Medicinal Plants

(PG 101)

For
Pharm D - First Semester Students

Prepared By
Staff Members of Pharmacognosy
Department

Pharmacognosy Department
Faculty of Pharmacy
Minia University
Minia-Egypt
 Introduction

Living organisms are either prokaryotes or eukaryotes that are further

classified into:

A- Prokaryotes:

Prokaryotes (Kingdom Monera) are unicellular organisms that lack

membrane-bound organelles, such as the nucleus and mitochondria. They
are divided into two domains: Archaea and bacteria.

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B- Eukaryotes:

 They are unicellular or multicellular organisms whose cell organelles

are enclosed within membranes, such as mitochondria, Golgi apparatus,
and the nucleus, which contains the genetic material and is enclosed by
the nuclear envelope.
 Only eukaryotes form multicellular organisms; consisting of many
kinds of tissues made up of different cell types.
 They include the kingdoms: Protista, Fungi, Planta, and Animalia.
 Protista includes unicellular protozoa, e.g. Euglena and Amoeba.
 Some eukaryotes, like plants and algae, contain chloroplasts.

The Plant Kingdom

 The kingdom Plantae includes all types of eukaryotic, multicellular,

photosynthetic plants.
 Historically, Plantae was described as the kingdom covering all living
things that were not animals, with both algae and fungi were treated as
plants. However, the current definitions of "plants" exclude fungi.
 The Kingdom Plantae contains about 300,000 different plant species.
 Plants are found on land, in oceans, and in fresh water.
 Members of the kingdom Plantae are autotrophs as they synthesis their
own food with the help of solar energy.
Autotrophs: are organisms that produce complex organic
compounds (e.g. carbohydrates, fats, and proteins) from simple
substances present in their surroundings, generally using energy from
light (photosynthesis) or inorganic chemical reactions
(chemosynthesis).

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  Through photosynthesis, plants use carbon dioxide and convert energy
from sunlight into food (stored as carbohydrates), releasing oxygen into
the atmosphere.
 The kingdom Plantae is very important, as they are the source of food
for all other living creatures on earth, which depends on plants to
survive.

Characters of the plant kingdom:

 Eukaryotic organisms: contain true nucleus and advanced membrane-

bound organelles.
 Multicellular organisms: have both organs and organ systems.
 Autotrophic organisms containing chlorophyll.
 Cell walls of plants are made of cellulose.
 The have the ability to grow by cell division.
 They reproduce both sexually and asexually.
 They lack motility.

 Botany: is the science of studying plants.

 Plant Taxonomy: is the science of classification of plants = grouping
plants according to their similar characters.
In order to study the billions of different plants living on earth, scientists
have classified them based on their similarities and differences. This
system of classification is called taxonomy and usually uses both English
and Latin names for different divisions.

 The Binomial Nomenclature (Two names):

It was developed by Carolus Linnaeus (1707–1778). Plants have Latin
names that consist of two parts; Genus and Species, e.g. Tea (Camellia thea
or Camellia thea), followed by the family name; Family: Theaceae.

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  In taxonomical systems, living organisms are classified into:
a) Kingdom b) Division (Phylum) c) Class

d) Subclass e) Order f) Family

g) Genus h) Species i) Variety

Classification of Kingdom Planta:

A) Thallophyta

Thallophyta is the first primitive division of the plant kingdom containing

relatively simple plants, i.e. those with no leaves, stems, or roots. They are
non-mobile organisms described as “thalloid plants”, or “lower plants”. It
includes algae and lichens.

Main features of the division Thallophyta:

 Their body is thallus-like, i.e., not differentiated into stem, leaves and
roots.

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 They have a cellulosic cell wall around their cells.
 Autotrophic with the reserve food is generally starch.
 No mechanical or conducting elements (e.g. xylem and phloem).
 They are mostly aquatic; found in moist or wet places.
 Reproduction is sexual and asexual.
 Reproductive organs are mostly unicellular. After fertilization, the
zygote does not develop into a multicellular embryo (c.f. higher plants).
1) Algae:

 Algae are chlorophyll-bearing thalloid, autotrophic, and mostly aquatic

(fresh water and marine water) plants. Example: Fucus and Spirogyra.
 The thallus structure in algae is diverse, ranging from microscopic
unicellular to giant macroscopic seaweeds that may be 100 m long.
 They also occur in a variety of other habitats such as moist stones, soils,
wood. They also occur in association with fungi to form lichens.

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 2) Lichens:

Composite organisms arise from algae or cyanobacteria living among the

filaments of multiple fungi in a symbiotic relationship. The combined
lichen has properties different from those of its component organisms.

Lichens have many colors, sizes, and forms. They may have tiny, leafless
branches, flat leaf-like structures, flakes that lie on the surface like peeling
paint, or other growth forms.

Lichens on the trunks of trees, walls, and rocks.

B) Bryophyta

 They are small land plants that grow close to the ground and are mostly
found on wet and shady places, on other plants, and on rocks. Thus,
they play a vital role in preventing soil erosion. They are also referred
to as bryophytes.
 Bryophytes are non-flowering, non-vascular (atracheophytic), seedless
(cryptogams) plants that do not contain any conducting tissues.
 They also do not have proper root or shoot system.

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 Bryophytes are chlorophyllous and autotrophic plants.
 Reproduction is sexual (by spores) and asexual.
 Examples: liverworts, hornworts, and mosses.

C) Tracheophyta

Tracheophytes (Vascular plants) are land plants that have a vascular tissue.
They include the pteridophyta and spermatophytae.

1) Pteridophyta (the ferns):

 They are vascular plants, which contain root, stem, and leaves
(differentiated body parts), but do not produce seeds (seedless plants).
 Reproduction is sexual (by spores) and asexual.
 Examples: horsetails and ferns.

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2) Spermatophyta:

 They are seed producing plants; reproduce by seeds instead of spores.

 They are classified into Gymnosperms and Angiosperms.

a) Gymnosperms (Conifers):

 Gymnosperms are vascular plants, which contain root, stem, and leaves
(differentiated body parts), but do not show flowers (non-flowering
plants).
 They are large woody plants that produce “naked seeds”.
 They produce undeveloped seeds in an enclosed structure.
 Examples: palms, conifers, cycads, and Ginkgos.


Ginkgo tree Conifers Cycads

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b) Angiosperms (flowering plants):

 They are the largest and most diverse division of plants.

 They are flowering plants, which develop their seeds within a
protective structure called the fruit.
 Seeds are formed within the ovary of the flower. After fertilization, the
flower falls and the ovary bulges to become a fruit.
 Examples: trees, shrubs, and vines.
 Angiosperms may be Monocotyledons or Dicotyledons.

General differences between monocot and dicot plants:

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 Monocot plant families include: Liliaceae, Amaryllidaceae,
Zingiberaceae, Graminae.

1- Liliaceae (Lily family):

e.g. Onion, Garlic, Daylilies, Colchicum, Sarsaparilla.

2- Amayllidaceae (Amaryllis family):

e.g. Crinum, Narcissus, Amaryllis.

3- Zingiberaceae:

e.g. Ginger, Curcuma.

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 Dicot plant families include: Solanaceae, Compositae, Leguminosae,
Umbelliferae, Labiatae, Malvaceae.
1- Solanaceae:

e.g. Eggplant, Capsicum, Tomato, Potato, Tobacco, Datura, Hyoscyamus,

Belladonna.

2- Compositae (Asteraceae):

e.g. Sunflower, Chamomile, Pyrethrum, Arnica.

3- Umbelliferae (Apiaceae):

e.g. Carrot, Fennel, Anise, Coriander, Cumin, Caraway, Dill, Celery.

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4- Labiatae (Lamiaceae):

e.g. Mentha, Thyme, Lavender, Origanum.

5- Malvaceae:

e.g. Hibiscus, Okra, Malva.

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 The Plant Cell

 Plants are multicellular organisms composed of millions of cells with

specialized functions. The term cell is derived from the Latin "cella",
which means a storeroom or a chamber.
 Plant and animal cells are both eukaryotic cells, so they have many
common features, such as the presence of a cell membrane, cytoplasm,
and cell organelles, e.g. the nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus,
endoplasmic reticulum, and ribosomes. However, several differences
are also seen between plant and animal cells, including:

Items Animal Cell Plant Cell

Shape Round or irregular in shape Rectangular (fixed shape)

Cell wall Absent Present (formed of cellulose)

Plasma (or
Cell) Present Present
Membrane

One or more small vacuoles

Vacuoles One, large central vacuole
(smaller than plant cells)
taking up to 90% of the cell
occur

Plastids, e.g.
Absent Present
chloroplasts

Lysosomes occur in the cytoplasm usually not evident

Centrioles Present in all animal cells Only present in lower plants

Cilia Present Absent

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Structure of the plant cell:

Plant Cell

Protoplast Cell wall

All the contents within the cell wall Non-living permeable layer

Protoplasmic Non-protoplasmic
(living) (non-living)
components components

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 The plant cell

A- The cell wall:

 A major difference between plant and animal cells is that the plant cell
is surrounded by a rigid cell wall which acts for support and protection,
mostly made of polysaccharides (e.g. cellulose, hemicellulose, pectin)
and lignin.
 Mature plant cells have two types of cell walls; primary and secondary,
together with the middle lamella:

1- Primary (original) cell wall:

 It is formed early in the life of the

plant cell.
 It is thin and characteristic of
young, growing cells but becomes
rigid as the cell ages.
 It is composed of a number of
polysaccharides, chiefly cellulose, and may be mixed with
hemicellulose or pectin.

2- Secondary wall:

 Secondary cell walls are thicker and stronger.

 They are internally deposited upon the primary wall when most cell
enlargement has ended.
 Only certain types of plant cells have secondary walls, usually those
specialized for support, protection, or water conduction.
 Secondary cell walls are firstly formed of cellulose but subsequently
undergoe chemical modifications, which involve the deposition of

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 lginin, subrin, or cutin to give lignified, subrised, or cutinised walls,
respectively.
 The lignified secondary walls provide the structural strength necessary
to grow the plant vertically above the soil.

* Properties of different cell walls:

A- Cellulosic walls:

• They are formed mainly of cellulose which may be accompanied with

hemicellulose.
• Cellulose is a polysaccharide of glucose, occurs in most plants.
• Hemicellulose is a polysaccharide of glucose, mannose, and galactose.
It provides severe hardness to the cell wall, e.g. Date palm.
• They are permeable to water and gases, and give blue colour with
chlor-zinc-iodide.
B- Mucilagenous walls:

• Certain cellulosic cell walls may be converted into mucilage such as in

the epidermal cells of many plants, e.g. Linseed, Foenugreek, and
Senna.
• They are hard when dry but become soft and swell up when moistened
with water.
• They are stained blue with methylene blue (for neutral mucilage) and
red with ruthenium red and corallin soda (for acidic mucilage).
C- Lignified walls:

• Lignin is a strengthening material that increases the rigidity of cell walls.

It constitutes 22-34% of wood.
• Chemically, it is a complex phenylpropanoid (C6-C3) polymer.
• Lignification of the cell wall is usually followed by death of the
protoplasm in the cell.
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• They are permeable to water but don't retain appreciable amounts of it.
• They are stained red wiht phloroglucinol and conc. hydrolchloric acid,
and yellow with chlor-zinc-iodide.
D- Suberised or cutinised walls:

• Subrin and cutin consist of a mixture of substances, mainly of highly

polymerized fatty acids, such as suberic acid [COOH–(CH2)5-COOH].
• These materials waterproof cells in which they occur.
• Suberin occurs in cork cells, while cutin covers the epidermal cells of
leaves for protection.
• Both types are stained red with alkanna tincture and sudan III reagent.
• They also stain yellow to brown with chlor-zinc-iodide.
E- Chitinous walls:

• Chitin is a polysaccharide containing acetyl and amino groups.

• It constitute the organic skeletal substance of insects and many fungi.
• When heated with 50% potash at 160-170 °C for one hour, it is
converted into chitosan, ammonia, acetic acid, and oxalic acid.
• Chitosan gives a deep violet colour when treated with iodine solution
followed by dil. sulphuric acid.
3- Middle lamella or intercellular substance:

• The neighboring plant cells are

cemented together by a middle

lamella (intercellular layer).

• It is a colloidal layer composed of

pectic substances. It is thin, but may

become thick and lignified.

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• It dissloves in alkalies and the cells can then be separated, a character
used in the preparation of the isolated elements from the plant.
• Although the cell wall is one or two layers thick, it is not a solid
structure. Minute pores, or pits, exist; that allow the transfer of
materials through cell walls.
• Cytoplasmic connections between adjacent plant cells often occur.
These are called plasmodesma and pass through the pits in the cell wall
to allow the movement of materials from cell to cell.

B- Plasma Membrane:

• All cells are enclosed in a membrane that serves as their outer

boundary, separating the cytoplasm from the external environment.
• This plasma membrane is semipermeable, allows the cells to take up
and retain certain substances while excluding others (i.e. selective
traffic of solutes across the membrane).
• It consists of a double layer (bilayer) of phospholipids in which
proteins are embedded.

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 C- The Protoplast:

 It represents all the contents within the cell wall, including the
protoplasmic (living) components and non-protoplasmic (non-living)
components.
 The protoplasmic (living) components include cytoplasm, nucleus,
plastids, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, and other cell organelles.
 The non-protoplasmic (non-living) components include the vacuole and
ergastic substances (reserve food material and other metabolites), e.g.
carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, tannins, alkaloids, flavonoids,
glycosides, and mineral crystals (e.g. calcium oxalate and calcium
carbonate crystals).
Protoplasmic components:

a) Cytoplasm:

 A viscous transparent substance composed of water (up to 90%) in

which proteins, organic acids, and inorganic substances are dispersed.
 It contains a membrane system called the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)
dividing the cytoplasm into sacs or tubes.
 The (ER) is a network of internal membranes that is continuous with
the outer membrane of the nuclear envelope.
 The (ER) lumen of one cell is connected to the adjacent cells via
plasmodesma.
 There are two types of (ER), smooth and rough, which are
interconnected.
 Rough (ER) is covered with ribosomes which synthesize proteins,
while smooth (ER) lacks ribosomes. Smooth (ER) is the site of lipid
synthesis.
 Ribosomes are composed of rRNA and proteins.

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 The (ER) helps in:
1- Increasing the surface area of the cytoplasm where enzymes occur.
2- Dividing the cytoplasm into components, so metabolites are easily
separated.
3- Transporting metabolites from one part of the cell to another.
4- Connecting cell organelles together.

b) Nucleus:

 The nucleus is spherical and more viscous than the cytoplasm.

 In young cells, it is located centrally in the cell, while in older cells; it
is located on one side of the cytoplasm.
 The nucleus carries the heredity characters, used in cell division, and
controls all the metabolic activities inside the cells.
 Nucleus is the site of storage and replication of chromosomes, which
are composed of DNA and its associated proteins. The DNA-protein
complex is known as chromatin.
 The nucleus consists of:
a) Nuclear membrane: a double porous membrane called the nuclear
envelope. These pores allow the transport of substances between the
cytosol and the nucleus.

b) Nuclear sap or nucleoplasm.

c) Chromatin reticulum: consists of chromosomes, each consisting of

two chromatids connected by a centromere.

d) Nucleolus: a densely granular region, which is the site of ribosome

(ribosomal RNA) synthesis. It may be one or more.

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c) Plastids:

 Plastids are cell organelles that are characteristic for plant cells only.
 Types of plastids:
a) Chromoplasts: plastids containing a high concentration of
carotenoid pigments. They give yellow, orange, and red colors to
many fruits (tomato), roots (carrot), and flower petals.
b) Leucoplasts: non-pigmented plastids. An important type of
leucoplasts is "amyloplasts", which are starch-storing plastids.
c) Chloroplasts: plastids containing the green pigment, chlorophyll.
They are found in green tissues of plants, especially the leaf. They
are absent in roots.
 Structure of chloroplasts:
1- The chloroplast is surrounded by inner and outer membranes.
2- Chloroplasts also contain a third system of membranes called
"thylakoid". All the chlorophyll is contained within this membrane,
which is the site of light reactions of photosynthesis. A group of
thylakoids forms a “granum”.

3- Thylakoid membranes are highly folded and appear like the

arranged coins. These arranged membranes are known as grana
lamellae (or grana thylakoid). The membranes without arrangement
are known as stroma lamellae (or stroma thylakoid).

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 4- Each mass is called granum. The region of the chloroplast that is
inside the inner membrane and surrounds thylakoids is known as the
stroma.
d) Mitochondria:

 They are rod-shaped cytoplasmic organelles representing the site of

ATP synthesis.
 They are surrounded by two membranes; the outer is smooth and the
inner is highly folded. These folds of the inner membrane are called
"cristae" that increase the inner surface area on which the enzymes of
respiration occur.

 The inner membrane is also characterized by the presence of stalked

particles with spherical heads containing ATPase which catalyzes the
synthesis of ATP.
 Mitochondria are responsible for aerobic respiration; converting sugar
to CO2, water, and energy.

e) Golgi apparatus:

 Plant cells contain several hundred Golgi

bodies dispersed in the cytoplasm.

 They are flattened membranes with

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 vesicles at their ends and surrounded

by a double membrane.

 The job of Golgi apparatus is to process and bundle macromolecules

like proteins and lipids as they are synthesized within the cell.
f) Lysosomes:

 They are structures bound by a single membrane.

 They cause autolysis of dead cells as they contain hydrolytic enzymes
which are used in breakdown of proteins and other macromolecules.

Non-protoplasmic components:

a) Central vacuoles:

 Mature plant cells contain a large, water-filled central vacuole (usually

one or two).
 The central vacuole can occupy 80-90% of the cell and is surrounded
by a vacuolar membrane.
 The vacuole contains water, inorganic ions, organic acids, sugars and
enzymes.
 Like animal lysosomes, plant vacuoles contain hydrolytic enzymes,
including proteases, ribonuleases, and glycosidases.
 Vacuoles also have a storage function and provide rigidity to the plant
cell.
b) Ergastic cell substances:

 They include the reserved food materials (primary metabolites) and the
other secondary metabolites.

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 Plant Tissues

A tissue is a group of coherent cells having similar form and function.

According to the development stage, plant tissues can be classified into:

I- Meristematic tissue: the cells have the ability of division.

II- Mature (permanent) tissue: the cells lost the power of division.

I- Meristematic tissue:

It is characterized by thin-walled isodiametric cells with large nucleus and

dense cytoplasm. Cells do not have vacuoles, intercellular spaces, or
reserve food materials. These cells can divide.
- Examples:

a) Apical meristem: located at the growing points (apices) of stems and

roots.

b) Lateral meristem: increases the diameter of the plant (e.g. vascular and
cork cambia).

c) Intercalary meristem: at the internodes of stems and at leaf bases.

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II- Mature (permanent) tissue:

 It consists of differentiated mature cells and may be classified into

dermal, mechanical, conductive, or secretory tissue.
 It is characterized by thick-walled cells with cytoplasm. Cells have a
large central vacuole, intercellular spaces, as well as reserve food
materials. It cannot divide.
 It can be simple (consists of one type of cells such as parenchyma,
collenchyma, ...) or complex (consists of more than one type of cells
such as xylem, phloem, ....).

1) Simple permanent tissue:

a) Parenchymatous tissue:

 It is the main tissue in the plant body, occurring in almost all organs.
 A simple tissue consists of parenchyma cells
that are usually spherical or oval in shape.

Sometimes the cells may be elongated or

lobed. Very rarely, they become irregular.

 These cells have primary thin cellulosic

walls and narrow or wide intercellular spaces.

 They show different contents, e.g. starch granules, calcium oxalate, etc.

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 In certain regions like epidermis, the cells become compactly arranged,
and hence, intercellular spaces are absent.
 Parenchyma occurs in the cortex and pith of stems and roots, associated
with xylem and phloem, and in tissues of leaves and fruits.
 Parenchyma is mainly involved in multiple functions like storage and
respiration. They sometimes take part in other functions like
photosynthesis, absorption, secretion, and protection.

Types of parenchyma cells:

On the basis of their functions, the following types can be recognized:

a) Prosenchyma: elongated parenchyma cells with tapering ends.

b) Chlorenchyma: parenchyma cells containing large number of

chloroplasts. They occur in the mesophyll of leaves (palisade and spongy
tissues) and other green parts of the plant body. They participate in
photosynthesis.

c) Aerenchyma: parenchyma cells with large intercellular spaces that are

filled with air. They are found in aquatic floating plants (hydrophytes) and
help in flexibility and respiration.

d) Vascular parenchyma: parenchyma found associated with the vascular

tissues, e.g. xylem parenchyma and phloem parenchyma.

e) Medullary parenchyma: parenchyma found radially arranged in between

the vascular bundles of stems. It stores reserve food materials.

f) Conjunctive parenchyma: parenchyma which occur in the root system. It

is specially meant for storage of water.

g) Armed parenchyma: found in the epidermis of leaves in some

gymnosperms. The cells have many spiny projections for defense.

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 Aerenchyma

b) Collenchymatous tissue:

• It is a simple living tissue directly derived from parenchyma, but has

greater mechanical strength. The walls are cellulosic and thickened.
• Cells are small rounded or slightly elongated with no intercellular
spaces, used for mechanical strenght of soft plants.
• They can be found in the midrib of leaves, corners of stems, or as a
continuous layer under the epidermis of stems.

c) Sclerenchymatous tissue:

Sclerenchyma are dead cells when mature with thick secondary walls used
for mechanical support. There are two types; fibers and sclereids:

* Fibers:

• The tissue composed of spindle shaped or elongated cells with pointed

ends is known as prosenchyma. When these cells are thick-walled, they
are known as fibers.

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• Most mature fibers are differentaited on the basis of the tissue in which
they occur, such as cortical fibers (in the cortex), pericyclic fibers (in the
pericycle), ploem fibers (in the phloem) or xylem fibers (in xylem).
• Fibers may be lignified and are stained red with phloroglucinol and conc.
HCl.
* Sclereids:

• Sclereids or stone cells are approximately isodiametrical in shape with

thick, lignified walls and traversed by pit-canals (pitted walls), which are
often funnel-shapped or branched. The cell lumen is usually small.
• Sclereides occur either isolated or in groups. Some sclereids have special
contents such as prisms of caox or starch grains.
• They are stained red with phloroglucinol and conc. HCl.

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 Different forms of fibers and sclereids

2) Complex permanent tissue:

A heterogenous tissue consisting of more than one cell type, including the
vascular, secretory, and epidermal tissues.

a) Vascular tissue (conducting elements):

Xylem Phloem
- Xylem vessels - Sieve tubes
- Tracheids - Companion cells
- Xylem fibers - Phloem fibers
- Wood - Phloem parenchyma
parenchyma

 Xylem:
• It is the water conducting tissue, consists of vessels, tracheids, fibers, and
parenchyma.
• Xylem vessels are used for water transport and mechanical support. They
are lignified and stained red with phloroglucinol and conc. HCl.
• Non-lignified xylem vessels are found in roots and rhizomes.
• After completing their growth, the 2ry walls of xylem vessels are
thickened or deposited in differnt forms:
a. Annular: the 2ry wall deposits as rings in narrow vessels.
b. Spiral: the 2ry wall forms a spiral in slightly wider vessels.
c. Reticulate: the 2ry wall forms a network.

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 d. Sclariform: the 2ry wall has elongated pits in vertical series.
e. Pitted: the 2ry wall is pitted and is formed in wider vessels.

Annular Spiral Sclariform Reticulate Pitted

•
• Tracheids are primitive elements, shorter than vessels with bordered pits
on their walls. They are used for water transport and mechanical support.
• Xylem fibers are long and narrow with tapering ends and lignified walls,
with simple or bordered pits. They are used as support elements.
• Xylem parenchyma are living cells with thin or thick lignified walls.
They are used for storage and transport of metabolites.

Tracheids

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 Phloem:
• It is the food conducting tissue, composed of sieve elements, companion
cells, phloem parenchyma, and phloem fibers.
• Sieve elements are either sieve tubes (in angiosperms) or sieve cells (in
gymnosperms).
• In gymnosperms: phloem is formed of
sieve cells, parenchyma, and fibers.

• In angiosperms:
a) In monocots: it lacks phloem parenchyma.

b) In dicots: phloem parenchyma are present.

•
• Companion cells are special parenchyma cells associated with sieve
tubes of dicots and monocots. The sieve tube may have one or more
companion cells.
• The mature companion cell has a nucleus, so there is a physiological
relation between it and the sieve tube.
• Phloem parenchyma are elongated cells, occur only in dicots. They store
organic substances.
• Phloem fibers may be lignified or not, acting for mechanical support.

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b) Secretory tissues:

They are special tissues responsible for production and secretion of certain
secretions, such as volatile oils, resin, oleo-resin, and latex. Plants contain
both external and internal secretory structures.

1- External secretory structures:

They are represented by glandular hairs (e.g. Labiaceous

hairs in Mentha) and nectar glands of flower petals.

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2- Internal secretory structures:

A- Secretory cells (suspension or emulsion):

They are either isolated cells or rarely arranged in rows. They have
suberised walls and are named according to the secretion they contain such
as oil cells (the secretion is volatile oil) and resin cells (the secretion is
resin).

B- Secretory cavities or sacs (internal glands):

Internal structures embeded in a mass of tissue and having cavities within

them in which secretions, such as volatile oils and oleo-resin, are secreted.
According to the method of formation or development they are classified
into:

i- Schizogenous glands:

Developed by splitting apart of cells thus enclosing a cavity which then

became enlarged and lined or surrounded by an epithelial tissue formed by
the division of the surrounding cells, e.g. Cumin, Coriander, Anise (Family
Umbelliferae) and Jaborandi.

ii- Lysigenous glands:

Developed by breaking down of the cells forming a cavity. It originates

from a single cell by division in different directions forming a solid mass
and then by gradual disintigration of the resulting cell starting from the
center, e.g. Citrus fruits.

- 33 -
iii- Schizolysigenous:

Developed at first schizogenously, but

later on, increase in size lysigenously (i.e. by

breaking down of the bounding cells),

e.g. Buchu, Guava, and Clove.

C- Secretory ducts or canals:

They are tube-like structures that may

extend through the whole length of the

organ. They produce volatile oil or oleo-

resin. They are either developed

The vittae of family
schizogenously (such as in family Unmbelliferae

Compositae or Umbelliferae

(the vittae)), lysigenously or

schizolysigenously (as in family Anacardiaceae).

- 34 -
D- Laticiferous structures:

These include tube-like cells or vessels with a colourless, milky white,

yellowish or reddish viscous emulsion or suspension called latex. Latex
may contain resin, gum resin, fats, wax, protein suspended in an aqueous
solution of certain substances, e.g. tannins, alkaloids, proteins, sugars, salts,
and enzymes. They include:

i- Latex cells:

Usually in the form of a tube, brabched or unbranched. They are not

anastomosing (not connected).

ii- Latex vessels (or ducts):

They are long simple or branching tubes. When branched, they are
anastomosing with rough walls. They may form anastomosing network,
e.g. Opium and Lobelia, or may be non-anastomosing vessels, e.g.
Liliaceae.

Latex cells Latex vessels

- 35 -
c) The epidermal tissue:

• Epidermis is the outer protective layer on the surface of plants;

consisting of epidermal cells, stomata, and trichomes (hairs).
• It is usually formed of a single layer, but in some plants, it may be of two
or more layers. The inner layers are then called as hypodermis.
• Epidermis helps in exchange of gases through stomata and in storage of
water and some metabolites. It also protects plants from water loss.
• Epidermis is usually transparent (cells lack chloroplasts) and coated on
the outer surface with a waxy cuticle that prevents water loss.
• The cuticle is formed mainly of waxes (modified fatty acids partly
combined with alcohols).

- Epidermal cells:

• Epidermal cells are tabular, without intercellular spaces except for the
stomata.
• They may show certain contents in the form of crystals or non-crystalline
deposits.
• In leaves, the upper epidermis is larger and has no or a few stomata than
the lower epidermis.
• The walls of epidermal cells may be straight or wavy. They may also be
lignified.
• Epidermal cells are covered with an impermeable layer known as the
cuticle which varies in thickness. The cuticle may be smooth as in
Datura or striated as in Belladonna.

- 36 -
- Stomata

• The epidermis of leaves and stems shows some pores or openings called
the stomata (sing., stoma) that enable oxygen and carbon dioxide to
move in and out of the leaf.
• In leaves, stomata occur on both surfaces
or only on the lower surface.

• Stomata consist of two similar,

parallel cells called Guard cells, and

enclosing in-between a small lenticular

or oval space called osteole.

• Guard cells differ from the epidermal

cells in being much smaller, containing chloroplasts and usually starch
granules.

• The guard cells contain upper and lower ridges which help in opening
and closing of stomata.
• The epidermal cells surrounding the stomata may be clearly different in
size and shape from the remaining epidermal cells, and are described as
subsidiary cells.
Types of stomata:

According to the arrangement of the subsidiary cells, the stomata are

classified into the following types:

1) Anomocytic stomata (Ranunculaceous stomata):

The stoma is surrounded by subsidiary cells resembling

the other epidermal cells, varying in number (3 or 4),

having no special arrangement, e.g. Buchu and Digitalis.

- 37 -
2) Paracytic stomata (Rubiaceous stomata):

The stoma is surrounded by two subsidiary cells having

their long axis parallel to the osteole, e.g. Senna.

3) Diacytic stomata (Caryophyllaceous stomata):

The stoma is surrounded by two subsidiary cells, having their

long axis perpendicular to the osteole, e.g. Mentha (Labiatae).

4) Anisocytic stomata (Cruciferous stomata):

The stomata is surrounded by three or four subsidiary cells,

one of them is markedly smaller in size than the others,

e.g. Datura (Solanaceae).

5) Actinocytic stomata:

The stoma is surrounded by a circle of radiating subsidiary cells.

- 38 -
- Trichomes (hairs):

• The epidermal cells may extend to the outside to form projections, which
may be short and conical called papillae and the epidermis is described
as papillosed, e.g. Coca, or long called hairs (trichomes).
• The hairs are either covering or non-glandular or glandular (with a
swollen head formed of one or more secretory cells and is carried on a
stalk). They usually secrete volatile oils or oleo-resin.

I-Non-glandular hairs

Unicellular Multicellular

Unbranched Branched Unbranched Branched

1- Uniseriate 1- Simple
1- Simple
2- Biseriate 2- Stellate
2- Cottony
3- Pluriseriate 3- Peltate
3- Cystolith
4- Candelabra

A) Non-glandular hairs:

1- Unicellular (formed of one cell), may be:

a) Simple or unbranched, e.g. Senna and Hibiscus (cottony hairs).
b) Branched: biarmed or with numerous branches, e.g. Lavender.

- 39 -
2- Multicellular (formed of many cells), may be:

a) Simple or unbranched:

- Uniseriate: formed of one row (e.g. Datura and Belladonna), or

balanced or T-shaped hairs (formed of a stalk of one or more cells and
a beam of a single cell; e.g. Pyrethrum).

- Biseriate: formed of two rows, each of one (Twin hair; e.g. Arnica) or
more cells (e.g. Calendula).

- Multiseriate or pluriseriate: formed of many rows of cells (Shaggy hair

in Cumin).

b) Branched:

- Simple branched: with uniseriate body ending in two branches, e.g .

Tobacco.

- Stellate :radiating unicellular hairs, e.g .Karkadeh.

- Peltate: with very short stalk surrounded by a plate-like structure of

closely joined cells, e.g. Olea.

- Candelabra: branched in tree-like manner having uniseriate axis from

which arise numerous unicellular branches of hairs, e.g. Lavender.

- 40 -
B) Glandular hairs:

1- Unicellular:

Not common, generally called as pearl gland, such as in Piper.

2- Multicellular: most common glandular hairs may be formed of:

a) Uniseriate stalk: and

1- Unicellular head (unicellular stalk (e.g. Mentha) or multicellular
stalk, uniseriate stalk, e.g. Belladonna.
2- Bicellular head e.g .Digitalis.
3- Multicellular head e.g.
- Labiaceous hair (very short unicellular stalk and a head of 8-
radiating cells (in Mentha)
- Solanaceous hair (clavate hair) (short unicellular stalk and ovoid
head composed of 4-7 cells (in Belladonna).
b) Biseriate stalk and biseriate head composed of 8 cells as Composita
hair e.g. Chamomile
c) Pluriseriate stalk and a head with numerous mostly eight radiating
cells, e.g. Cannabis.

- 41 -
 d) Branched stalk :uniseriate body ending in two branches each branch
carrying unicellular head as in Hyoscyamus muticus
.

Glandular Trichomes

- 42 -
 Plant By-products

 They are organic waste by-products formed in plant cells, e.g. calcium
oxalate. They are common cell contents in plant kingdom; thus,
frequently occur in foods and drugs of vegetable origin.
 They are formed as a result of the reaction of calcium salts absorbed
from the soil and oxalic acid produced in the plant as a result of
metabolic processes.
 The morphological characters of calcium oxalate in a particular plant
are constant and often afford a valuable aid in the identification of
drugs.
 Classification of calcium oxalate crystals:
A- Single crystals:
1- Styloid or columnar crystals: (e.g. Quillaia bark)

2- Prismatic crystals or prisms: (e.g. Liquorice or Senna)

Prisms are also found in crystal sheath, e.g. Senna leaf and Liquorice
root, or inside sclereids, e.g. Calumba root.

Crystal sheath: is a group of lignified fibers surrounded by parenchyma

cells containing prisms of calcium oxalate.

3- Twin crystals or twin prisms: (e.g. Hyoscyamous)

4- Acicular (single needles): (e.g. Cinnamon bark)

Styloid Prisms Crystal sheath

- 43 -
 Twin prisms Acicular crystals

B-Aggregated crystals:

1- Raphides (bundle of needles) of acicular crystals: (e.g. Squill)

2- Cluster crystals:

They are formed of aggregated crystals (prisms) frequently radiating, often

irregularly, from a central point in all planes). They can be detected in the
powder of Rhubarb and Hibiscus. They can form a crystal layer as in
Datura.

Crystal layer: a group of xylem vessels surrounded by parenchyma cells

containing clusters of calcium oxalate except the first row adjacent to the
xylem vessel.

Clusters

Crystal layers Raphides

- 44 -
3- Microrosettes:

They are formed of aggregated crystals (prisms) radiating from a distinct

usually wide center of partially organic non-crystalline nature. They are
spheroidal with all the individual crystals of almost the same length and
slightly toothed circumference. They can be found in the Umbelliferous
seeds (e.g. Cumin, Coriander).

4- Microsphenoidal or sandy crystals:

These are very minute crystals occurring together in large number, usually
filling the enlarged parenchyma (e.g. Belladonna leaf).

Microrosettes Microsphenoidal Microprismatic

• The arrangement of calcium oxalate crystals in the plant tissues is

sometimes of diagnostic value such as crystal sheath in Senna and
crystal layer in Datura.
• Also, the absence of calcium oxalate crystals in the plant tissue
often affords a valuable aid in the identification of drugs as
Digitalis and Mentha.

- 45 -
Characters of calcium oxalate:

• They are insoluble in water, glycerin, alcohol, chloral hydrate and

caustic alkalis.
• They dissolve in acids, e.g. HCl without effervescence.
• With dil. Sulphuric acid, needle crystals of calcium sulphate
formed in the site of formation of calcium oxalate.
• They are slowly affected by solution of caustic alkalis.
 Idioblast: a cell differentiated from the surrounding tissue in
shape, size or content, such as those containing sandy crystals in
Belladonna.
Calcium Carbonate

• Cystolith is a calcium carbonate crystal arising from the cellulosic

wall of cells of higher plants generally in the leaf of certain
families, for example:
a) Ficus elastica (family Moraceae),
b) Plants of family Urticaceae,
c) Cannabis and other plants in the family Cannabinaceae also
produce leaf and flower cystoliths.
• Cystolith dissolves in HCl giving effervescence.

Calcium carbonate crystals (cystolith)

- 46 -
 Medicinal Plants

• Pharmacognosy: is the study of crude drugs of vegetable, animal and

mineral origin.
• By other way, it is the science dealing with the study of the structural,
physical, chemical characters of crude drugs in addition to their history,
cultivation, collection and other particular treatments they receive during
their preparation for the market.

What is the meaning of the word "pharmacognosy"?

• It is derived from the Greek words pharmakon, (means a drug or poison)

and Gnosis or Gignosco (means acquire knowledge of) i.e. it means the
knowledge of drugs or poisons.

• Some important terms:

• Natural products: are chemical substances resulted from synthesis,
transformations and rearrangement of molecules carried out in living cells.

• Crude drug: It is a term applied to a medicinally useful drug of plant,

animal or mineral origin used without any extensive processing or
modification, it may be dried or fresh, unground or ground, entire plant or
animal or their organs or natural exudations of them.
• Official drug: is that drug listed and described in a book recognized by
the government as the legal authority for standards and this book is called
pharmacopoeia.
• Examples:
• Entire plants or animals: Carrageen, Penicillium, Cantharidis.
• Entire organ: Senna, Visnaga, Nux vomica.
• Minerals: Chalk, Talc.
• Substances derived from plants or animals: Agar, Gelatin, Aloes, and
Opium.
- 47 -
 Description of any drug

The following points must be taken in consideration for detailed description

of any drug:

• Origin: The biological and geographical sources, a short note on the

history and the name of the drug.
• Cultivation and preparation: Cultivation of the plant, collection of the
part used, drying, packing and other treatments during its course from the
biological source to the market.
• Characters: Including
1- Macroscopical characters such as shape, size, colour, odour and taste
2-Microscopical characters which are diagnostic and give an important
guide in the identification of the drug in the entire and powdered forms.

• Constituents: Include the active chemical constituents together with other

constituents and reserve food materials.
• Tests: The chemical identity of the drug depending on the nature of the
active constituents
• Adulterants: Including materials added for partial or complete
replacement of the active constituent due to its high cost.
• Isolation and Purification of the active constituents: as well as
quantitative determination of their percentages to ease the chemical
evaluation of the drug.
• Uses and application of the drug: in folk medicine and its therapeutic
uses.

- 48 -
 Classification of drugs

Drugs are usually arranged according to one of the following ways:

• Alphabetical: The drugs are arranged in an alphabetical order using

either Latin or English names
• Taxonomic: The drugs are arranged according to the plants from which
they are obtained in phyla, orders, families, genera and species.
• Morphological: The drugs are divided into groups such as leaves,
flowers, fruits, seeds, barks, wood, roots and rhizomes and those are
known as organized drugs and as gums, resins, oils, fats, extract which
are known as unorganized drugs.
• Chemical: The drugs are classified into groups according to the
chemical nature of their active constituents as drugs containing
alkaloids, glycosides, volatile oils and so on.
• Pharmacological or therapeutic: The drug are divided according to
the pharmacological action or therapeutic uses of their active
constituents as Antihypertensive drugs, cardiotonic drugs, laxative., so
on.

Origin of crude drugs

The Biological Origin: The natural origin of a drug is the name of the plant
or animal producing the drug.

Binomial system:
- It is due to the Swedish biologist Linnaus.
- Each plant is termed by two words or parts. It is established that the first
name denotes the genus, and spelt with capital italic letter and the
second name denotes the species which spelt in small italic letters.
- Botanical names are always followed by the names of persons who first
described the species variety.
- 49 -
- For example:It is the dried leaves of Datura stramonium L. Family
Solanaceae

The specific name is usually chosen to indicate:

• Geographical source as Cannabis indica.

• A characteristic colour as Digitalis purpurea (purple).
• An aromatic plant as Myristica fragrans (nice odour).
• An active constituent as Ipomoea purga (purgative).
• A special indication as Foeniculum vulgare (Wild).
• Important character of the plant as Glycyrrhiza glabra
(glabrous=smooth).

The Egyptian pharmacopoeia gives the Latin, English, Arabic, German,

French and Italian names of the drugs

The Geographical Origin (G.S.):

It is the region in which the plant or animal yielding the drug grows.

Every climatic region is the native habitat of some plants or animals, so

knowledge of the G.S. May help in the identification of the biological
origin because some plants grow in certain region and cannot grow in
others.

Commercial Origin:

- This refers to its production and its channels of trade where it may
change in course of time.
- Name of drugs may show a geographical name indicating the country
region in which they are collected

- 50 -
- Or the city from which they are shipped as Alexandrian senna which
grown in Sudan but was shipped from Alexandria.
- Or its native country as Spanish liquorice which was originally
produced in Spain but now produced elsewhere

Production of Crude Drugs

1- Cultivation of Medicinal plants

Drugs could be collected from wild or cultivated plants.

Advantages of collection from wild plants:

1- Inexpensive
2- Have best quality and quantity of the active constituents.
3- There is no hybridization.

Disadvantages of collection from wild plant

1- Wild plants are found in a sparse distribution over unlimited areas and
not confined to a limited space.
2- The difficulty in collecting these plants as they are mostly growing in
deserts or forests or seas where the way is always difficult.
3- Continuous collection may lead to a serious deficiency in supplies.
4- Ignorance of collectors may lead to:
a- Admixture of the desired plant with other plants.
b- Collection of the desired plant at improper time.
c- Collection of undesired organ of the desired plant.
5- The difficulty of transport when the natural home of the plant is far from
any ordinary means of transportation.
6- Insufficiency of wild plants to fulfill the need of the market.

- 51 -
Advantages of cultivation of medicinal plants

1- Concentration of a large number in small controlled areas.

2- Give a good means of controlling purity of the drug.
3- Controlling processes of collection, drying, preparation and storage
which are carried out by trained workers.
4- Controlling factors affecting drug activity as selection, mutation,
hybridization and polyploidy and also improvement of the drug owing to
improved conditions of soil, fertilizers, control of insect pests.
5- Cultivation of the drug near pharmaceutical firm for the manufacture
process, thus preventing deterioration of the vegetable drugs by carless
handling and lower the costs of transportation.
6- Cultivation is essential in the case of drugs subjected to governmental
control as opium.
Disadvantages of cultivation of medicinal plants
1- The high cost of production due to high prices and cost of land.
2- Loss of plants due to adverse weather conditions such as rain, attack of
fungi, insects and diseases.
3- Cultivation modifies the morphological as well as the anatomical
characters of the wild plant so that the identification of the plant became
difficult and many varieties are produced.
4- Medicinal plants require a particular environment not readily obtainable
under cultivation as cannabis requires tropical climate for production of
the narcotic resin.

• For success in cultivation, it is necessary to study the condition under

which the plant grows in the wild state.
• Cultivation of medicinal plants may be either by germination of the
seeds or by other vegetative means.

- 52 -
 Factors affecting variability of drug activity

Cultivation of drug plant makes a considerable variation in its

morphological or anatomical characters and in the contents of the
therapeutically active constituents.

This variation may arise because of:

1- Genetic factors

2- Ecologic factors

3- Processes adopted during production and storage of the crude drugs.

I- Genetic Factors

1- Polyploidy:

• Each living cell contains in its nucleus two sets of chromosomes and
termed as diploid organism. The chromosomes can be grouped into three
(triploid) or high (polyploid).
• The effect of polyploidy may be to increase the absolute quantities of
active constituents per plant.
• Polyploidy may arise in a plant through natural means or by treating the
seeds with heat, specific chemical agents as colchicine.
• In the presence of colchicine, chromosomes undergoing mitosis so that
four sets of chromosomes remain in one cell to give tetrapolid plant. The
seeds are soaked in aqueous solution of colchicine (0.2%) for 1-2 days
before planting.
• Example: Lobelia inflata (tetraploid) has 0.3-0.5% more alkaloids than
the diploid plant.

- 53 -
2- Hybridization:

• Hybridization forms a possible mean of combining the desirable

characters of two different varieties or species in a single variety,
producing new and desirable characters not present in either parent.
• It is used to increase content of active constituents or some other
characteristics
• Example: Hybridization of Nicotiana tobacum is important in the
commercial production of tobaco in which both the quantity and the
nature of alkaloids produced are important.

3- Selection:

• Continued selection and crossing of the most desirable individual may

result a greater improvement in the particular desirable quality chosen.
• Example: Selection work on Cinchona ledgeriana with about 5%
alkaloids had furnished types which yield bark with up to 15% alkaloids.

4- Mutation:

• Mutation is a change in the nature of a gene produced by exposure of

this gene to ionizing radiation as X-rays and radioactive isotopes or non-
ionizing radiation as U.V.
• Example: Mutant of Datura stramonium prepared by moderate gamma
radiation of the seeds produced an increase of the alkaloidal content of
the plants without changing the nature of proportion of individual
alkaloids.

- 54 -
 II- Ecologic Factors

1- Light

Photosynthesis is light-dependent • and its rate influenced by changes in

temperature

Example: In cloudy weather the • amount of carbohydrates produced in the

leaves is decreased and this decrease within limit is proportional to the
intensity of light.

2- Temperature

• Temperature has a great effect on seedling

• The rate of growth increases as the temperature is increased until an
optimum value is reached then a decrease in growth rate due to
inactivation of enzymes and proteins.
• Examples: It is reported that the alkaloidal contents of stramonium
leaves is lower in rainy weather, belladonna grown in sunny location
contains three to four times more alkaloids than plants grown in shade.

3- Water, minerals and oxygen

All plants require water and calcium for their normal nutrition, but some
plants as digitalis cannot be grown on chalky soils due to alkalinity.

4- Latitude

The effect of latitude is very clear in the case of the production by plants

• Example:
- Fats from tropical plants contain largely saturated fatty acids
- Fats from subtropical plants contain a larger proportion of
unsaturated fatty acids
- Fats of plants grown in cold regions contain mainly unsaturated
fatty acids.
- 55 -
5- Altitude

 This effect has no definite rule which will enable the procedure to
predict the activity of a given species.
 Umbelliferous fruits yield high % of volatile oil when lowland than in
high, while cascara produce high % of A.C. At higher levels.

6- Age of the plant

• Aged and young plants yield drugs of different activity as camphor tree
need 40 years to give reasonable yield.

7 -Allelopathy

•The word allelopathy = allelon (of each other) + pathos (to suffer)

•Allelopathy refers to the chemical inhibition of one species by another.

The "inhibitory" chemical is released into the environment where it affects
the development and growth of neighboring plants.

•Allelopathic chemicals can be present in any part of the plant. They can be
found in leaves, flowers, roots, fruits, or stems. They can also be found in
the surrounding soil. Target species are affected by these toxins in many
different ways. The toxic chemicals may inhibit shoot/root growth, they
may inhibit nutrient uptake

8- Plant growth regulators

There are three groups of compounds which play important roles in cell
division, cell enlargement and cell differentiation which include:

A- Gibberellins which act on cell enlargement.

B- kinetins which influence cell division.

C- Auxins which affect enlargement of new cells.

- 56 -
9- Time of collections

• The % of A.C. In the plant organ differs during its life from stage to
another, and the most valuable drug is collected from plants at specific
time in which the organ contains the highest %
• Example: pyrethrum flowers, the flower bud are more valuable than
expanded flowers because they contain more of the A.C. Pyrethrins.

2- Collection of drugs
The drug should be collected when it contains the highest amount of active
constituents.
Collection of Drugs is controlled by many factors such as:
I-Part or organ of the plant
Part of the plant to be collected which contain the maximum amount of
active constituents
II- Effect of time:
An active constituent may be present in summer but absent in winter, not
only the time of the year but also the time of the day
Time of year (as Rhubarb)

Time of day (as Digitalis)

Stage of maturity and age (Solanaceous leaves)

• Time of year
The active constituents of drug vary quantitatively and qualitatively
throughout the year, thus the plant in winter may contain substances which
differ in type and quantity than those present in the same plant in summer.

- Rhubarb: contains anthranol in winter but in the warmer seasons (spring

& summer) they are oxidized into anthraquinone which are active
laxatives, while the formers are emetic and produce gripping so the drug
is collected in spring or early summer.
- 57 -
- Colchicum corm: Collected in spring and early summer to obtain high
percent of active constituents (colchicine). If collected in autumn or winter
it contains starch only and used instead of potatos as food in Austria

• Time of day
The time of the day has a great influence in determining the
concentration of active constituents in drug plant.

Example: Digitalis leaves collected in the afternoon contain more

glycosides than those collected in the morning where the aglycones were
linked to sugars by the sun power.

- Solanaceous leaves contain higher alkaloidal content in the morning as the

alkaloids are synthesized all over the night.

-The roots and rhizomes rich in mucilage and starch are collected in the
morning.

• Stage of maturity and age:

- Clove is collected in the bud form.
- Conium maculatum contains its alkaloid when it is mature but unripe.
- Santonica flower collected unexpanded, as santonin when exposed to light
it converts to chromosantonin (inactive).
- Solanaceous leaves are collected at the flowering stage, if they collected
at the fruiting stage, the alkaloids decrease.

General precaution on the time of collection

Roots and rhizomes: Annuals (shortly before flowering)

Biennial (autumn following the first year)

Perennial (autumn following the second year)

Bulbs: Autumn, long after the plant has flowered

- 58 -
Barks: After the leaf fall or before new leaves developing
Leaves: Dry weather at beginning of flower

Flowers: Full grown

Seeds and fruits: Full grown and ripe or nearly ripe

3- Treatment after collection

Bulking

The packages are emptied over the floor of warehouse and the contents are
mixed and repacked. e.g. tea and cardamom

Garbling

The drug is picked over carefully to remove foreign matters and is then
sorted into different grade and finally repacked.

Several methods are followed in picking and cleaning processes such as:

1- Manual picking
2- Mechanical shaking
For senna leaves it helps to separate the leaf bale into leaves, pods and
dirties.
For umbelliferous fruits it helps to separate the fruits from dirties and
foreign matters.
3- Brushing and washing
It usually applied with roots and other underground organs by cleaning
them from soil and then washing them before drying e.g. calumba root

- 59 -
Special treatments

1-Scraping and peeling:

- Cinnamon bark: the outer layers (cork and cortex) were removed by
scraping.
- Colocynth fruits are peeled before drying.
- Liqurice roots are peeled before drying.
- Ginger rhizomes are scraped before drying.
2- Slicing:
Large organs such as calumba roots are subjected to slicing to facilitate
drying

3-Bleaching or Liming:

Covering drugs with thin layer of calcium carbonate e.g. ginger rhizomes

4-Fermentation:

It is used when enzymatic hydrolysis is required with some drugs such as

gentian root, where slow drying is applied to help the enzyme activity.

4- Drying
Drying means the removal of water (moisture) from the plant material.

- Objective of drying:
1- To aid in their preservation
2- To facilitate their packing, storage and transport as it reduces their
weight and bulk.
3- To facilitate its change to powder form.
4- To prevent the growth of micro-organisms such as bacteria and fungi.

- 60 -
 • Classification of drying
1- Natural drying
a- Sun drying:
-Drugs spread in single layer, and as drying proceeds are turned over and
then covered at night.
-Shelves which are shaded must be used when the sun is powerful.
• Disadvantages:
1- It may affect the colour, odour, active constituents of drugs.
2- Time consuming (4-7 days).

b- Drying in shad
This process is cheap and takes longer time, but used to remove these
disadvantages.

2- Artificial drying
It is more rapid method than natural drying

a- Vacuum drying (for sensitive drugs to high temp.)

b- Freeze drying (lyophylization)

The principle of this process is the removal of the water content of the drug
when present in the frozen state under vaccum at which is sublimed into
vapours directly without passing through the liquid state

- 61 -
 continue from here
3- Storage
Proper storage can be accomplished if the deterioration factors of plants are
taken into consideration

The principal factors responsible for deterioration of crude drugs:

I- Physico-chemical factors:
A- Moisture
Moisture activates enzymes, which lead to hydrolysis of active constituents
and decrease its percent, increase bulk of the drug and help growth of
micro-organisms on the drugs.
- The active constituents of digitalis and ergot undergo rapid changes due
to the presence of enzymes which need humidity
- Fixed oils undergo rancidity in the presence of high % of moisture in
plant material
Stabilization: inhibition of enzymatic action by:
• Temporary: by placing containers over dehydrating agent as quick
lime (absolute dry condition) or by natural drying.
• Complete: destruction of enzyme permanently by exposure of fresh
drug to alcohol vapour or dipping in alcohol.
Sensitive drugs are stored in well closed containers.
Moisture % must not exceed 5% to avoid enzymatic hydrolysis, bacterial
and fungal growth as well as insect attack.

B- Light
It affects stored drugs in different ways
1-It destroys sensitive active constituents e.g: Digitalis decompose
its active constituents by sunlight.
2- Affect colored drugs e.g. santonica turns black and rhubarb
(yellow) turns red.
Drugs affected by light should be stored in dark places or using
opaque or amber-coloured glass
- 62 -
C- Temperature
Enzymes act rapidly by raising temperature between 35 and 40 °C.
High temperature evaporates volatile constituents leading to rapid
deterioration of the drug e.g. chamomile.
The use of low temperature during storage is a fundamental factor to
preserve the plant materials.

D-Air (Oxygen of the air):

It brings about oxidation of active constituents.
-Rancidity of fixed oils. e.g. Linseed or cod-liver oil.
- Resinification of volatile oils. e.g. lemon oil.
So to protect the drug from the physico-chemical factors it should be stored
in well closed containers in air-tight light proof containers at low temp.

II- Biological factors:-

These include living organisms
1- Bacteria and fungi
2- Moulds, mites and worms.
3- Insects
4- Rodent

Drugs contaminated by bacteria and fungi can be freed by sterilization by

ethylene oxide.

- 63 -
Insects could be controlled by:-
1- Heat treatment: at 60-65°C can kill insects and their eggs, but it is
not suitable for drugs that contain thermolabile or volatile
constituents.
2- Freezing: (-10 to -20 °C) It is the most suitable as it does not affect
the constituents and kill adults and eggs.
3- Fumigation: It is suitable for large quantities. Drugs are subjected to
a poisonous gas or liquid vapour in a closed room e.g. CS2, HCN,
CCl4, T-gas (90%ethylene oxide+10%CO2) or 60 CO.
this method doesn't affect eggs, so we repeat the process 3 times
every 2 weeks.
4- Liming: Drugs covered by coat of lime to protect them from insect
e.g. Ginger and Nutmeg.

• Attack drugs in paper, cloth or wooden containers. Presence of filth of

rodents, their hairs or excreta causes rejection of drugs.
• Packing in metal, plastic or glass containers prevent this attack.
• Using rodenticides as A.N.T.U. (Alpha Naphthyl Thio Urea) or
Warfarin cause hemorrhage of rodents.
• For good storage use: drugs must be stored in moisture proof, light
proof, air tight and inert containers at low temperature.
• Drugs containing volatile oils: should be stored in tin-lined boxes
completely filled and containing a dehydrating agent.
• Volatile oils: should be stored in enameled completely filled amber-
colored glass containers.
• Fixed oils: should be stored in completely filled amber-colored glass
containers.

- 64 -
 Adulteration of herbal drugs

Adulteration is substitution of the original crude drugs partially or

fully with other substances which free from therapeutic effect and
chemical properties.

Methods of Adulteration:

1- Spoilage:
Is a standard condition produced by microbial contamination. It can be
avoided by careful attention to the drying, and storage conditions.

2- Deterioration:
Is an impairment of the quality or value of the drug due to destruction
of the constituents.

3- Admixture:
Addition of one article through accident by ignorance or carelessness

4- Sophistication:
Is the deliberate addition of spurious or inferior material with intent to
defraud (cheat)

5- Spiking:
Addition of synthetic material to increase the active ingredient to the
required level of standardization Ephedrine is in case of Ephedra sp.

6- Substitution:
Addition of an entirely different article in place of that which is
required e,g. supply of cheap cottonseed oil in place of olive oil.

- 65 -
 Natural products

Natural products: are chemical substances resulted from synthesis,

transformations and rearrangement of molecules carried out in living cells
and have pharmacological or biological activities.

The natural products are classified to:

1- Reserved food materials: As starch or carbohydrates, oils and protein.

2- By-products: As Calcium oxalate

3- Active constituents

- Which possess medicinal values

- As alkaloids, glycosides, volatile oils, tannins, vitamins and
hormones.

1- Reserved food materials

1- Starch

• It is the principle food reserve of plants.

• When there is more glucose present in the organism than is needed at
the moment, starch is deposited in the plant cell.
• Starch is most abundant in storage organs as seeds, fruits, root and
stem.

Structure of starch

• It consists of number of α-D-glucose units.

• It consists of two structurally different polysaccharides one linear
(amylose) and the other branched (amylopectin).
• Hydrolysis of starch involves the cleavage of the 1,4-glycosidic
linkage and the production of many molecules of glucose. This is done by
the enzymes called glycosidases (ß-amylase).
- 66 -
 Difference between amylose and amylopectin

Amylose Amylopectin

• - More water soluble • - Less water soluble

• - Represent 10-25% • - Represent 75-90%
• - MW 10000-50000 • - MW 50000-100000
• •
- Linear chain of glucose unit 1,4- - Branched structure, the main
linkage chain 1,4-linkage, and the
branches are 1,6-linkage
• - Give blue colour with iodine • - Give a bluish-red or violet colour
with iodine
• - Completely hydrolyzed by ß- - 60% is hydrolyzed by ß-amylase
amylase into maltose

- 67 -
Kinds of starch

1- Assimilatory starch

It is found as granules in chloroplasts of the green parts, converted to

soluble carbohydrate and carried down to other parts.

2- Transitory starch

It is deposited in xylem, phloem, pith and cortex, in the form of small

granules and utilized by the growing organs.

3- Reserve or permanent starch.

Starch that is transported to storage organs in the form of more or less

permanent reserve food material.

 Properties of starch
A- Physical properties
- Colour :White
- Condition: powder
- Taste :Starchy
- Odour: Odourless
- Solubility: Insoluble in cold water

B- Chemical properties

• Effect of moist heat: gelatinization

• Dilute acid: hydrolysis to glucose
• Concentrated H2SO4 acid: charring
• Dilute and concentrated alkalis: gelatinization
• Chloral hydrate: gelatinization
• Phenols: transparent effect
• Iodine solution: blue colour
• Fehling’s reagent: no reduction of Fehling’s solution (no red ppt.)

- 68 -
 a) Potato starch
• Origin: It is a polysaccharide
granules obtained from the tubers of
Solanum tuberosum L. F: Solanaceae
• Microscopical characters:
Shape: individual granules are ovoid to
subspherical

Size: large

Hilum: pointed, eccentric

Striation: well-marked concentric

striation

Aggregation: mostly simple, few are

compounds and semi compounds

b) Wheat starch
- Origin: It is a polysaccharide granules
obtained from the grains of Triticum
aesativum L. F. Graminae

- Microscopical characters:

Shape: rounded or lenticular

Size: medium

Hilum: pointed or line, centric

Striation: faint, concentric striation

Aggregation: mostly simple

- 69 -
 c) Maize starch
• Origin: It is a polysaccharide granules
obtained from the grains of Zea mays L.
F. Graminae
• Microscopical characters:
Shape: polyhedral with rounded angles

Size: medium

Hilum: cleft, centric

Striation: absent

Aggregation: mostly simple

d) Rice starch
• Origin: It is a polysaccharide granules
obtained from the grains of Oryza sativa
L. F. Graminae
• Microscopical characters:
Shape: polyhedral with sharp angles

Size: small

Hilum: absent

Striation: absent

Aggregation: mostly compound

 Uses of starch
1- Nutrient
2- Diluents or disintegrant
3- Antidote for iodine poisoning
4- Starting material for liquid glucose, dextrose, dextrin, maltose

- 70 -
 2- Glycogen

• It is the reserve polysaccharide of the animal kingdom and is found in

the muscles and especially in the liver of animals.
• Unlike starch, glycogen is not differentiated morphologically
• It consists of branched molecules of 1,4-α linkage of glucose with 1,6 -
linkage.
• Preparation
It is prepared by boiling liver in 30% KOH to destroy the combined
proteins and precipitating the glycogen with ethanol.

• Properties
It is white, amorphous, odourless, tasteless powder and gives red brown
colour with iodine.

3- Inulin

 It replaces starch as the reserve carbohydrate in the subterranean organs

of a number of species as compositae.
 It is hydrolyzed by acids to D-fructose, but not hydrolyzed by amylase
enzyme.
 Properties
It is white powder, slightly soluble in cold water and does not give colour
with iodine.

 Uses: it is used in culture media as identifying agent for certain bacteria.

- 71 -
 4- Cellulose

 The main constituent of the cell walls of plants

 Structure
It is a linear polysaccharide consisting simply of 1,4-β-D-glucopyranose

Its complete hydrolysis by conc. mineral acids yields β-D-glucose

 Uses
Employed as surgical dressing and for manufacture of explosives

5- Mucilage

• Are complex polysaccharides that occur as white amorphous mass,

found in the cortical cells of the roots, rhizomes and in the leaves, the
endosperm of seeds or in special cell

• Classification of mucilage:
a- Neutral mucilage
b- Mucilage containing uronic acid residue
c- Seaweed mucilage

• Uses of the mucilage:

1- Lubricant
2- Demulcent or emollient
3- Cathartic
4- Vehicle in pharmaceutical preparations

* Chemical test:
1- Ruthenium red gives red colour (pectose type present in Senna, buchu)
2- Coralline soda gives red colour (callose type found in Squill).
3- Methylene blue gives blue colour (neutral type of Fenugreek).

- 72 -
 6- Pectin

 It is produced during ripening of fruits

 It has a high complex molecular weight
 It disperses in water to a viscous colloidal solution

 Uses
1- It is classified as a protective having the property of conjugating toxins
and absorbing them, so it is used in treatment of intestinal disorders as
diarrhea and dysentery.
2- In pharmacy as a gel and emulsion stabilizer.
3- Preparation of jellies.

7- Chitin

 It is a nitogenous polysaccharide present in certain fungi as ergot.

 It is hydrolysed by strong acids to glucosamine and acetic acid.
 It gives with iodine-potassium iodide solution a brown colour.

8- Protein

 Nitrogenous organic reserve food materials of essential nutritive value

 They are present in all living cells and stored by plants usually in the
form of amorphous masses or small particles called aleurone grains
 Aleurone grains are larger in size in oily cells than those in starchy cells
 The different shapes, sizes and composition of aleurone grains can
be used as a mean for crude drug identification
 The simplest aleurone grain consists of a mass of protein surrounded
by a thin membrane
 The ground mass of protein encloses one or more rounded bodies
known as globoid and an angular body known as crystalloid

- 73 -
  Aleurone grains are best observed after defating and removal of
starch

Fig. Aleurone grains. A, cells from cotyledon of seed of garden bean; n,

aleurone grains; m, starch; B, cells from endosperm of castor bean; a,
aleurone grains; l, ground substance; k, crystalloid; j, globoid.

• All proteins are insoluble in organic solvents.

• They are generally precipitated or coagulated by heat, by marking
change in pH or by high salt concentrations.

●Chemical tests (microscopically)

1- Red colour or precipitate with Millon’s reagent

2- Picric acid solution 1% stains the crystalloid and ground substance only
yellow, leaving globoid unstained

3- Iodine solution stains crystalloid and ground substance yellowish brown

leaving globoid unstained

- 74 -
 9- Fixed oils, Fats and Waxes

- Reserve food materials occurring in various parts of the plants and

animals
- Mixture of esters of fatty acids with glycerols (glycerides or glyceryl
esters)
- Greasy, nonvolatile, viscous, liquids (oils), semisolid (fats) or solid
(waxes).
- Insoluble in water or cold alcohol, soluble in ether, chloroform,
petroleum ether
- They are hydrolysed by aqueous alkalies giving soap (salt of fatty acids)
- Give permanent stain on paper

• Colour reactions
1-Stained red with Sudan III reagent (on warming) and dil. Alkanna tr.
(within 30 minutes)

2- Stained green with chlorophyll tincture in alcohol

- 75 -
 2-Secondary plant metabolites (Active constituents)

Function of these metabolites could be any one or more of the following

• These act as protective agents.
• They are the waste products of metabolism (detoxification).
• They are not nutrient but biosynthesized to aid survival of the
producers.
• They are energy producers and physiologically active.
They are divided into several classes such as carbohydrates and related
compounds, glycosides, alkaloids, lipids, volatile oils, resins…etc

I- Volatile Oils (V.O.)

• They are the most important odorous principles found in various plant
parts.
• Due to their evaporation on exposure to air at ordinary temperatures, they
are named volatile oils, ethereal oils or essential oils
• They are mixture of hydrocarbons mainly terpenes with isoprene unit
“C5H8” and oxygenated compounds (oxides, peroxides, ketones, aldehydes
and alcohols……etc
• According to the plant family, volatile oils may occur in specialized
secretory structures such as glandular hairs, oil cells, oil ducts or tubes, as
well as internal lysigenous or schizogenous glands.
• Volatile oils are not saponified by alkalis, and resinified due to oxidation.

- Preparation of volatile oils

• Distillation in water or steam

• Extraction with solvents

• Enzymatic hydrolysis
- 76 -
The role of volatile oils in the plants

• They serve as detoxification products

• They may attract the insects, thus aiding in pollination of the flowers
• They may also serve as solvents for wound healing resins

Uses of volatile oils

Carminative, Diuretic, Anthelmintic, Mild antiseptic, widely used in

perfumery, widely used as spices for flavoring of food.

Chemical Tests

• With Sudan III reagent give red colour

• With Alkanna Tr. give red colour

II-Glycosides
• Non-reducing organic compounds hydrolyzed by acids, alkalies or
enzymes
• It consists of a sugar part (glycone) formed of one or more sugar unit
and a non-sugar part (aglycone or genin).
• The combination occurs by the condensation of OH from the sugar and
that of the aglycone, the loss of water and formation of oxide ring-O-C
(ethers of sugars) or C-C glycosidic linkages.
• Glycosides are widely distributed in nature. They usually accompanied
with enzymes used in either synthesis or hydrolysis
• Glycosides are crystalline or amorphous substances.
• The glycosides are soluble in water and hydroalcoholic solvents and the
aglycones are soluble in organic solvents while sugars are soluble in
water

- 77 -
• General test:
Molisch’s test:
Few mg of glycosides + alc. α-naphthol + H2SO4 on sides of the test tube,
bluish violet ring is formed at the junction of the two layers which is
spreading on shaking.

• Functions of glycosides in the plant

1- Represent stored food reserves
2- Regulating agents responsible for physiologic maturation of root
tissues
3- Detoxifying many substances by transforming them to glycosides
4- Defense against micro-organisms

• Classification of Glycosides:
1- According to the glycosidal linkage
It is a linkage between the sugar parts to the aglycone

• O-glycoside (oxygen of the reducing group connected to aglycone

part)
• C-glycoside (direct connection)
• S-glycoside (connection through the sulfur, S-C bond)
• N-glycoside (connection through the nitrogen, N-C bond)

- 78 -
 2- According to the nature of the aglycone (genin):
3-
A. Phenolic glycosides:
B.
1- Simple phenolic glycosides:
The aglycones containing phenolic groups together with either alcoholic
groups or carboxylic acid groups, e.g. arbutin in Uva Ursi leaf.

Chemical Tests
Microsublimation test: moistening the dry powdered leaves with dil. HCl.
Heating on a watch glass and collecting the sublimate which is needle
crystals of hydroquinone

Uses
1- Diuretic
2- Mild astringent
3- Used in cystitis
Urinary tract antiseptic

- 79 -
 2- Anthraquinones

They are a group of glycosides in which the aglycones are anthracene

derivatives having cathartic properties

Rhein (Rhubarb)

Anthracenes were found to be present naturally at different reduction levels

( anthranols and anthrone) and compounds in the diametric forms which are
formed by the union of two anthrone molecules (dianthrone). These
anthracene compounds occur in the medicinal plants in some cases as the
aglycones of O-glycosides and in other cases as the aglycones of C-
glycosides.

Chrysophanol anthranol Chrysophanol anthrone

Sennoside A Sennoside C

- 80 -
 Chemical Tests

• Bornträger test
The powdered drug is macerated with ether, filtrate, and then shake the
ethereal filtrate with aqueous ammonia or alkali, a rose red colour is
produced indicate the presence of free aglycones. If they are in glycosidal
form, a hydrolysis step with 2N HCl is required before carrying the test.

• Modified Borntrager's test: in case of dianthrone e.g. sennosoides:

Boil the powder with alc. KOH ,filter. Add dil. HCl to the filtrate and
extract with ether. Oxidize with H2O2. Add NH4OH to the ethereal extract
and shake, a rose red colour is produced in the aqueous layer.

Uses

They are used as laxative, however anthranols have a strong effect and may
cause vomiting, therefore drugs containing anthranols must be stored at
least for one year before use.

3-Flavonoid glycosides

- These are the largest group of naturally occurring phenols

- They are yellow plant pigment. Their name is derived from the Latin name
flavus (yellow)
- This group is described as a series of C6-C3-C6 compounds
- Flavonoids are characterized by containing a pyrone ring linking the three
carbon chain with one of the benzene rings

Rutin Diosmin
- 81 -
 Uses

- Diuretic (Buchu), Antispasmodic (Liquorice)

- Decrease the capillary fragility through reduce the capillary permeability as
rutin and diosmin
- Decrease the bleeding tendency in scurvy
- Isoflavonoids have oestrogenic properties
- Antioxidants

Chemical Tests

- Yellow colour and fluorescence with aluminum chloride, ammonia or other

alkalis

4- Cardiac glycosides

* These are steroids having the ability to exert specific powerful action on
the cardiac muscle on injection into human or animal
* Cardiac glycosides increase the tone, excitability and contractility of the
cardiac muscle. In addition to its cardiotonic activity, they can be detected
as a precursor for vitamin D and sex hormones.

* Cardenolides
They have five member lactone rings as digitoxigenins in Digitalis

* Bufadenolides
They have six member lactone rings as scillarenins in Squill leaf

* The sugar part of the cardiac glycosides is grouped into two main types:
Sugars of normal occurrences as glucose and rhamnose or Deoxy sugars
which are of common occurrence in cardiac glycosides only as digitoxose,
cymarose and fucose

- 82 -
 Chemical tests

* Liebermann’s test
It is characteristic for the steroidal part of the cardiac glycoside. A solution
of the glycoside in glacial acetic acid, on addition of conc. H2SO4, a blue -
red-green colour is produced

* Kedde's test
An equal mixture of 2% of 3,5-dinitrobenzoic acid in methanol and 5% w/v
of aqueous solution of KOH is added to the glycoside solution, a bluish
violet colour is obtained.

* Keller-Killiani test
It is specific for the deoxy sugars. In a test tube, the tested glycoside is
dissolved in glacial acetic acid containing two drops of 5% FeCl3. Conc.
H2SO4 containing the same amount of 5% FeCl3 is added carefully on the
wall of the test tube, an intense blue colour is developed at the surface
between the two layers, spreading gradually into the acetic acid layer

- 83 -
 5- Saponin glycosides

• They are a group of complex glycosides widely distributed in higher plants

• These glycosides are characterized by producing persistent froth on shaking
their aqueous solution and produce blood haemolysis
• They have sternutatory odour and cause irritation of the mucous membrane
of eyes and nose
• Saponins have emulsifying properties, so can used as detergents

Classification

According to the structure of their aglycones (sapogenins) as following:

• Steroidal saponins: their aglycones have 27 carbon atoms as sarsaponin.

• Triterpenoidal saponins: their aglycones have 30 carbon atoms as
glycyrrhizic acid

Diosgenin α-amyrin

Uses of saponins

- Expectorant or demulcent
- Precursor for synthesis of hormones and cortisone
- In laboratory for determination of cholesterol in plasma,
bile and tissue fluids
- 84 -
 -
Chemical tests

1- Froth test
Shake the aqueous solution of saponin or plant powder with water, gives
persistent froth

2- Haemolysis test
Suspension of RBCs in normal saline in test tube + equal volume of
saponin, shake gently, a clear red solution indicating haemolysis of RBCs.

6- Thioglycosides

- This group called also sulfurated glycosides. The aglycones of which

are mainly thiocyanates.
- All glycosides of this class contain sulfuric acid residue and on
hydrolysis they give a potassium salt.
- The most important examples are singrin in black mustard seed and
sinalbin in white mustard seed.

Singrin

7- Cyanogenetic glycosides

- These are a group of glycosides giving in hydrolysis hydrocyanic acid.

- Although they contain nitrogen, their structure is that of O- and not N-

glycosides.

- They have high poisonous characters due to the hydrocyanic acid which is
released through their enzymatic hydrolysis.

- The most important examples in plants are Linamarin present in Linseed

and amygdalin in Bitter almond seed.
- 85 -
 Amygdalin

Chemical tests

 Guignard reaction
A strip of filter paper is dipped into a 1% aqueous solution of picric acid,
drained and then re-dipped into a 10% solution of sodium carbonate and
dried

This paper is put in the opening of a test tube containing the moistened
plant material. The test tube is set aside in a warm place. The sodium
picrate paper will turn from yellow to brick red

III- Alkaloids

- They are bitter, nitrogenous, basic, having a pharmacological action.

- They occur in plants generally in combination with acids (as salts) e.g.
malic acid, oxalic acid, tartaric acid
- Sometimes they are present in combination with special acids, e.g. opium
alkaloids with meconic acids
- Alkaloids are not confined to a specific organ;
- it may in all organs as in Datura,
- in bark as in Cinchona,
- in leaves as in Belladonna,

- 86 -
- in seeds as in Nux Vomica,
- in roots and rhizomes as in Ipecacuanha.
- They are formed in certain organ and translocated to another one e.g. in
tobacco, they are formed in the root and accumulated in the leaves.
- Alkaloidal base are soluble in non-polar organic solvents and insoluble in
water.
- Alkaloidal salts are soluble in water and insoluble in organic solvents.
- Most of alkaloids have heterocyclic nitrogen Some have nitrogen outside
the ring
- The majority of alkaloids contain oxygen and in this case they are solid
and crystalline except pilocarpine and pelletierine
- Some alkaloids are free from oxygen as nicotine and in this case the
alkaloids are liquid and odorous.

- Alkaloidal precipitants
Alkaloids form ppt with many reagents containing heavy metals such as
Mayer’s Reagent gives white or pale yellow ppt with most of the
alkaloids

- Nomenclature
- The generic name of the plant yielding it, e.g. atropine from Atropa
belladonna.
- The common name of the drug yielding it, e.g. ergotamine from Ergot.
- The physical properties of the alkaloid, e.g. hygrine which is a
hygroscopic alkaloid.
- The name of the discoverer of the alkaloid, pelletierine (discovered by
Pelletier)
- The physiological activity of the alkaloid, e.g. emetine, narcotine.

- 87 -
 IV- Tannins

• They are naturally phenolic substances present in a number of plants,

having the ability to combine with animal protein, prevent their putrefaction
and convert them into leather; which is called tanning process.
• Non-crystalline amorphous complex compounds, soluble in water forming
an astringent colloidal solution. They are also soluble in alkalis, alcohol,
glycerol and acetone
Classification of Tannins

Hydrolysable Condensed (non-hydrolysable)

(pyrogallol tannins) (catechol tannins)

Polyhydric alcohol e.g. glucose, Condensation of two or more

esterifies by several molecules of phenolic molecules and they have
phenolic acids as Gallic acid. no sugars in their molecule.

Hydrolysed with acid or enzyme Cannot be hydrolysed.

Give pyrogallol on hydrolysis Give catechol on pyrolysis

Blue black colour with FeCl3 Green colour with FeCl3

No colour with bromine water Buff ppt. with bromine water

Chemical test

- Goldbeater’ test
A piece of ox intestine is soaked in dilute HCl for 2 minutes, washed
thoroughly, then soaked in the test solution, washed, then transferred to
FeSO4 solution where it acquires a brown to black colour

- 88 -
- Psuedotannins
These are lower molecular weight substances and not respond to
Goldbeater’ test, e.g. Gallic acid and catechins

Uses

- Astringent for the treatment of burns and gastrointestinal disorders

- Antidotes in alkaloids or heavy metal toxicity
- Reagent for the detection of gelatine and proteins

V- Resins

• Resins are a group of related solid or semi-solid substances of very

complex chemical nature and variable chemical composition.
• Chemically, resins are divided into resin alcohol, resin acids, resin
esters and glycosidal resins.
• They are hard, transparent brittle substances.
• They considered as pathological products found abnormally in the
plants and they are usually present mixed with volatile oils (oleo-resin)
or with gum and oil (oleo-gum resin).

VI- Balsams

- They are resinous mixtures that contain benzoic or cinnamic acids or

both or esters of these acids.
- They have aromatic odour.
- For examples, balsam of tolu, balsam of Peru

- 89 -
 Powders of natural occurrence

1- Lycopodium (Vegetable sulphur)

● Origin :
Lycopodium consists of ripe spores of Lycopodium clavatum, Family:
Lycopodiaceae

● G .S: U.K, Poland, India

● Collection and preparation:

The matured cones are cut off, dried and shaken to separate the
spores .Vegetable debris is removed by sifting through fine sieves and
the spores are packed in sacks

● Description
- Lycopodium is a very mobile fine powder.
- Yellow in colour.
- Lighter than water, it floats on its surface.
- It burns with a brilliant flash when it is thrown into the flame.
- The spores are resistant to pressure.
- They do not affected by dil. acids or alkalis
- It is odourless and tasteless

● Microscopy
- Each spore is tetrahedral in shape ;it has the shape of the fourth
part of a sphere( three faces are triangular and flat, while the
fourth is convex and triangular(
- The outer surface is covered with a network of raised
ridges forming a honeycomb appearance
-

- 90 -
●Active constituents

1- 50 % fixed oils which consist of the glycerides of lycopodium-oleic

acid in addition to palmetic and linoleic acids.
2- Traces of alkaloids.
3- Sitosterols.

● Uses
1. Dusting powder to prevent adhesion of pills
2. Standard reference in quantitative microscopy
3. Making snuffs
4. In manufacture of the fire works

● Adulteration
Lycopodium can be adulterated with the following: Sulphur, Talc,
yellow dextrin, coloured starch or pollen grain.

2- Lupulin
* Origin
Lupulin consists of the glands obtained from the

strobiles of Humulus lupulus, Family :Cannabinaceae

* G .S :.U.K, Germany, Russia and France

- 91 -
*Collection and preparation

The yellow glands from bracts and fruits of hops can beseparated by
shaking and beating in sieves.

The collected glands are exposed to fumes of sulphur

to stabilize its aroma and colour

*Description

- Lupulin occurs as a granular brownish-yellow powder

- It has a strong hop-like odour.
- It has bitter aromatic taste
- Lupulin darkens in colour during storage and become brown
* Microscopy

-The gland consists of a cup-shaped layer of cells.

-The cuticle of the concave surface is raised to form a dome like by the
secretion of the oil and oleo-resin between it and the cell wall.

-The gland discharge ,when pressed

*Active constituents

1- Volatile oils
2- Bitter principals
3- Oleo-resin and waxes
4- Valerianic acid is formed due to storage

- 92 -
*Uses

1- Bitter stomachic and tonic

2- Hypnotic to promote sleep

3- Kamala

* Origin:

Consists of the glands and hairs that cover the fruits of

Mallotus philippinensis Family: Euophorbiaceae

G. S:. India, Pakistan and Australia

*Collection and preparation

The fruits covered with red powder are collected and dried then rubbed
with hands to detach the red powder which is Kamala.

*Description

- Kamala is a fine granular ,mobile powder of dull red colour.

- Odourless and tasteless
- The powder floats on water.
- It imparts red colour to alcohol ,ether ,chloroform and alkalis ,while
water takes very faint colour.
*Microscopy

- The glands are depressed globular in shape ;filled with a deep red resin
secreted by club-shaped cells radiating from a common center.

- The hairs are thick-walled ,curved unicellular and lignified .They are
arranged in radiating groups (stellate).

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*Active constituents

1- Anthelmintic phloroglycinol derivatives

2- 11 % rottlerin and isorottlerin.

3- Resin 60%, Wax 2%.

*Uses

1- Anthelmintic for tap worm .It expels the worm and produce purgation

2-Used in veterinary medicine

*Adulteration

Ferric oxide or Brick dust Both can be detected easily by throwing a little
of adulterant powder on the surface of water, Kamala will float, while
most other adulterants will sink.

4- Diatomite = Diatomaceous earth = Diatom = Kieselguhr

•Source :

Diatomite consists of the siliceous skeletons of fossil diatoms family

Bacillariaceae (Diatomaceae)

*G. S :.USA, Algeria, Germany and Kenya

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*Collection and preparation:

The naturally occurring powder is digested with dil. HCl, washed with
water and finally dried.

*Description

- It is grayish white powder, smooth but not slippery

- It is odourless and tasteless

- The powder is insoluble in water and organic solvents

- It has low density and not affected by incineration

*Microscopy

-A diatom skeleton is formed of two parts, each part consists of flat or

slightly waved siliceous plate.

-The siliceous plate vary in shape, it may be oblong, oval, circular,

triangular or sigmoid and known as valve

- The two parts fit together like the lid and bottom of a pill box.
- The appearance of a diatom vary according to its position when examined
under microscope, it may be pinnate or discoid

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*Active constituents

1- Silica SiO2

2- Traces of oxides as Al2O3, Fe2O3, and MgO

*Uses:

1- Dusting powder for skin and face preparation

2- In filtration and clarification.
3- In chromatography.
4- Decolorization.
5- Manufacture of tooth paste
6- In manufacture of polishing powders (nails polish)
7- In soap manufacturing
8- To dilute the dangerous effect of dynamite.

5- Talc = mountain flour

* Source :It is hydrated magnesium silicate

* G .S :.France ,Italy and USA

* Collection and preparation:

The talc powder is prepared by boiling with dil .HCl ,washed with water
and dried at 110° C

*Description:

-Fine white powder.

- Tasteless and odorless

- It is slippery on the skin

- The powder is insoluble in water ,acids and alkalis

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-It has high density.

*Microscopy

Talc particles are minute of different

shape and sizes.

The particles are irregular, sharply

angular and show jugged and
laminated end

*Active constituents

1- Hydrated magnesium silicate

2- traces of oxides as Al2O3 and Fe2O3
*Uses:

1- As dusting powder( dusting surgical gloves

2- In filtration and clarification.
3- For coating and dusting pills and tablets
4- As lubricant in tablet manufacturing

6- Chalk
*Source :chalk is a purified calcium carbonate

There are two types:

1- Prepared chalk:
Source: prepared chalk consists of the shells of unicellular Algae and
the shells of unicellular animals known as Foraminifera

G .S :.Egypt and south England

Collection and preparation:

The collected chalk is subjected to grinding in mills ,elutriated and

the coming liquid is allowed to settle .The sediment is dried( known as
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whiting. The whiting is purified by elutriation and dried. The product is
small cones of highly purified chalk used for pharmaceutical
purposes.

Description

- Prepared chalk occurs as white, soft, amorphous, tasteless and odorless

powder.
- It absorbs water but insoluble in it.
- It reacts with acids forming effervescence.
Microscopy

Three types of particles

1- Globigerina :the shell consists of a few globular chambers arranged

spirally
2- Textularia :the shell is composed of grains and sand cemented
together .They are conical in shape and formed of numerous chambers
3- Fossil algae :appear as small rings or discs

*Constituents

1- 98% CaCO3
2- 1% MgCO3
3- Traces of silica

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*Uses:

1- As dusting powder
2- As antacid
3- In tooth and face preparation
4- Treatment of enteritis and diarrhea
5- As adsorbent for toxin from the stomach

2- Precipitated chalk:
- Prepared by decomposition of any soluble calcium salt and any soluble
carbonate
- CaCl2 + Na2CO3→CaCO3 + 2NaCl
- The powdered precipitated chalk has the same characters as prepared
chalk except it has no definite characters under the microscope.

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