the circle; then slide the triangle until the other side passes through point P, and draw the
required tangent.
Method-2
Given: Point P outside the circle Move the T-square and triangles as a unit until one side of the triangle
passes through point P and, by inspection, is the tangent to the circle; and then slide the triangle until the
other side passes through the center of the circle, and lightly mark the point of tangency T. finally move
the triangle back to its starting position and draw the required tangent.

Figure 4.23 Example on how to draw a tangent to a circle

P. To Draw Tangents to Two Circles

Move the T-square and triangles as a unit until one side of the triangle is tangent, by inspection,
to the two circles; then slide the triangle until the other side passes through the center of one circle, and
lightly mark the point of tangency. Then slide the triangle until the side passes through the center of the
other circle, and mark the point of tangency. Finally slide the triangle back to the tangent position, and
draw the tangent lines between the two points of tangency. Draw the second tangent line in similar
manner.

Figure 4.24 Example on how to draw a tangent to two circles

Q. HOW TO CONSTRUCT AN ARC TANGENT TO AN ANGLE
Given: A right angle, lines A and B and a required radius.
Step 1: Set the compass at the required radius and, out of the way, swing a radius from line A and one
from line B.
Step 2: From the extreme high points of each radius, construct a light line parallel to line A and another
line parallel to line B.
Step 3: Where these lines intersect is the exact location of the required swing point. Set the compass
point on the swing point and lightly construct the required radius.
Allow the radius swing to extend past the required area. It is important to locate all tangent points (T.P)
before darkening in.
Step 4: Check all work and darken in the radius using the correct line thickness. Darken in connecting
straight lines as required. Always construct compass work first, followed by straight lines. Leave all light
construction lines.

Figure 4.25 Example on how to draw an arc tangent to an angle

R. How to Construct an Arc Tangent to Two Radii or Diameters

Given: Diameter A and arc B with center points located, and the required radius.
Step 1: Set the compass at the required radius and, out of the way, swing a radius of the required length
from a point on the circumference of given diameter A. Out of the way, swing a required radius from a
point on the circumference of a given arc B.
Step 2: From the extreme high points of each radius, construct a light radius outside of the given radii A
and B.
Step 3: Where these arcs intersect is the exact location of the required swing point. Set the compass
point on the swing point and lightly construct the required radius. Allow the radius swing to extend past
the required area.
Step 4: Check all work; darken in the radii using the correct line thickness. Darken in the arcs or radii in
consecutive order from left to right or from right to left, thus constructing a smooth connecting line having
no apparent change in direction.

Figure 4.26 Example on how to draw an arc tangent to two radii or diameter
S. To Draw an Ellipse (By Four-Centered Method)
Join 1 and 3, layoff 3-5 equal to 01-03. This is done graphically as indicated in the fig. Below by
swinging 1 around to 5 with O as center where now 03 from 05 is 3-5; the required distance. With 3 as
center, an arc from 5 to the diagonal 1-3 locates 6. Bisect 1-6 by a perpendicular crossing 0-1 at 9 and
intersecting 0-4 produced (if necessary) at 10.
Make 0-9’ equal to 0-9, and 0-10’ equal to 0-10. Then 9, 9’, 10, and 10’ will be centers for four
tangent circle arcs forming a curve approximating the shape of an ellipse.

Figure 4.27 Example on ellipse construction using four centered method

T. How to Draw an Ogee Curve

An ogee curve is used to join two parallel lines. It forms a gentle curve that reverses itself in a
neat symmetrical geometric form.
Given: Parallel lines A-B and C-D
Step 1: Draw a straight line connecting the space between the parallel lines, in this example, from point
B to point C.
Step 2: Make a perpendicular bisector to line B-C to establish point X.
Step 3: Draw a perpendicular from line A-B at point B to intersect the perpendicular bisector of B-X, which
locates the first required swing center. Draw a perpendicular from line C-D at point C to intersect the
perpendicular bisector of CX, which locates the second required swing center.
Step 4: Place the compass point and adjust the compass lead to point B, and swing an arc from B to X.
Place the compass point on the second swing point and swing an arc from X to C. This completes the
ogee curve.

Figure 4.28 Example on ogee curve construction

TEST
After reading, discussing and understanding Chapter 4, you are now ready to take the test
below to find out how much you have learned. Read carefully the direction before taking the test. Be
honest. Do not go back to the chapter while taking the test. Place your answer on a separate sheet.
After completion of this test, check your answers by going back to the chapter. If everything is
clear and well understood, then you may proceed to the next chapter.

QUESTIONS

Direction. Identification. Write the names of the different plane figures in Test A and identify the
different parts of the circle pointed by arrows in Test B.

Test A

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9. 10.

Test B 1.
3.
2.

4.

5. 6.
7.

8.
9.
10.

Review works.

1. The side of a certain triangle is 2 cm. Construct an equilateral triangle based on the given side by
using compass and ruler.
2. Show the procedure how to divide a line in to number of equal parts
3. Draw a line parallel to straight line AB at 2cm distance.
PLATE NUMBER 7. GEOMETRIC FIGURES
1. Draw the border line and title box being done in plate number 1.
2. Layout and center by drawing (refer to instructor for the methods and techniques)
(1) a circle inscribe in a given right triangle with base and altitude of 5 cm triangle,
(2) a circle circumscribe in given equilateral triangle with side of 5 cm,
(3) a square with a given base of cm using arcs and circles,
(4) a pentagon circumscribe in a circle with given diameter of 6 cm,
(5) a hexagon circumscribe in a circle with given diameter of 6 cm, and
(6) a heptagon with given base of 3 cm. using arcs and circles.
3. Draw with accuracy, proper technique, neatness and speed.
4. Ink the drawn polygons the border lines and title box.
5. Instructor will discuss for additional techniques.
6. Plate number 7 sample drawing is shown below.
 CHAPTER FIVE
PROJECTION
Objective:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
1. Explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections
2. Describe “Glass Box Method” of orthographic projection
3. Mention the principal views and combination of views
4. Convert pictorial drawings in to orthographic or multi-view projection
5. Describe representation of circular surfaces, hidden surfaces in orthographic Projection
6. List the precedence of lines in multi view projection
7. Explain the necessity of pictorial projection
8. Discuss the procedure to construct box for isometric and oblique drawings
9. Convert orthographic projection in to isometric projection
5.1 Introduction
All forms of engineering and technical work require that a two-dimensional surface (paper) be
used to communicate ideas and the physical description of a variety of shapes. Here projections have
been divided in to two basic categories; pictorial and multi-view . This simple division separates single
view projections (oblique, perspective and isometric) from multi-view projections (orthographic). One of
the best ways to communicate one's ideas is through some form of picture or drawing. This is especially
true for the engineer.
The purpose of this chapter is to give you the basics of engineering sketching and drawing.
We will treat "sketching" and "drawing" as one. "Sketching" generally, means freehand drawing.
"Drawing" usually, means using drawing instruments, from compasses to computers to bring precision
to the drawings.
Before we get started on any technical drawings, let's get a good look at this strange block (figure
5.1) from several angles.

Figure 5.1 Machine block

5.1.1 Isometric Drawing
The representation of the object in figure 5.2 is called an isometric drawing. This is one of a family
of three-dimensional views called pictorial drawings. In an isometric drawing, the object's vertical lines
are drawn vertically, and the horizontal lines in the width and depth planes are shown at 30 degrees to
the horizontal. When drawn under these guidelines, the lines parallel to these three axes are at their true
(scale) lengths. Lines that are not parallel to these axes will not be of their true length.

Figure 5.2 Isometric drawing

Any engineering drawing should show everything: a complete understanding of the object should
be possible from the drawing. If the isometric drawing can show all details and all dimensions on one
drawing, it is ideal.
Look, for instance, at the instructions for a home woodworker in figure 5.2. Everything the
designer needs to convey to the craftsperson is in this one isometric drawing.
 However, if the object in figure 5.2 had a hole on the back side, it would not be visible using a
single isometric drawing. In order to get a more complete view of the object, an orthographic projection
may be used.

5.1.2 Orthographic or Multi view Projection

Imagine that you have an object suspended by transparent threads inside a glass box, as in
figure 5.3.

Figure 5.3 Orthographic projection

Then draw the object on each of three faces as seen from that direction. Unfold the box (figure
5.4) and you have the three views. We call this an "orthographic" or "multi-view" drawing.

Figure 5.4 the creation of an orthographic multi view drawing

Figure 5.5 shows how the three views appear on a piece of paper after unfolding the box.

Which views should one choose for a multi-view drawing, the views that reveal every detail about
the object? Three views are not always necessary; we need only as many views as are required to
describe the object fully. For example, some objects need only two views, while others need four. The
circular object in figure 5.6 requires only two views.

Figure 5.6 an object needing only two orthogonal views

5.2 Theory of Multi-view Projections
Multi-view or orthographic projection is the primary means of graphic communication used in
engineering work. Drawings are used to convey ideas, dimensions, shapes, and procedures for the
manufacture of the object or construction of a system. Orthographic projection is the basis of all
descriptive geometry procedures. Multi-view projection is a procedure that can be used to completely
describe an object’s shape and dimensions using two or more views that are normally projected at 90
degree to each other, or at specified angles. The finished drawing is then reproduced and sent to the
shop or to the job site.
Shape is described by projection that is by the process of causing an image to be formed by rays
of sight taken in a particular direction from an object to a picture plane.
Orthographic. If the rays are at an angle to the plane, the projective method is called oblique.
Rays taken to a particular station point, result in perspective projection. By the methods of pictorial or
perspective, the object is represented as it would appear to the eye.
Theory of projection is the basis of background information necessary to shape representation in
graphics. Two fundamental methods of shape representation are used.
1. Orthographic view consists of a set of two or more separate views of an object taken from
different directions, generally at right angles to each other and arranged relative to each other in a definite
way. Each of the views shows the shape of the object for a particular view direction and collectively the
views describe the object completely.
2. Pictorial view, in which the object is oriented behind and projected up on a single plane. Either
oblique on perspective projection is used.

5.2.1 Orthographic Projection

A. Definition
Basically, Orthographic projection could be defined as any single projection made by dropping
perpendiculars to a plane.
In short, orthographic projection is the method of representing the exact shape of an object by
dropping perpendiculars from two or more sides of the object to planes, generally at right angles to each
other; collectively, the views on these planes describe the object completely.
The most common means of understanding these types of orthographic projection is The Glass
Box method.
The Glass Box method, used primarily for descriptive geometry problems, requires that the user
imagine that the object, points, lines, planes etc are enclosed in a transparent “box”. Each view of the
object is established on its corresponding glass box surface by means of perpendicular projectors
originating at each point of the object and extending to the related box surface.
The lines of sight representing the direction from which the object is viewed. In figure 5.7, the
vertical lines of sight (A) and horizontal lines of sight (B) are assumed to originate at infinity. The line of
sight is always perpendicular to the image plane, represented by the surfaces of the glass box (top, front,
and right side). Projection lines(c) connect the same point on the image plane from view to view, always
at right angle.

Figure 5.7 Glass box methods

 A point is projected up on the image plane where its projector, or line of sight, pierces that image
plane. In the figure 5.8, point 1, which represents a corner of the given object, has been projected on to
the three primary image planes. Where it is intersects the horizontal plane (top image plane), it is
identified as 1 when it intersects the frontal plane (front image plane), it is identified as 1, and where it
intersects the profile plane (right side image plane), it is labeled 1.

Figure 5.8 Orthographic projection

B. Orthographic views
It is the picture or view or thought of as being found by extending perpendiculars to the plane
from all points of the object. This picture, or projection on a frontal plane, shows the shape of the object
when viewed from the front but it does not tell the shape or distance from front to real. Accordingly, more
than one protection is required to describe the object.
If transparent plane is placed horizontally above the object, the projection on this plane
found by extending perpendiculars to it from the object, will give the appearance of the object as if viewed
from directly above and will show the distance from frontal plane. Then the horizontal plane is now rotated
into coincidence with the frontal plane. Now again a third plane, perpendicular to the first two called profile
plane are used to view an object from the side.
C. The Six Principal Views
Let us surround the object entirely by a set of six planes, each at right angles to each other. On
these planes, views of the object can be obtained as is seen from the top, front, and right side, left side,
bottom and rear.
Think now of the six sides or the plane of the paper, the front is already in the plane of the paper,
and the other sides are, as it were, hinged and rotated in position as shown. The projection on the frontal
plane is the front view vertical projection, or front elevation, that on the horizontal plane, the
top view, horizontal projection, or plan, that on the side, profile view, side view, profile
projection, or side elevation. By reversing the direction of sight, a bottom view is obtained instead of a
top view, or a rear view instead of a front view.

Figure 5.9 Principal Picture Planes

In actual work, there is rarely an occasion when all six principal views are needed on one drawing.
All these views are principal views. Each of the six views shows two of the three dimensions of height,
width and depth.
 In general, when the glass box is opened, its six sides are revolved outward so that they lie in
the plane of the paper. And each image plane is perpendicular to its adjacent image plane and parallel
to the image plane across from it. A fold line is the line of intersection between any hinged (adjacent)
image planes.
The left side, front, right side, and back are all elevation views. Each is vertical. The top and
bottom planes are in the horizontal plane. But in most cases the top, front, and right sides are required.

Figure 5.10. The Six Views of an Object

Figure 5.11. The Six Views of a House

D. COMBINATION OF VIEWS
The most usual combination selected from the six possible views consists of the top, front, and
right side views sometimes the left- side view helps to describe an object more clearly then the right side
view.
N.B: The side view of the front face of the object is adjacent to the front view and the side view
of a point will be at the same distance from the front surface as its distance from the front surface on the
top view.
The six principal views of an object or the glass box have previously been presented in the type
of orthographic projection known as Third Angle Orthographic Projection. This form of projection is used
throughout this module and is primary form of projection found in all American Industry with the exception
of some special cases in the architectural and structural fields.

Figure 5.12 Third angle projections

 The type of projection used in most foreign countries and on many American Structural and
architectural drawings, is called First Angle Orthographic Projections.
In this form of projection, the object is assumed to be in front of the image plane. Each view is
formed by projecting through the object and on to the image plane.

Figure 5.13 First angle projections

5.2.2 Classification of surfaces and Lines in Orthographic Projections

Any object, depending upon its shape and space position may or may not have some surfaces
parallel or perpendicular to the planes of projection.
Surfaces are classified according to their space relationship with the planes of projection i.e.,
horizontal, frontal and profile surfaces. When a surface is inclined to two of the planes of projection (but
perpendicular to the third, the surface is said to be auxiliary or inclined. It the surface is at angle to all
three planes, the term oblique or skew is used. Although uniform in appearance, the lines on a drawing
may indicate three different types of directional change on the object. An edge view is a line showing the
edge of a projection. An intersection is a line formed by the meeting of two surfaces where either one
surface is parallel and one at an angle or both are at an angle to the plane of projection. A surface limit
is a line that indicates the reversal of direction of a curved surface.

A. Horizontal, Frontal and Profile Surfaces

The edges (represented by lines) bounding a surface may be in a simple position or inclined to
the planes of projection depending up on the shape or position, the surface takes is the name from the
plane of projection. Thus, a horizontal line is a line in a horizontal plane; a frontal line is a line in a frontal
plane; and a profile line is a line in a profile plane. When a line is parallel to two planes, the line takes the
name of both planes as horizontal frontal, horizontal- profile, or frontal –profile.

Figure 5.14 Examples of objects having parallel surfaces to the principal planes

B. Inclined Surfaces
An edge appears in true length when it is parallel to the plane of projection, as a point when it is
perpendicular to the plane and shorter than true length when it is inclined to the plane.
Similarly, a surface appears in trey shape when it is parallel to the planes of projection, as alien
when it is perpendicular to the plane, and fore shortened when it inclined to the plane. An object with its
face parallel to the plans of projection as figure 5.12; a top, front, and right side surfaces are shown in
true shape and the object edges appear either in true length or as points. The inclined surface of the
object as figure 5.13 does not show true shape in any of the views but appears as an edge in front view.
The front and rear edges of the inclined surface are in true length in the front view and fore shortened in
the top and side views. The top and bottom edges of the inclined surface appear in true length in top and
side views and as points in the front view.

Figure 5.15 Examples of objects having inclined surfaces

C. Oblique Surfaces

A line that is not parallel to any plane of projection is called an oblique skew line and it does
not show in true shape in any of the views, but each of the bounding edges shows interval length in
one view and is fore shortened in the other two views,

Figure 5.16 Examples of objects having oblique surfaces

D. Hidden Surfaces

To describe an object with complex internal features completely, a drawing should contain lines
representing all the edges, intersections, and surface limits of the objects In any view there will be some
parts of the object that cannot be seen from the position of the observer, as they will be covered by station
of the object closer to the observer’s eye. The edges, intersections, and surface limits of these hidden
parts are indicated by a discontinuous line called a dashed line. In figure 5.15, the drilled hole that is
visible in the top-side view is hidden in the front and right side views, and therefore it is indicated in these
views by a dashed line showing the hole and the shape as left by the drill.
 Figure 5.17 Examples of objects having hidden surfaces

Particular attention should be paid to the execution of these dashed lines. It carelessly drawn,
they ruin the appearance of a drawing. Dashed lines are drawn lighten full lines, of short dashes uniform
in length with the space between there very short, about ¼ of the length of the dash.
This view shows the shape of the object when viewed from the side and the distance from bottom
to top and front to rear.
The horizontal and profile planes are rotated in to the same plane as the frontal plane. Thus,
related in the same plane, they give correctly the three dimensional shape of the object.

E. Curved Surfaces
To represent curved surfaces in orthographic projections, center lines are commonly utilized. All
the center lines, which are the axes of symmetry, for all symmetrical views are a part of views.
1. Every part with an axis, such as a cylinder will have the axis drawn as center line before the
part is drawn.
2. Every circle will have its center at the intersection of two mutually perpendicular center lines.
The standard symbol for center lines on finished drawings is a fine line made up of alternate long
and short dashes.

Figure 5.18 Examples of objects having curved surfaces

5.2.3 Precedence of lines

In any view there is likely to be a coincidence of lines. Hidden portions of the object may project
to coincide with visible portions Center lines may occur where there is a visible or hidden out line of some
part of the object.
Since the physical features of the object must be represented full and dashed lines take
precedence over all other lines since visible out line is more prominent by space position, full lines take
precedence over dashed lines. A full line could cover a dashed line, but a dashed line could not cover a
full line. It is evident that a dashed line could not occur as one of the boundary lines of a view.
When a centerline and cutting- plane line coincide, the one that is more important to the
readability of the drawing takes precedent over the other.
Break lines should be placed so as not to coincide with other lines of the drawing.
 The following line gives the order of precedence of lines.
1. Full line
2. Dashed line
3. Careful line or cutting – plane line
4. Break lines
5. Dimension and extension lines.
6. Crosshatch lines.
5.3 Pictorial Projections
In multi view drawing, it is possible to represent accurately the most complex forms by showing
a series of exterior views and sections. This type of representation has two limitations: its execution
requires a thorough understanding of the principles of multi view projection, and its reading requires a
definite exercise of the constructive imagination.
Frequently it is necessary to prepare drawings that are accurate and scientifically correct, and
that can be easily understood by persons without technical training. Such drawings show several faces
of an object at once, approximately as they appear to the observer. This type of drawing is called pictorial
drawing. Since pictorial drawing shows only the appearances of objects, it is not satisfactory for
completely describing complex or detailed forms.
As previously discussed, the four principal types of projection are:
Multi view projection
Axonometric projection
Oblique projection
Perspective projection
All except the regular multi view projection are pictorial types since they show several sides of
the object in a single view.

Figure 5.19 types of projection

In both multi- view projection and axonometric projection, the observer is considered to be at
infinity, and the visual rays are perpendicular to the plane of projection. Therefore, both are classified as
Orthographic Projections.
In Oblique projection, the observer is considered to be at infinity, and the visual rays are parallel
to each other but oblique to the plane of projection.
In Perspective, the observer is considered to be at a finite distance from the object, and the visual
rays extend from the observer’s eye, or the station point (SP), to all points of the object to form a so-
called “cone of rays.”
The distinguishing feature of axonometric projection, as compared to multi-view projection, is the
inclined position of the object with respect to the plane of projection. Since the principal edges and
surfaces of the object are inclined to the plane of projection, the lengths of the lines, the sizes of the
angle, and the general proportions of the object vary with the infinite number of possible positions in
which the object may be placed with respect to the plane of projection. Three of these are shown below.
In these cases the edges of the cube are inclined to the plane of projection, and therefore
foreshortened. The degree of foreshortening of any line depends on its angle with the plane of projection;
the greater the angle the greater the foreshortening. If the degree of the foreshortening is determined for
each of the three edges of the cube which meet at one corner, scales can be easily constructed for
measuring along these edges or any other edges parallel to them. It is customary to consider the three
edges of the cube which meet at the corner nearest to the observer as the axonometric axes.
Axonometric projections are classified as
a) Isometric projection
b) Dimetric Projection
c) Trimetric Projection, depending up on the number of scales of reduction required.

Figure 5.20 Axonometric projections

Since the most widely used method of axonometric projection is Isometric, we will only see
isometric projection in detail.
5.3.1 Isometric Projection
To produce an isometric projection (Isometric means “equal measure”), it is necessary to place
the object so that its principal edges or axes, make equal angles with the plane of projection, and are
therefore foreshortened equally. In this position the edges of a cube would be projected equally and
would make equal angles with each other (120 deg).

Figure 5.21 Isometric Projection

In the figure above, the projections of the axes OX, OY and OZ make angles of 120 with each
other, and are called the isometric axes. Any line parallel to one of these is called an Isometric line; a
line which is not parallel is called a non-isometric line. It should be noted that the angles in the isometric
projection of the cube are either 120 or 60 and that all projections of 90 angles. In an isometric projection
of a cube, the faces of the cube or any planes parallel to them are called Isometric planes.
5.3.2 Isometric Drawing
When a drawing is prepared with an isometric scale or otherwise as the object is actually
projected on a plane of projection, it is an isometric projection. But when it is prepared with an ordinary
scale, it is an isometric drawing. The isometric drawing is 22.5% larger than the isometric projection, but
the pictorial value is obviously the same in both.
Since the isometric projection is foreshortened and an isometric drawing is full size, it is
customary to make an isometric drawing rather than an isometric projection, because it is so much easier
to execute and, for all practical purposes, is just as satisfactory as the isometric projection. The steps in
constructing an isometric drawing of an object composed only of normal surfaces, as illustrated in figure
5.20. Notice that all measurements are made parallel to the main edges of enclosing box, that is, parallel
to isometric axes. No measurement along a diagonal (non-isometric line) on any surface or through the
object can be set off directly with the scale. The object may be drawn in the same position by beginning
at the corner Y or any other corner, instead of at the corner X.
The method of constructing an isometric drawing of an object composed partly of inclined surface
(and oblique edges) is .Notice that inclined shown in figure 5.20 surfaces are located by offset
measurements along isometric lines.

Figure 5.22 Isometric drawing of normal surfaces

For example, dimensions E and F are setoff to locate the inclined surface M, and dimensions A and B
are used to locate surface N.

Box Construction
Objects of rectangular shape may be more easily drawn by means of box construction , which
consists simply in imagining the object to be enclosed in a rectangular box whose sides coincide with the
main faces of the object. For example, in fig below, the object shown in two views is imagined to be
enclosed in a construction box.
This box is then drawn lightly with construction lines, I, the irregular features are then constructed,
II, and finally, III, the required lines are made heavy.

Figure 5.23 isometric box constructions

Alphabet of Lines

Visible Line
 Visible line is sometimes called object line, outline or contour. It is used to indicate or represent
all visible edges of the object in the form or pictorial or orthographic views. The thickness of the line is
about 1/40 to 1/50 of an inch. It is a heavy line.

Hidden Line
Hidden line is sometimes called invisible line or dotted line, which is composed of short dashes
whose length of each dash is approximately 1/8 of an inch and the space between dashes is about 1/32
of an inch. The hidden line is about one-half the thickness of the visible line.

Dimension Line
Dimension line is a solid but fine, dark line, which is terminated by arrowheads at their extremities
indicating the direction and the size of a part in working drawings. Its three parts are the fine line,
arrowheads and figure or dimension.

Center Line
Center line is a thin line that is used to indicate the axis of symmetrical objects such as circles,
center of arcs, bolts, pulleys, etc. It is considered the finest line in the drawing.

Extension Line
Extension line is also called projection or witness line. This is a fine, dark, solid line that can be
prolonged from a point on the drawing to which a dimension refers. The gap where the extension line
would join the object is 1/16 of an inch and should not extend 1/8 inch beyond the outermost arrowheads.
The length of extension line ranges from ¼” to 1 ½” .

Cutting Plane line

This line is a thick line, which consists of alternate long and short dashes. It is used to represent
or to show the path of the cutting plane in the object when making a sectional view. It is clearly identified
with reference letters, which are placed near the arrows. The arrows indicate the direction in which the
view is taken.

Short Break line

Short break line is a visible broken line drawn freehand. It is used to show the edge of the object
from which a part has been removed.

Long break line

Long break line are oftentimes called the limiting line. It is a thin line which contains a broken line.
It is used to show the part of the object being cut. It is usually used in half sectional views.

Section line
This is a thin line used to indicate the portion of the object cut. The line also shows the kind of
material in which the object is made of. Most of these lines are drawn at 45 degree.

Leader line
It is a broken line leading from a dimension value or from an explanatory note to which the notes
apply. One part of the leader line has an inclination of 45 degree and contains an arrowhead, while the
other part is a horizontal line after which a note or dimension is added.
TEST
After reading, discussing and understanding Chapter 5, you are now ready to take the test
below to find out how much you have learned. Read carefully the direction before taking the test. Be
honest. Do not go back to the chapter while taking the test. Place your answer on a separate sheet.
After completion of this test, check your answers by going back to the chapter. If everything is
clear and well understood, then you may proceed to the next chapter.

QUESTIONS:

Direction. Select the best answer that make the statement correct by writing the letters only. Write
your answers in a separate sheet.

1. Shape description means describing the (a) height (b) width (c) size (d) shape of the object.
2. Orthographic projection is also known as (a) multi view (b) pictorial (c) oblique (d) isometric.
3. The top view is found on the (a) frontal plane (b) top plane (c) side plane (d) bottom plane.
4. In orthographic projection, the front view is in line horizontally with the (a) top view (b) side view
(c) rear view (d) bottom view.
5. The projection box is usually made of (a) metal (b) chicken wire (c) mirror (d) transparent
glass.
6. Objects which do not require two or more views are (a) gaskets (b) valves (c) cylinders
(d) box.
7. A good example of an object which does not need three or more views is (a) gasket (b) house
(c) cylinder (d) rectangular box
8. Sometimes, visible lines are called (a) section lines (b) object lines (c) short break lines
(d) hidden line.
9. Usually, the first step in drawing orthographic projection is to draw the (a) side view (b) top view
(c) edges of projection box (d) front view.
10. The side view is found on the (a) frontal plane (b) horizontal plane (c) vertical plane (d) profile
plane.

Review work

1. Explain the purpose and theory of multi view projections

2. Construct a box for isometric and oblique drawings based on the technical drawing procedure.
 EXERCISES

Missing-Line Sketching Problems. Given the above orthographic views, sketch the missing lines to
complete the views.
Missing View Problems. Sketch or draw with instruments on a separate sheet or drawing paper the given
views and add the missing view. Use metric or decimal inch dimension as assigned by the instructor.
LABORATORY WORK

PLATE NUMBER 8. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION

1. Draw the border line and title box being done in plate number 1.
2. Draw the front, top and right side view of the isometric below, including its isometric view.
Dimensions are in centimeters.
3. Draw with accuracy, proper technique, neatness and speed.
4. Ink the drawn polygons the border lines and title box.
5. Instructor will discuss for additional techniques.
6. Do not place the dimensions.

1.00 1.00

1.00
1.50
1.00

3.00
1.50
2.00

1.00

4.00
0.50

1.00

0.50
PLATE NUMBER 9. ORTHOGRAPHIC PROJECTION
1. Draw the border line and title box being done in plate number 1.
2. Draw the front, top and right side view of the isometric below, including its isometric view.
Dimensions are in centimeters.
3. Draw with accuracy, proper technique, neatness and speed.
4. Ink the drawn polygons the border lines and title box.
5. Instructor will discuss for additional techniques.
6. Do not place the dimensions.

R1.00

R1.50

R1.00

2.75

5.00 R0.50

5.50

0.75
 CHAPTER SIX

PROJECTION OF POINTS, LINES AND PLANES

Objectives:

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

Discuss reference line, picture planes and views
Classify lines based on direction, type etc.
Explain the orthographic projection of points and lines ( principal, vertical and inclined lines etc)
Draw the true length of an oblique lines
Explain how to draw a point view of a line
Define principal planes
List out the main difference between types of principal planes
Explain the use of edge view and steps to draw an edge view of a plane
Discuss the procedures how to draw true shape/size of oblique or inclined planes

6.1 Introduction
A major problem in technical drawing and design is the creation of projections for finding the true
views of lines and planes. The following is a brief review of the principles of descriptive geometry involved
in the solution of such problems. The designers working along with an engineering team can solve problems
graphically with geometric elements.
Structures that occupy space have three-dimensional forms made up of a combination of
geometric elements.
The geometric solutions of three-dimensional forms require an understanding of the space relations
that points, lines, and planes share in forming any given shape. Problems which many times require
mathematical solutions can often be solved graphically with accuracy that will allow manufacturing and
construction. Thus, basic descriptive geometry is one of the designer’s methods of thinking through and
solving problems.
All geometric shapes are composed of points and their connectors, lines. In descriptive geometry,
points are the most important geometric element and the primary building block for any graphical projection
of a form. All projections of lines, planes, or solids can be physically located and manipulated by identifying
a series of points that represent the object.
A point can be considered physically real and can be located by a small dot or a small cross. It is
normally identified by two or more projections. In fig below, points A and B are located on all three-reference
planes. Notice that the unfolding of the three planes forms a two-dimensional surface with the fold lines
remaining. The fold lines are labeled as shown to indicate that F represents the Front view, T represents the
Top views, and S represents the Profile or Right side view.

6.2 Reference Planes

Unfolding of the reference planes forms a two-dimensional surface, which a drafter uses to construct
and solve problems. The planes are labeled so that T represents the top or horizontal reference plane, F
represents the front or vertical reference plane, S or P represents the side (end) or profile reference plane.
Thus a point 1 on the part, line or plane would be identified as 1F on the top reference plane, and 1T on the
top reference plane, and 1S on the profile reference plane. The folding lines shown on the box are required to
as reference lines on the drawing. Other reference planes (auxiliary planes) and reference lines (auxiliary lines)
are drawn and labeled as required.

6.3 Projection of Point

Since a point is a location in space and not a dimensional form, it must be located by measurements
taken from established reference line. The two figures below show the glass box method of orthographic
projection illustrated pictorially and orthographically. These two figures represent the projection of point 1 in
the three principal planes, frontal (1F), horizontal (1H), and profile (1P). In glass box method, it is assumed
that each mutually perpendicular plane is hinged so as to be revolved in to the planes of the paper. “ The
intersection line of two successive (perpendicular) image planes is called fold line/ reference line. ” All
measurements are taken from fold lines to locate a point is space. A fold line/reference line can be visualized
as the edge view of a reference plane.
A point can be located by means of verbal description by giving dimensions from fold/ reference lines.
Point 1 is below the horizontal plane (D1), to the left of the profile plane (D2), and behind the frontal plane
(D3). D1 establishes the elevation or height of the point in front and side view, D2 the right, left location or
width in the front and top view, and D3 the distance behind the frontal plane (depth) in the top and side view.

Figure 6.1 Projection of a point

6.4 Projection of Lines in Space

Lines can be thought as a series of points in space, having magnitude (length) but not width. It will be
assumed that a line is straight unless otherwise stated. Though a line may be located by establishing its end
points and may be of a definite specified length, all lines can be extended in order to solve a problem. Therefore
a purely theoretical definition of a line could be: “ Lines are straight elements that have no width, but are
infinite in length (magnitude); they can be located by two points which are not on the same spot but fall along
the line.”
When two lines lie in the same plane they will either be parallel or intersect. Lines can be used to
establish surfaces, or solid shapes. In a majority of illustrations the view of a line and its locating points are
labeled with a subscript corresponding to the plane of projection, as fig below where the end points of line 1-
2 are denoted 1H and 2H in the horizontal views, 1F and 2F in the frontal view, and 1P and 2P in the profile
plane.

Figure 6.2 Projection of a line

6.4.1 Classification of Lines in Orthographic Projections

In orthographic projections lines can be classified based on their parallelism with the picture planes,
type and direction.
A. Classification based on Parallelism
A line that is parallel to a principal plane is called a principal line, and is true length in the principal
plane to which it is parallel. Since there are three principal planes of projection, there are three principal lines:
horizontal, frontal and profile.
A horizontal line : is a principal line which is parallel to the horizontal plane and appears true length in the
horizontal view.
A frontal line : is a principal line which is parallel to the frontal plane and appears true length in the frontal
view.
A profile line : is a principal line which is parallel to the profile plane and appears true length in the profile
view.

(a) Horizontal line (b) Frontal line (c) Profile line

Figure 6.3 Types of principal lines

Besides the above definitions, the following terms are used to describe lines according to the direction
and type.

B. Classification Based on Direction

Vertical line : A vertical line is perpendicular to the horizontal plane, and appears true length in the frontal
and profile views and as a point view in the horizontal views.
Level line : any line that is parallel to the horizontal plane is a level line. Level lines are horizontal lines.
Inclined lines : Inclined lines will be parallel to the frontal or profile planes and at angle to the horizontal
plane and appears true length in the views where it is parallel to a principal plane.

C. Classification based on Type

Oblique: oblique lines are inclined to all three principal planes and therefore will not appear true length in
a principal view.
Foreshortened : lines that are not true length in a specific view appear shortened than their true length
measurement.
Point view : a point view is a view of a line in which the line is perpendicular to the viewing plane.
True length : a view in which a line can be measured true distance between its end points shows the line as
true length and appears true length in any view where it is parallel to the plane of projection

6.4.2 Orthographic Projection of a Line

Lines are classified according to their orientation to the three principal planes of projection or how
they appear in a projection plane. They can also be described by their relationship to other lines in the same
view. All lines are located from the fold lines/reference lines, which represent the intersection of two
perpendicular planes of projection. In fig. 6.4, line 1-2 is pictorially represented. Line 1-2 (dashed) is projected
on to each principal projection plane and located by dimensions taken from fold lines.
In figure 6.4, each end points of line 1-2 is located from two fold lines in each view, using dimensions
or projection lines that originate in a previous view. Dimensions D1 and D2 establish the elevation of the end
points in the profile and frontal view, since these points are horizontally in line in these two views. D3 and D4
locate the end points in relation to the F/P fold line (to the left of the profile plane), in both the frontal and
horizontal views, since these points are aligned vertically.
 Figure 6.4 Orthographic projection of a line

D5 and D6 locate each point in relation to the H/F and the F/P fold line, since these dimensions are
the distance behind the frontal plane and will show in both the horizontal and profile views.

A. Level and Vertical Lines

A line that is parallel to the horizontal projection plane is a “level” line and appears true length in the
horizontal view. A level line is a horizontal line (principal line) since it is parallel to the horizontal projection
plane. In figure below the three variations of level (horizontal) lines are illustrated. In example (1), line 1-2 is
parallel to the horizontal plane and inclined to the frontal and profile planes. It appears true length in the
horizontal view and foreshortened in the other two views.
Example (2) shows level line line1-2 parallel to both the frontal and horizontal projection planes and
is a point view in the profile view. Line 1-2 is true length in two principal views and is therefore both a
horizontal line and a frontal line where as in example (3), line1-2 is parallel to both the profile and horizontal
projection planes and appears as a point view in the frontal view, and true length in both other principal views.
Hence, line 1-2 is a profile line, and a horizontal line.
Vertical lines are perpendicular to the horizontal plane (view) and appear true length in both the frontal
and profile views and as a point in the horizontal view. Thus, a vertical line is parallel to the profile and frontal
projection planes.

Figure 7.5 Level and Vertical line

B. Inclined Lines
Lines that appear true length in the frontal or profile view (but not both) are inclined lines.

Figure 7.6 Inclined lines

Inclined lines will be parallel to the frontal plane, or parallel to the profile plane. Hence, inclined lines will
appear foreshortened in two principal views and true length in the other principal view. In example (1), line
1-2 is true length in the frontal view i.e. parallel to the frontal projection plane and foreshortened in the H (T)
and P (S) views. In example (2), line1-2 is true length in the profile view i.e. parallel to the profile projection
plane and foreshortened in the H and F views. Note that line1-2 in example (1) is the same distance behind the
frontal plane in both the horizontal and profile view, dimension D1.

C. Frontal Lines
A line that is parallel to the frontal projection plane is a frontal line. Frontal lines are principal lines
and always appear true length in the frontal view. A frontal line can be inclined, level, or vertical, but must be
true length. A vertical frontal line appears as a point view in the horizontal view and true length in both the
frontal and profile views, therefore a vertical line is both a frontal and profile line since it is true length in both
of these views. If a level frontal line appeared as a point in the profile plane, it would be true length in the
frontal and horizontal views and is therefore a horizontal as well as a frontal line.

Figure 7.7 Frontal lines

Line 1-2 lies behind the frontal plane the same distance in the horizontal and profile views, dimensions
D1.Note that it is not possible to tell if a line is a frontal line given the front view alone. Only in the profile
and horizontal views can it be established that a line is a frontal line

Figure 7.8 Orthographic projection of frontal lines

D. Horizontal Lines
A line that is parallel to the horizontal projection plane is a horizontal line. Horizontal lines appear
true length in the horizontal view and are therefore principal lines. A horizontal line will always be level in
the frontal and profile views. If a horizontal line is perpendicular to the frontal plane (and parallel to the profile
view) it appears as a point views in the frontal view and true length in the profile view and is a combination
horizontal and profile line. Likewise, if a horizontal line is parallel to the frontal plane it appears as a point
view in the profile view and true length in the frontal view and thus is a combination horizontal and frontal
line.
 Figure 7.9 Horizontal lines

In order to tell if a line is in or parallel to the horizontal plane, it is necessary to have either the frontal
or profile views of the line. Only the frontal and profile views show the line as a point view or parallel to the
horizontal plane.

Figure 7.10 Orthographic projection of horizontal lines

E. Profile Lines
A profile line is parallel to the profile plane and shows as true length in the profile view. The frontal
and horizontal view of a profile line always shows the line as a point view or foreshortened, in either case the
line is parallel to the profile plane. Vertical lines are both profile and frontal lines since they appear true length
in the frontal and profile views and as a point in the horizontal view. Where a profile line appears as a point
in the front view, the line is both a frontal and profile line.

Figure 7.11 Profile lines

Line 1-2 is true length in the profile view and appears foreshortened in the other two principal views.
Dimensions D1 and D2 locate the end points of the line from the F/P fold line and the H/F fold line. These
measurements represent the distance of point 1 and point 2 behind the frontal plane. The angle that the profile
line 1 -2 makes with the F/P fold line is p p the angle between the line and the frontal plane (angle
F).Angle H is the angle that line 1 -2 makes with the p p horizontal plane.
 Figure 7.12 Orthographic projection of profile lines

F. Oblique Lines
Oblique lines are inclined to all three principal planes: horizontal, frontal, and profile. An oblique
line is not vertical, parallel or perpendicular to any of the three principal planes, and therefore does not appear
true length in the frontal, horizontal, or profile views. All three principal views of an oblique line appear
foreshortened.

Figure 7.13 Oblique lines

In order to solve for true length of an oblique line, an auxiliary view with a line of sight perpendicular
to a view of the oblique line must be projected from any existing view. The fold line between these two views
will be parallel to the oblique line.
Line 1-2 is an oblique line since it is not parallel to any principal planes of projection and appears
foreshortened in every view. In order to locate an oblique in space, dimensions must be taken from fold lines
and projection lines extended from an existing view. Dimension D1 and D2 locate the end points of line 1-2
from the H/F and F/P fold line and represent the distance line1-2 behind the frontal plane.

Figure 7.14 Orthographic projection of oblique lines

So, the true length of an oblique line can be measured in a view where the line is parallel to the
projection plane of that view. And if the line of sight for a view is not perpendicular to the line, the line will be
foreshortened.
 Since oblique lines are not true length in a principal plane, it is necessary to project an auxiliary view
in which the given line appears true length. An oblique line appears foreshortened in all three principal views:
frontal, horizontal, and profile. In order to have a true length of a line, the line must be parallel to the projection
plane in the adjacent view.

G. Point View of a Line

A line will project as a point view when the line of sight is parallel to a true length view of the line; in other
words the point view is projected on a projection plane that is perpendicular to the true length. Finding the
true length and the point view of a line will be required for many situations involving the application of
descriptive geometry to engineering problems. The first requirement for a point view is that the line be
projected as a true length.

Planes
A plane can be defined as a flat surface that is not curved or warped. And a plane can be fixed in space by
locating any three points that lie in its surface and are not in a straight line. A line and a point, two intersecting
lines, or two parallel lines also define a plane.

Classification of Planes
When a plane is parallel to a principal projection plane, it is a principal plane . A principal plane can be a
horizontal plane, a frontal plane, or a profile plane depending on its relationship to a principal projection plane.
All lines in a horizontal plane, frontal plane, or profile plane are true length lines; therefore principal planes
are made up of principal lines. Principal planes can be classified as:

A. Principal Planes
A horizontal plane : it is parallel to the projection plane. It is true size or shape in the horizontal view
since all of its lines are principal lines, therefore they project true length. The frontal and profile views of a
horizontal plane always show the plane as edge view.
A frontal plane : it lies parallel to the frontal projection plane where it shows as true size. In the horizontal
and profile views the plane appears as an edge view. All lines show true length in the frontal view, since
they are principal lines (frontal lines).

A profile plane : it is true size in the profile view and appears as an edge in the frontal and horizontal
views. Every line in the plane is true length in the profile view since they are profile lines. Profile planes
are perpendicular to the frontal and horizontal projection planes.

B. Vertical Planes
Vertical planes are perpendicular to the horizontal projection plane. The horizontal view of all vertical
planes shows the plane as an edge view. The following figures show the three basic positions for a vertical
plane.

Figure 7.20 Vertical

Planes

C. OBLIQUE
AND INCLINED PLANES
The classification of planes is determined by their relationship to the three principal projection planes: frontal,
horizontal, and profile. Principal planes appear as a true size in one of the three principal projections and as
edges in the other two. Oblique planes and inclined planes do not appear true size in any of the three
principal views. Oblique and inclined planes are not vertical or horizontal (level), and will not be parallel to a
principal projection plane.
 Oblique plane : An oblique plane is
inclined to all three principal projection
planes, which results in each
view being foreshortened
(distorted). The true size of an oblique
plane cannot be seen in the three principal
projections.

Figure 7.21 Oblique planes

Inclined plane : An inclined plane does not appear true size in any of the principal projections. This form
of plane is seen as an edge in the profile view or in the frontal view and foreshortened (distorted) in the
other two views

Figure 7.22. Inclined Planes

7.4.3 True Size (Shape) Of an Oblique Plane

When the line of sight is perpendicular to the edge view of a plane, it projects as true size (shape). The true
size view is projected parallel to the edge view of the plane. Therefore the fold line between the views is drawn
parallel to the edge view. An oblique plane does not appear as true size in any of the principal projection
planes. Therefore a primary and secondary auxiliary view is needed to solve for the true shape
of an oblique plane. In figure 8.6, oblique plane 1-2-3 is given and its true shape is required.
Step 1: Draw a horizontal line 1 -4 parallel to the H/F and F F show it as true length in the horizontal view.
Step 2: Draw H/A perpendicular to line 1 -4 and complete H H auxiliary view B. Line 1 -4 is a point view
and plane A A 1 -2 -3 an edge. A A A
Step 3: Project secondary auxiliary view B parallel to the edge view of plane 1 -2 -3 . Draw A/B parallel to
the edge
A A A view.
Step 4: Complete auxiliary B; plane 1 -2 -3 is true size B B B (shape)
Note that: In a true size/shape view of a plane, all lines are true length and all angles are true angle.
 Figure 7.24 True shape of an oblique plane

Review questions

1. Describe the difference among reference line, picture planes and views.
2. Explain the orthographic projections of points and lines ( principal, vertical and inclined lines etc)
3. Discuss the procedure how to draw the true shape/ size of oblique or inclined planes.
 CHAPTER SEVEN

PICTORIAL DRAWINGS

At the end of the chapter, students should be able to:

Define Isomeric View, Oblique View and Perspective View
Discuss and differentiate Isometric, Oblique and Perspective Drawing
Explain and discuss the kinds of Oblique and Perspective Drawing
Learn how to draw the isometric, oblique and perspective drawing and its kinds.

Types of Pictorial Drawings

There are three pictorial drawings, namely:
1. Isometric View
2. Oblique View
3. Perspective View

7.1. Isometric view is derived from “iso” meaning “equal” and “metric” meaning “measure”. Isometric then
means equal measure. The size of isometric view is in equal measure either to its orthographic views or
scaled drawing.
The three axes of isometric drawing are the vertical and the 30 degree left and right cross axes.
The most widely used method of drawing an isometric view is the “boxing” method. A box is drawn
first with its edges parallel to the isometric axes. Light lines should be used which is called crate lines or
construction lines then tracing the visible edges. Visible lines are sometimes placed, as desired.
Drawing isometric or circles is just like tilting it at 30 degree or figuring out as an approximate
ellipse. The isometric of a square which circumscribes the given circle is first done, then a 60 degree
line are drawn from the two opposite corners to the midpoints of each side of the isometric square, the
intersections thus are used as centers of the arcs.

7.2. Oblique view is a pictorial view wherein one surface of the object is shown, usually is the front viewand
is parallel to the picture plane or to the plane of the drawing paper and the other axes is at 30 degree or
45 degree angle.
Oblique drawing is of two kinds: cavalier (30 degree) and cabinet (45 degree). The measure of
cavalier and cabinet drawing is of equal measure to those in the orthographic view which is parallel to
the picture plane and the dimension laid on its cross-axis is reduced to ½ (cavalier) or 2/3 (cabinet) that
of the corresponding dimensions in the orthographic view. This is to avoid making the object appear
awkward.

7.3. Perspective view is a pictorial view seen by the observer’s eye. Anything we see is in fact a perspective
view.

Principles of perspective drawing :

a. The farther the object, the smaller it appears
b. The farther the color, the lighter it appears
c. Theoretically, vertical lines or edges do not vanish in the horizon.
d. If extended or prolonged, all the horizontal receding lines or edges of an object
seem to vanish in the horizon.
e. Equidistant objects on the ground such as telegraph or light posts seem to come
closer to each other as they recede from our view.
f. All horizontal lines or edges below the eye level and receding seem to go up and
vanish in the horizon.
g. All horizontal lines or edges above the eye level and receding seem to go down
and vanish in the horizon.
 h. All horizontal lines or edges which are not receding remain horizontal in the
picture.
i. Never show hidden lines in perspective. They spoil the view.

Kinds of Perspective
a. Parallel or one-point perspective
b. Angular or two point perspective
c. Three point perspective.

Different views of Perspective

a. Man’s eye view (below or above horizon)

b. Worm’s eye view
c. Bird’s eye view

Classifications of Perspective views

a. Artist’s perspective – “not accurate”

b. Mechanical Perspective – “accurate but process is complicated”
(Semi-artist’s or semi-mechanical )
 CHAPTER EIGHT

DIMENSIONING

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
a. Discuss the purposes of dimensioning
b. Explain the differences between dimension line, extension line, leaders etc.
c. Draw the dimension of technical drawings as per the standard

8.1 Introduction
The purpose of dimensioning is to provide a clear and complete description of an object. A complete
set of dimensions will permit only one interpretation needed to construct the part. Dimensioning should follow
these guidelines.
1. Accuracy: correct values must be given.
2. Clearness: dimensions must be placed in appropriate positions.
3. Completeness: nothing must be left out, and nothing duplicated.
4. Readability: the appropriate line quality must be used for legibility.

8.2 Definitions
Dimension line is a thin line, broken in the middle to allow the placement of the dimension value,
with arrowheads at each end (figure 8.1).

Figure 8.1 Dimensioning Drawing

An arrowhead is approximately 3 mm long and 1 mm wide. That is, the length is roughly three
times the width.
An extension line extends a line on the object to the dimension line. The first dimension line should
be approximately 12 mm (0.6 in) from the object. Extension lines begin 1.5 mm from the object and extend 3
mm from the last dimension line.
A leader is a thin line used to connect a dimension with a particular area (figure 8.2).
 Figure 8.2 Example drawing with a leader

A leader may also be used to indicate a note or comment

about a specific area. When there is limited space, a heavy
black dot may be substituted for the arrows, as in figure 8.1.
Also in this drawing, two holes are identical, allowing the "2x"
notation to be used and the dimension to point to only one of
the circles.

8.3 Steps in Dimensioning

There are two basic steps in dimensioning objects, regardless of the type of object.
STEP 1: Apply the size dimensions. These are dimensions, which indicate the overall sizes of the
object and the various features, which make up the object.
STEP 2: Apply the location dimensions. Location dimensions are dimensions, which locate various
features of an object from some specified datum or surface.

Figure 8.3 Dimensioning

8.4 Where to Put Dimensions

The dimensions should be placed on the face that describes the feature most clearly. Examples of appropriate
and inappropriate placing of dimensions are shown in figure 9.4.
 Figure 8.4 Example of appropriate and inappropriate dimensioning

In order to get the feel of what dimensioning is all about, we can start with a simple rectangular block. With
this simple
object, only three dimensions are needed to describe it completely (figure 8.5). There is little choice on where
to put its dimensions.

Figure 8.5 Simple object

We have to make some choices when we dimension a block with a notch or cutout (figure 9.6). It is usually
best to dimension from a common line or surface. This can be called the datum line of surface . This eliminates
the addition of
measurement or machining inaccuracies that would come from "chain" or "series" dimensioning. Notice how
the dimensions originate on the datum surfaces. We chose one datum surface in figure 9.6, and another in
figure 9.7. As long as we are consistent, it makes no difference. (We are just showing the top view).

Figure 8.6 Surface datum example

 Figure 8.7 Surface datum examples

In figure 9.8 we have shown a hole that we have chosen to dimension on the left side of the object. The Ø
stands for "diameter".

Figure 8.8 Examples of a dimensioned hole

When the left side of the block is "radiuses" as in figure 9.9, we break our rule that we should not duplicate
dimensions. The total length is known because the radius of the curve on the left side is given. Then, for clarity,
we add the overall
length of 60 and we note that it is a reference (REF) dimension. This means that it is not really required.

Figure 8.9 Examples of a directly dimensioned hole

 Somewhere on the paper, usually the bottom there should be placed information on what measuring
system is being used (e.g. inches and millimeters) and also the scale of the drawing.

Figure 8.10 Example of a directly dimensioned hole

This drawing is symmetric about the horizontal centerline. Centerlines (chain-dotted) are used for
symmetric objects, and also for the center of circles and holes. We can dimension directly to the centerline, as
in figure 9.10. In some cases this method can be clearer than just dimensioning between surfaces.

Review questions

1. Explain the difference among dimension line, extension

line and leaders
2. Discuss the purpose of dimensioning

PLATE NUMBER 16. SECTIONING

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PLATE NUMBER 17. SECTIONING

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 CHAPTER NINE

SECTIONING AND SECTIONAL VIEWS

Objectives:
At the end of this chapter, the students should be able to:
Describe the purpose of sectioning in technical drawings
Define cutting plane lines, direction of sight, section lining etc
Mention and explain the different kinds of sectioning

9.1 SECTIONAL VIEWS

Sectioning
It is defined as an imaginary cut made through an object to expose the interior or to reveal the shape
of a portion.

Sectional view
It is a view in which all or a substantial portion of the view is sectioned. There are many times when
the interior details of an object cannot be seen from the outside (figure 6.1).

Figure 6.1 An isometric drawing that does not show all details

We can get around this by pretending to cut the object on a plane and showing the "sectional view".
The sectional view is applicable to objects like engine blocks, where the interior details are intricate and would
be very difficult to understand through the use of "hidden" lines (hidden lines are, by convention, dotted) on
an orthographic or isometric drawing.
Imagine slicing the object in the middle (figure 6.2)

Figure 6.2 Sectioning an object

 Figure 6.3 sectioning the object in figure 6.1

Take away the front half (figure 6.3) and what you have is a full section view (figure 6.4).

Figure 6.4 Sectioned isometric and orthogonal views

The cross-section looks like figure 6.4 when it is viewed from straight ahead.
In short, when the interior of the object is complicated or when the component parts of a machine are
drawn assembled, an attempt to show hidden portions by the customary dashed lines in regular or graphic
views often results in a confusing networks, which is difficult to draw and almost impossible to read clearly.
In case of this kind, to aid in describing the object, one or more views are drawn to show the object as
if a portion has been cut away to show the interior.
For some simple objects where the orthographic un sectioned views can be easily read, sectional views
are often preferable because they show clearly and emphasis the solid portions, the voids, and the shape.

Cross-Sectional Views
A cross-sectional view portrays a cut-away portion of the object and is another way to show hidden
components in a device.
Imagine a plane that cuts vertically through the center of the pillow block as shown in figure 6.5 (a)
and (b). Then imagine removing the material from the front of this plane, as shown in figure 6.5 (b).

Figure 6.5 Section of an object with circular holes

This is how the remaining rear section would look. Diagonal lines (cross-hatches) show regions where
materials have been cut by the cutting plane.
 Figure 6.6 Section A-A

This cross-sectional view (section A-A, figure 6.6), one that is orthogonal to the viewing direction,
shows the relationships of lengths and diameters better. These drawings are easier to make than isometric
drawings. Seasoned engineers can interpret orthogonal drawings without needing an isometric drawing, but
this takes a bit of practice. The top "outside" view of the bearing is shown in figure 6.7. It is an orthogonal
(perpendicular) projection. Notice the direction of the arrows for the "A-A" cutting plane.

Figure 6.7 The top “out side” view of the bearing

9.2 HOW SECTIONS ARE SHOWN

To clearly draw the sectional views, we have to understand the following terminologies.

A. Cutting Plane Lines

The cutting plane line indicates the path that an imaginary cutting plane follows to slice through an
object. Think of the cutting plane line as a saw blade that is used to cut through the object. The cutting-plane
line is represented by a thick black dashed line.

Figure 6.8 cutting plane lines

B .Direction of Sight
The drafter must indicate the direction in which the object is to be viewed after it is sliced or cut
through. This is accomplished by adding a short leader and arrowhead to the ends of the cutting-plane. And
these arrows indicate the direction of sight.
 Figure 6.9 The direction of sight

C. Section Lining
Section lining shows where the object is sliced or cut by the cutting plane line. Section lining is
represented by thin, black lines drawn at 45 to the horizontal. Section lining is spaced by eye from 1.5mm to
6mm apart, depending up on the overall size of the object. The average spacing used for most drawings is
3mm. Section lines must be of uniform thickness (thin black) and evenly spaced by eye.
If the cutting plane passes through more than two parts, section lining of each individual part must be
drawn at different angles. Where an angle other than 45 degree is used, the angle should be 30 or 60 . Section
lining should not be parallel with the sides of the object to be section lined.

Figure 6.10 Section lining

9.3 MULTSECTION VIEWS

The different kinds of sections used today are:
Full section, Offset section, Half section, Broken-out section, Revolved section, and
Auxillary section etc.
In this part, we only consider the most commonly used types of sections.

Full Section
It is simply a section of one of the regular multi-views that sliced or cut completely in two.

Figure 6.11 Full Section

Offset Section

Many times, important features do not fall in a straight line as they do in a full section. These important
features can be illustrated in an offset section by bending or offsetting the cutting-plane line. An offset section
is very similar to a full section, except that the cutting plane line is not straight.
 Figure 6.12 Offset sections

Half-Sections

A half-section is a view of an object showing one-half of the view in section, as in figure 6.13 (a) and
figure 6.13 (b).

(a)

(b)

Figure 6.13 (a) Full and sectioned isometric views (b) Front view and half section

The diagonal lines on the section drawing are used to indicate the area that has been theoretically cut.
These lines are called section lining or cross-hatching . The lines are thin and are usually drawn at a 45-
degree angle to the major outline of the object. The spacing between lines should be uniform.
A second, rarer, use of cross-hatching is to indicate the material of the object. One form of cross-
hatching may be used for cast iron, another for bronze, and so forth. More usually, the type of material is
indicated elsewhere on the drawing, making the use of different types of cross-hatching unnecessary.
Figure 6.14 Half section without hidden lines
 69
ENGINEERING DRAWING MODULE (PART 1) by JOSEPH CRIS R. ABLAO, RCE

Usually hidden (dotted) lines are not used on the cross-section unless they are needed for dimensioning
purposes.
Also, some hidden lines on the non-sectioned part of the drawings are not needed (figure 6.13) since
they become redundant information and may clutter the drawing.

Review questions

1. Describe the purpose of sectioning in technical drawings

2. What is “direction of sight” in sectioning?
3. Mention the difference between offset section and full section.

LABORATORY WORK

PLATE NUMBER 11. GEOMETRIC FIGURES

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PLATE NUMBER 12. GEOMETRIC FIGURES

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