CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Introduction

The psychological literature relating to self-esteem has an extensive past; indeed the
idea of the self is an ancient phenomenon. During the first half of the twentieth
century studies of the self disappeared as the prevailing style in psychology was
behaviourism. Since the end of World War II however, the concept of self was once
again brought into importance and by 1980 self-esteem as a topic of study had been
highly popularised (Walz & Bleuer, 1992).

In modern times interest has principally fixed on how having a body weight that
differs from what is seen as normal may affect the self, especially the way in which
people evaluate themselves i.e. their self-esteem. The need to be thin is the worry that
has the most damaging implications for girls’ views of their bodies and of their total
selves (Tiggerman, 2001). This worry often results in dieting which seems to have a
further adverse effect on the psychological well being of adolescents as it is coupled
with poor body image leading to diminished self-esteem (Daee, Robinson, Lawson,
Turpin, Gregory, & Tobias, 2002). Women are likely to judge themselves overweight
when by objective standards they are not (Furnham & Calnan, 1998 cited in Furnham,
Badmin & Sneade, 2002). “Because being thin is important for attractiveness and
attractiveness is important for how women view themselves, many women may work
hard to achieve the thin ideal and feel bad about themselves when they cannot achieve
it” (Fredrickson & Roberts, 1997 cited in Jambekar, Quinn & Crocker, 2001).

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1.2 Aims

The purpose of this study is to examine the relationship of actual and ideal Body Mass
Index (BMI) on global self-esteem in samples of female adolescents. The subject
population will consist of 100 English-speaking, multi-racial, middle class, average
academic achieving adolescent females between the ages of thirteen and eighteen who
attend Benoni High School. The following variables will be investigated: measured
BMI, ideal BMI, global self-esteem, perception of a weight problem, menarcheal
status, age, physical exercise, weight control behaviour and race.

A significance level of .05 as the criterion for significance will be used.

Hypotheses

1- Hypothesis relating to: The association between global self-esteem and perceived
weight problem.
-Global self-esteem scores of the female adolescents who do not perceive themselves
as having a weight problem will be significantly higher than those who perceive
themselves as having a weight problem.

2- Hypothesis relating to: The association between global self-esteem and actual BMI.
- Global self-esteem scores of the female adolescents whose actual BMI falls into the
normal weight group will be significantly higher than those who fall into the
underweight and over-weight groups.

3- Hypothesis relating to: The association between global self-esteem and ideal BMI.
- Global self-esteem scores of female adolescents whose ideal BMI falls into the
normal weight group will be significantly higher than those who fall into the under-
weight group.

4- Hypothesis relating to: The association between global self-esteem and menarcheal
status.

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- Global self-esteem scores of female adolescents who are pre-menarcheal will be
significantly higher than those who are post-menarcheal.

5- Hypothesis relating to: The association between global self-esteem and age of
menarcheal onset.
Global self-esteem scores will be significantly higher for adolescent females who age
of menarcheal onset was average or late, than those whose age of menarcheal onset
was early.

6- Hypothesis relating to: The association between global self-esteem and physical
exercise.
- Global self-esteem scores will be significantly higher for female adolescents who
participate in physical exercise than those who do not participate in physical exercise.

7- Hypothesis relating to: The association between global self-esteem and weight
control behaviour.
- Global self-esteem scores will be significantly higher for female adolescents who do
not participate in any weight loss or healthy weight loss behaviours than those who
participate in moderate and unhealthy weight loss behaviour.

8- Hypothesis relating to: The association between race and global self-esteem of
overweight adolescent females.
- Global self-esteem scores will be significantly higher for an over-weight female
adolescent whose racial identity is Black than those whose racial identity is White.

1.3 Rationale

Motivation for the choice of research topic was a wish to add to, or expand on the
body of knowledge in the area of self-esteem and weight in adolescent females, with a
particular interest in the South African population. Results of past investigations of
this topic have been conflicting and this study has the potential to provide clarity into
the strength of the association between self-esteem and weight. Past research has
shown however that is it not actual body weight alone that impacts on self-esteem but

3
various other variables e.g. ideal body weight (Kim & Kim, 2001), dieting behaviour
(Daee, 2002), puberty (O’Dea & Abraham, 1999) and race (Russell, 2003) that have a
further impact on the association. This study attempted to include as many of these
variables as was possible so as to gain as full a picture as possible.

Physical appearance evaluations are inextricably related to global self-esteem- it is the

number one predictor of self-esteem in all ages (Baumeister, 1993). Since many
societies have been portrayed as being fanatical with the topic of weight this is a
principally prominent aspect of body image for psychologists to investigate (Abell &
Richards, 1996). Obesity in adolescents has increased by seventy-five percent over
the past thirty years and many eating disorders appear to start soon after puberty
(Wadden & Stunkard, 2002).

It is felt that rigorous research is needed on the role that self-esteem plays in these
clinical disorders. Childhood obesity has important implications for long-term health,
as 80% of obese adolescents become obese adults and the physical health risks linked
with obesity are well recognized (Must, Jarques & Dallal, 1992 cited in Cameron,
1999). Results of this study may have implications for interventions for treatment and
prevention of eating disorders as well as increasing self-esteem, health education and
efforts to reduce discrimination of the overweight. Understanding the socio-
environmental determinants that are shared by both low self-esteem and deviant BMI
may help inform the prevention and treatment of these conditions.

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 CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1. Definitions of Self-Esteem

It is important that a clear definition be made when using ‘self-esteem’ as a term in

research as self-esteem as a concept is widely used today, both in ordinary language
and academic psychology which may lead to conceptual confusion. The Dictionary of
Psychology defines self-esteem as “the degree to which one values oneself” (Reber,
1985, pg. 678 cited in Hartgill, 2003). Kernis et al (2000) cited in De Reuck (2002)
purports that self-esteem levels represent people’s general or typical feelings of global
self-worth and liking. Self-esteem is the affective evaluative dimension of self-
perception; the value one attaches to one’s personality, which affects virtually every
facet of life.

The self-concept is the sum of an individual’s mental and physical characteristics and
his evaluation of them; what the self is like as an experiencing and functioning
individual. Self-concept develops in three areas: Self-image (what the person is), ideal
self (what the person would like to be) and self-esteem (how the person feels about
the discrepancy between the two) (Baumeister, 1999) Self-concept is the umbrella
term under which the other three develop. Rogers (1969) cited in Purkey (1970)
asserts that the self is a social product that develops through the experience of
interpersonal relation and is largely dependent on regard from others (Krasner, 2002).
Self-esteem is an indicator of the quality of one’s social relationships i.e. the degree to
which the individual is being included versus excluded by others (Baumeister, 1999).
In other words self-esteem exists not fundamentally to maintain one’s inner sense of
self but motivates people to behave in ways that sustain their connections with other
people. However Baumeister (1989) cited in Doyle et al. (1999), alternatively sees
low self-esteemed individuals as cautious and uncertain rather than highly
maladjusted. Compartmentalisation of the self into several selves that may disapprove
of one another engenders a negative self-evaluation (Bedner & Peterson, 1995).

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Regardless of the exact definition or label one chooses, self-esteem is generally
thought to be the evaluative component of a broad representation of the self, the self-
concept being the most inclusive construct (Robinson et al., 1991).

Self-esteem is an enduring notion of how one values oneself which remains constant
at least for a period of years (Jacoby, 1994). There are lapses in continuity when
serious life events, such as a loss of a loved one, will temporarily alter an individual’s
self-appraisal (Baumeister, 1993).

Two well-known historical scholars of the self are William James and Thomas
Cooley. James is accredited for providing much of the groundwork for theory and
research in the area of self-esteem. James held that it was the individual’s cognitive
evaluation of one’s adequacy in domains deemed important that resulted in a global
concept of self; Cooley on the other hand believed that the origins of self were social
in nature and that there was a pertinent link between one’s perception of the approval
given by others and self-esteem (Baumeister, 1993). James and Cooley’s formulations
together provide a powerful explanation for self-esteem displayed in older children
and adolescents (Harter, 1987 cited in Baumeister, 1993). Brown (1993) cited in
Hoyle et al. (1999) sees global self-esteem as existing separately from specific self-
evaluations. Hoyle et al. (1999) ascribe to a bi-directional relationship existing
between global self-esteem and specific self-evaluations e.g. physical appearance.

According to Doyle et al (1999) individuals with high self-esteem engage in self-

promoting activities, view themselves as both worthwhile and valuable favour a
coping style over avoidance and are comfortable with their weaknesses. Until
recently, low self-esteem was seen to be associated with maladaptive cognitive,
emotional and behavioural patterns (Harter, 1983 cited in Doyle et al., 1999).

2.2. The Development of Self-Esteem

The literature is contradictory with regards to the primary agents responsible for the
formation of the evaluative component of self. Psychoanalytic, Object Relations and
Ego Psychology all agree that differentiation of the self is one of the earliest tasks of

6
the infant. Development and growth allow the infant an increasing ability to
conceptualise that part of the self, available for conscious attention. A good fit
between caretaker and infant is vital as it lays the foundation for a healthy feeling of
self-worth (Jacoby, 1994). Self-esteem emerges at two years of age in relation to the
mother. An internal need to act out independence and autonomy as well as increasing
competence with language facilities results in an increase in self-esteem (Hornbrook,
1988). Children as young as eight years old make judgements of global self-esteem
that are distinguished from evaluation of specific characteristics. During this latency
period practical and dependable methods for the preservation of self-esteem are
evolved (Hornibrook, 1988). A child’s self-esteem develops in response to the
rejection or acceptance they receive from significant others- individuals value
themselves, as they are valued (Coopersmith, 1981). Self-esteem develops and
progresses through stages of increasing complexity. Early stages of self-esteem
develop exclusively from the reactions others have towards the child. This first
impression will form the seed of the child’s feelings of self-worth (Clemes et al.,
1990). According to Erickson’s stage theory, adolescence is one of the most critical
periods in life in terms of developing self-esteem; it is here that one gains a firm sense
of identity (Cardwell et al., 2001). Benson et al (1998) found that pre-adolescent
females and adolescent females are most at risk for developing low self-esteem. The
decline in self-esteem found in preadolescence may be attributed to the transition
from Primary school to High school (Prester, 2003). During adolescence the need for
social acceptance is essential for self-esteem development to occur. The school child
is not self- determined and is likely to be accepting of the ideal images provided by
significant people around him. Extraneous influences lose their potency to the extent
to which the individual becomes self-determined and develops defences, which
protect the self-esteem. Maslow purported the necessity of high self-esteem as a
prerequisite for self-actualisation (Hornibrook, 1988).

In the past one’s own worth was linked to social standing, however with the coming
of the enlightenment and moral idealism, the notion of individual self-worth has been
transformed (Jacoby, 1994). Although both are clearly influential: internal evaluations
play a more important role in the development of self-esteem than do external- “How

7
one perceives one self will always be more influential than how one is perceived by
others” (Bednar & Peterson, 1995 p 201).

2.3. Self-Esteem and the Physical-Self

“To lose confidence in one’s body is to lose confidence in one’s self” (Wadden &
Stunkard, 2002 p 480). The idea of the physical-self is an important component of
self-concept and has long figured significantly in theories about the self and identity
(Miller & Downey, 1999). The original impressions of self-image are mainly concepts
of body image as parents remark on the shape and size of their child. Even
adolescence, according to Paxton et al 1991, cited in Castle & Phillips (2002) rely on
their parents for information regarding body image. Wood et al (1996), Williams &
Currie (2000) & Blyth et al. (1981) cited in Castle & Phillips (2002) note that
children’s body satisfaction is positively correlated with their self-esteem. Festinger
(1954) cited in Castle & Phillips (2002) believed that self-esteem is lowered by social
comparisons, particularly when there is the realisation that the ideal will never be met.
The body image of adolescents revolves around the idea that all people are supposed
to conform to some idyllic norm (Wolman, 1998). Norten et al. (2000) cited in Castle
& Phillips (2002) show that one in every one hundred thousand females are able to
achieve Barbie’s proportions. Studies done by Harter (1990) cited in Baumeister
(1993) reveal a person’s self-perception in physical appearance, is inextricably
correlated to general levels of self-esteem. In fact a merging of self-worth with
appearance and body shape may lead to eating disorders (Newton, 1995). In this way
self-esteem is easily woven into body satisfaction (Castle & Phillips, 2002). A study
of 50 000 English girls found that appearance was their chief concern (Lightstone,
1999 cited in Hartgill, 2003). Females appear particularly vulnerable to standards of
thinness portrayed in the media (Heatherton & Baumeister, 1991 cited in Hartgill,
2003). Baumeister (1993) found that at the end of High School girls develop severely
lowered perceptions of physical magnetism (Baumeister, 1993). Lightstone (1999)
cited in Hartgill (2003) states that ninety-eight percent of teenage girls are worried
about body shape and eighty-six percent are dieting. Physical attributes have a marked
consequence upon self-esteem, the adolescents self-concept is powerfully influenced
by body-weight and perceived body-weight (Prester, 2003).

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2.4. Effects of Racial Identity

It has been proposed that body-image-related concerns be well thought-out in terms

of their cultural framework (Abood & Chandler, 1997 cited in Russell & Cox, 2003).
Despite the fact that the path model derived from self-presentational theory (Leary &
Kowlaski, 1995 cited in Russell & Cox, 2003) indicates that people with higher BMI
would be expected to have greater social physique anxiety, African-American females
have significantly lower social physique anxiety, body dissatisfaction, and higher self-
esteem compared to Caucasian females. Thompson et al (1997) cited in Castle &
Phillips (2002) found that African American girls idealised a heavier figure than did
Caucasian girls. Some studies further show that non-Caucasians tend to have a more
positive body image than Caucasians (Altabe, 1978 cited in Castle & Phillips, 2002).
Thus ethnicity and race have been shown to be causative factors affecting body image
(Abood & Chandler, 1997 cited in Russell & Cox, 2003). Ritenbaugh (1995) cited in
Russell & Cox (2003) found African Americans showed more plasticity in ideal body
images than Caucasian women, and more often report ‘looking good’ associated to
public image and character, than weight. Rosenberg (1979) studying global self-
esteem in minority groups found value standards of reference for social evaluation are
typically based on their own minority group values not those of the majority (Russell
& Cox, 2003). Each individual has a social body which is acquired through
socialisation has been agreed upon within their specific culture. Some cultures are
more flexible than others in their definition of an acceptable social body (Castle &
Phillips, 2002).

Since bodily appearance is such a vital domain in Western culture and because
meeting the requirements of the ideal of a thin, fit body is a central element of
physical appearance, self-perceptions about being heavyweight and body satisfaction
should be powerfully linked with global self-esteem (Miller & Downey, 1999). Steele
(1997) suggested one way of coping with a devalued identity is to separate and not to
identify with ideals of a prevailing culture, including perhaps the value Caucasian
Americans place on thinness. Dis-identification protects self-esteem by waning the
importance of a domain on which a group may not excel (Steele, 1997). In some
cultures increased body weight can present an advantage, primarily in places where

9
food is not as plentiful as it is in the USA. Cultural values consequently play a crucial
role in how stigmatising being overweight is, however it may be impractical to
entirely misidentify with an important cultural value. Frederickson & Roberts (1997)
cited in Jambekar (2001) found no differences between European and African
Americans body dissatisfaction, self-esteem or discrepancies between actual and ideal
weight when all participants were upper or middle class.

2.5. Self-Esteem and Body Weight

Physical appearance is the most obvious, immediately available part of the self.
Body weight, particularly overweight, is a consistent predictor of lowered self-esteem
and an important aspect of social acceptance (Strauss, 2000, French, Story & Perry,
1995 cited in Prester, 2003). Society conditions fat people that they are not entitled to
self-esteem unless they are thin (Wadden & Stunkard, 2002). A variety of theoretical
perspectives join and suggest that heavyweight people should have low self-esteem
but data has been contradictory and reviewers disagree about the overall trend.
Graziano & Framer, 1983, found no relation between weight and self-esteem, whereas
Friedman & Brownell (1995) indicated heavyweight to be associated with relatively
low self-esteem. Strauss (2000) cited in Goodman & Whitiker (2002) report that
obesity may lead to low self-esteem among adolescents especially white females.
Sheslow, Hassink, Wallace and Delancey (1993) cited in Miller & Downey (1999)
found that obesity in adolescence might cause psychosocial problems such as lowered
self-esteem. As others devalue them, heavyweight people may undervalue themselves,
this is especially probable because people normally regard body weight as something
that can be controlled through diet and exercise (Crandell & Biernat, 1990 cited in
Miller & Downey, 1999). Overweight individuals are expected to have low self-
esteem and so they do (Wadden & Stunkard, 2002). Some people may be heavy
weight but not realise it or as Tiggermann & Rothblum (1988) cited in Miller &
Downey (1999) found, woman and girls may experience themselves as heavy weight
when in fact they are not. In studies, woman who report a greater desire for a thinner
body have lower self-esteem (Abell & Richards, 1996). Low Self-esteem is pervasive
in clients with anorexia and bulimia (Baird & Sights, 1986). Being thin is important

10
for attractiveness and attractiveness is important for how a woman views herself
(Pliner, Chaiken & Flett, 1990 cited in Kim & Kim, 2001).

Beliefs about whether one is overweight are more powerfully related to self-esteem
than tangible weight. Results show that a perception of a weight difficulty, not actual
Body mass Index (BMI), contributed significantly to the prediction of level of self-
esteem (Kim & Kim, 2001). A distorted perception of one’s body is among the
determinants of disturbances in self-esteem. An emphasis on thinness is linked to
body dissatisfaction, disordered eating and global self-esteem (Tiggermann, 2001).
Field, Wolf & Hertzog (1993), cited in Cameron (1999) found that although girls are
preoccupied with appearance in adolescence, this occurs independent of weight.
Slenderness is the worry that has the most damaging consequences for girls’ views of
their bodies and of their total selves (Mendelson, 2001). Roughly sixteen percent of
adolescents are mildly overweight while nine percent of adolescents are severely
overweight. Eighty-three percent of an adolescent girl sample sought to loose weight
while sixty-two percent of them were within the normal range for body weight (Storz
& Greene 1983 cited in Daee et al., 2002). In a study in Taiwanese female college
students only sixteen percent were in fact overweight, yet fifty-one percent perceived
themselves as such (Wong, 1999 cited in Daee et al., 2002). Blaming an outside cause
for the increased weight rather than themselves allows children to diminish the
importance of domains in which they are less competent (Cameron, 1999). This may
go some way in explaining the variations in the results of studies in this area of
research (Gardner et al. 1999).

2.6. Self-Esteem and Gender

“Right from the beginning girls and boys tend to march to different drummers”
(Friedman, 2000 p 5). Girls are praised for being nurturing, co-operative and most
especially pretty. Friedman states that girls develop their sense of self in the context
of their relationships thereby developing a ‘self-in-relation’ as apposed to a ‘self-in-
separation’. “As girls look outside for self-definition, many find it in the numbers on
the scale” (Friedman, 2000 p35). Research on the relationship between body
dissatisfaction and self-esteem in both genders has produced differing results,

11
although a relationship between body dissatisfaction and self-esteem has been
documented for both (Furnham & Badman, 2002). Both males and females report a
positive association between overall body image and self-esteem (Abell & Richards,
1996). Girls have poorer body image and are more dissatisfied with their weight than
are boys (O’Dea et al., 1996). In studies of Australian (Marsh, 1989) and American
(Harter, 1988) adolescents, gender differences in several aspects of self-concept were
found. (O’Dea et al., 1996). Furnham, Badmin & Sneade (2002) found only girls
associated body dissatisfaction with the notion of self-esteem and male students in
general have superior self-esteem than do females students. Males are rewarded and
praised for performance in school and sports whereas females are rewarded for
appearance. They are treated as if their identity is equivalent to their body shape. This
de-emphasis of other aspects of their personality may lead to a skewed development
and problematic conduct with food (Newton,1995). Whereas males during
adolescence develop more muscles; females develop fatty deposits in their breasts,
hips, buttocks and thighs (Newton, 1995), Girls’ self-esteem drops further than does
boys during adolescence and although self-esteem stabilises during late adolescence
when a coherent self is formed-girls self-esteem never catches up to that of a boys
(Friedman, 2000).

2.7. Self-Esteem and Chronological Age

People have a tendency to gain weight as they age; this suggests that heavyweight is
more stigmatising for children and adolescents than for adults. Faust (1982) and
Freedman (1986) have written about how the longing for a very thin pre-pubertal look
can affect the self-esteem of women (Odea & Abrahams, 1999). Adolescence is a
time for establishing one’s own identity, with concomitant increase in self-awareness,
self- consciousness, fixation with image, and with concern of social acceptance
(Harter, 1999, Fabiant & Thompson, 1989 cited in Prester, 2003). Moore (1988)
found that dissatisfaction with body weight and shape was highest among females
aged 12 through 23 (Kim & Kim, 2001). Pubertal status was found to be significant
in the adolescent’s self-concept, which was highest in post pubertal males and lowest
in postmenarcheal females. Thus puberty has the reverse effects on self-esteem of

12
male and female students (O Dea & Abraham, 1999). Contrarily to this Tiggerman
(2001) showed global self-worth subscale scores revealed that males and females of
differing pubertal status and body weight did not differ significantly. Early maturing
girls are usually exposed to socially disadvantageous situations but the effect there of
usually disappears and they are able to make adequate social adjustment (Wolman,
1998). Williams & Currie (2000) cited in Castle & Phillips (2002) found that girls
who entered puberty earlier reported lower self-esteem. Girls who develop early don’t
have the cognitive capacity to understand the physical changes that occur which leads
to feelings of isolation and deviance (Rosenblum & Lewis, 1999 cited in Castle &
Phillips, 2002). Most adolescents develop an increasingly defined ideal self that they
compare to the actual self. Wolman (2000) claims that it is the discrepancy between
the biological and psychological development in adolescents that is responsible for
many of the problems that emerge at this time. Appearance is very important to all
adolescents who are overly self-conscious and self-critical (Newton, 1995).
Adolescence involves the move from dependence to autonomy (Newton, 1995). The
central question of adolescence involves identity (Erikson, 1950 cited in Castle &
Phillips, 2002). During puberty adolescents gain 20% of their adult height and 50% of
their adult weight. There is an increase in skeletal mass and organs double in size.
Growth patterns are quite irregular with peripherals such as the hands, feet and nose
growing first. This may lead to an awkward appearance and difficulty in being co-
ordinated (Newton, 1995) Weight gain slows down in early childhood, is relatively
constant in middle childhood, accelerates in early adolescence and declines in late
adolescence (Wolman, 1998). Until girls begin puberty they generally feel good about
themselves and their abilities (Friedman, 2000). Adolescence involves much self-
scrutiny regarding the changes the body undergoes and that is the reason why most
body eating disorders begin during this time (Thompson, 1992 cited in Castle &
Phillips, 2002). Brodie et al. (1994) cited in Castle & Phillips (2002) report that there
is no significant difference between pre and post adolescence self-esteem. That in fact
body image and self-concept may be firmly developed prior to puberty. Children are
exposed to cultural standards of beauty long before they reach puberty and thus they
have incorporated societal messages of body ideals.

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2.8. Self-Esteem and Weight Loss Behaviour

Greater global self-esteem and physical self-esteem is found in adolescent females

who participate in sports or physical exercise (Salakun, 2000 cited in Prester, 2003 &
Friedman, 2000). Conversely involvement in weight management programmes can
put children at risk for lower self-esteem. Adolescents with a distorted perception of
body weight may set impracticable goals or choose detrimental behaviours to control
their weight (Felts, Tavasso, Chenier, & Dunn, 1992 cited in Kim& Kim, 2001).
Sensible dieting has been found to be related to negative self-esteem in some
adolescence (Daee et al., 2002). Approximately sixty percent of adolescent’s females
have dieted at some point in their lives (Daee et al., 2002), as a way of dealing with
the changes in their bodies (Friedman, 2000) and this may have a significant impact
on their psychological well-being. Female adolescents diet as a means of improving
their self-worth (Newton, 1995).

2.9 Summary

Self-esteem as a topic of psychological research has been widely studied in the past.
A variety of definitions are offered which are incongruous at times and cause some
confusion, however despite this, there is agreement that self-esteem is broadly
speaking the evaluative component of the self (Robinson et al., 1991). Further there
are a variety of theoretical perspectives with regards to the development of self-
esteem. Its association with the physical self in general and body weight specifically
has become ever more prevalent with the move in society towards a very thin role
model.

Results of studies exploring the association of self-esteem and weight have been
inconsistent. The majority of explorations show that it is a perception of a weight
problem that is more powerfully related to self-esteem than actual body weight.
Although research has explored this relationship in both genders, it appears that the
association is stronger with females (Richards et al., 1990 cited in Abell & Richards,
1996). From very early on, appearance is important and is a part of self-evaluation
however the central question of adolescence is identity and it is during this time that

14
humans gain the large majority of there adult weight and thus it appear that the impact
weight has on self-esteem is at its highest during this stage of development (Newton,
1995). It follows that large percentages of adolescents, even those of normal weight,
diet at some time and thus it is not surprising that the majority of eating disorders
begin in adolescence.

15
 CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.1 Sample

Sampling procedure is a way in which you choose which members of the population
will be included in the study (Arkava & Lane, 1983 cited in Hofmeyer, 2004).
Sampling was carried out due to the fact that the whole population (universe) could
not be realistically investigated, and therefore only a sample of the population is
researched in order to obtain the necessary information (Collins, 1987 cited in
Hofmeyer, 2004). Systematic Sampling was employed for the purposes of this study
in the following way:

A possible sample of 200 adolescent females was drawn from each of the five grades
at Benoni High School. The study was conducted at this school for reasons of
accessibility and practicality. It is a co-ed ex model C school of 1300 learners.
Learners pay school fees of R6500 per year. A list of average academic female
learners was obtained from the school, based on their first term school performance.
Every fifth name on the list was selected and a detailed letter explaining the nature of
the study as well as a request for consent for participation in the study was sent home
to parents via their daughters (Appendix A). Of the 200 learners given subject
information and consent forms the final sample consisted of 90 learners who returned
consent forms giving permission to participate in the study. Data was collected over
two days in August 2004.
Participants ranged in age from 13 years 3 months –18 years 7 months. The following
is a breakdown of the numbers of participants per grade: Grade 8=17; Grade 9=22;
Grade 10=23; Grade 11=20 and Grade 12=8.

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3.2 Measures

•Body Mass Index (BMI) was calculated based on measured weight and height
(weight in kilograms divided by the square of height in meters) to determine which
females are underweight, normal weight, and overweight. In order to ensure validity
of results BMI was measured even though research shows that self-reported weight
and height are highly correlated with measured weight and height and that people do
not claim the best possible weight they claim the best credible weight (Stevens, Keil,
Waid & Gazes, 1990 cited in Kim & Kim, 2001). Participants were asked about their
ideal weight and height so as to calculate ideal BMI. They were divided into three
groups according to BMI: less than 18 (underweight), 18-24.99 (normal weight), and
25 or above (overweight). Weight discrepancy scores were their actual BMI minus
their ideal BMI.

•Perception of a weight problem: Self-perception of having a weight problem was

evaluated by a single question: “Do you see yourself as having a weight problem?”
(Stotland & Zuroff, 1990 cited in Kim & Kim, 2001). Responses were selected from
four statements ranging from not at all to serious problem.

•Age: Three age groups were used, 12-14years (early adolescence), 14-16 years (mid
adolescence) and 16-18+ years (late adolescence) (Newton, 1995).

•Socio-economic status: based on the cost of the school fees it was assumed that the
sample was one of middle class socio-economic status but in order to double check
that the sample were in fact from middle-class homes the Hall-Jones Scale of
occupational prestige was used to group SES.

•Global self-esteem: Self-esteem was measured using the Rosenberg Self-esteem

Scale (SES) (Rosenberg, 1965 cited in Kim & Kim, 2001) that consists of 5 positively
worded items and 5 negatively worded items. Each item is rated on a 5-point scale,
and responses are summed to produce a total self-esteem score (negatively worded
items are reversed scored before summing). Scores range from 10 to 50, with higher
scores indicating more positive self-esteem. Rosenberg (1965) cited in Kim & Kim

17
(2001) reported a reliability coefficient of .92 among adolescents. The Rosenberg
Self-esteem Scale was chosen for several reasons. Unlike other widely used self-
esteem measures such as the Tennessee Self-Concept Scale, the Rosenberg Self-
esteem Scale does not contain body-esteem subscales or items that relate to body
shape satisfaction. The Rosenberg Self-esteem Scale thus allows for a more
appropriate comparison of self-esteem and body weight as separate constructs (Abell
& Richards, 1996). Given the ultimately subjective nature of self-esteem, the direct
self-report route is the most pragmatic. However high self-esteem is socially desirable
and so scores may be inflated which is a limitation of the study. In order to gage the
validity of the individual reports and to get a look at overt behavioural indices of
esteem to, homeroom teachers of each participant were asked to assign each of the
learners in their homeroom class a score of global feelings of self-worth or self-
acceptance ranging from 10 to 50, with higher scores indicating more positive self-
esteem. There are undoubtedly momentary, situational limited shifts in self-esteem,
but these are not the concern of the present study.

•The exercise variable in this study is participation in physical exercise, thus

participants were asked in the Information sheet to indicate whether they regularly
engage in aerobic exercise. Further to specify what type of exercise they engage in as
well as how often and how long each exercise session lasts.

•Pubertal status was defined by self-reported menarcheal status as menarche occurs

midway through pubertal development (Newton, 1995). Females were categorised as
postmenarcheal if menstruation has commenced and premenarcheal if menstruation
has not commenced. There is widespread variation in the age of onset of
menstruation. Ninety-five percent of black and white American girls begin
menstruation between the ages of 10 and 16 years, over fifty percent begin between
the ages of 12 and 14 years (Wolman, 1998). Many studies cite 12 years 8 months as
the average age for menstruation to begin (Newton, 1995). African American girls
have been found to have a later onset of menarche than their Caucasian counterparts
(Newton,1995). In should be noted that nutritional deprivation, certain illnesses and
extreme emotional stress can cause delayed onset of pubertal growth. For the
purposes of this study onset between the ages of 12 and 14 years will be considered

18
average and anything before 12 years early onset and later than 14 years late onset of
menarche.

•Weight control behaviour was self-reported. Females were asked in the Information
sheet to indicate whether they engage in any of the following weight control
behaviour: a. use of diet pills, b. laxative or diuretics; c. decreased calorie intake; d.
skipping meals; e. participation in weight loss groups; f. fasting; g. vomiting;
h. exercise and i. fat burners. Weight loss methods were grouped into the following: 1.
Healthy weight loss methods (c & h), 2. Moderate weight loss methods (d & e) and 3.
Dangerous weight loss methods (a, b, f, g &i) (Robinson et al., 2002).

•Racial categories were based on self-identified membership to one of the following

groups: Black, Coloured, Indian, White or other. This was part of the required
demographic information and it was specified that these categories were being used
solely for research purposes and were not meant to be offensive.

3.3 Procedure

As the study was being carried out in a host organisation access was granted to the
researcher and support of the study was acquired (Appendix E). Prior to data
collection the purpose of the study was described along with the letters of consent that
were sent to parents. Written assent was attained from participants prior to their
participation in the study. Anonymity and confidentiality was assured as the
researcher employed a coding system in order to protect the identity of respondents
with the list of names and corresponding subjects’ numbers being only accessible to
the principal investigator. Subjects were called from their classrooms in groups of
five, following which they were weighed and measured individually in absolute
privacy in the school foyer. Hereafter, Information sheets were completed at desks
spaced generously apart. Participants were asked to put their responses in a sealed
envelope and in a box made available to then at the rear of the hall. The entire process
took less than a half an hour. Participants were informed that should the procedure

19
inadvertently awaken any negative feelings participants could contact The
Johannesburg Parent and Child Counselling Centre for necessary support.

3.4 Research Design

The research employed a quantitative design, using descriptive and inferential

statistics to analyse responses to the Information sheet and Rosenburg Self-esteem
Scale (SES). In addition, a qualitative paradigm involving content analysis was used.

The extraneous variables which were controlled for by being held constant were:
(a) Age-which was held constant by selecting only subjects who were between the
ages of 13 and 19 years. In addition an equal number of possible subjects from
each Grade were given the opportunity to participate in the study. “Female
adolescents are more preoccupied with physique and appearance than are
those in other age groups”. (Bruch, 1981 cited in Kim & Kim, 2001 p 315).
(b) Socio-economic status- which was held constant by limiting the study to an ex
Model C school which charges fees seen to be affordable to middle-class
families. Garner et al. (1983) and Duncan et al. (1985) cited in Abel &
Richards (1996) found that females from upper class families were more
preoccupied with thinness than are females from families of lower socio-
economic status.
(c) Sex- which was held constant by selecting only female subjects. Furnham,
Badmin & Sneade (2002) found only girls associated body dissatisfaction with
the notion of self-esteem. Richards et al. (1990) cited in Abel & Richards
(1996) found the relationship between body shape and self-esteem to be
stronger for females than males.
(d) Academic achievement-which was held constant by only selecting subjects
who fell in the average achieving group in each grade. Filozof, Albetin, Jones,
Steme, Myersand & McDermott (1998) cited in Desai (2003) have shown that
academic performance influences self-esteem.

20
The extraneous variables which were controlled for by building them into the design
were:
(a) Whether the participants have recently experienced a negative event in their
life. Self-esteem can be briefly altered by the impact of a serious life event
(Baumeister, 1993).
(b) Whom they see as being responsible for their weight. Cameron (1999) found
that blaming an outside cause for increased weight rather than oneself lessens
the impact on self-esteem.

TYPES OF DATA YIELDED

a) Biographical data were yielded including the grade, age, race and socio-
economic status of each participant.
b) Quantitative data, in the form of the Rosenburg Self-Esteem Scale (SES)
scores and BMI scores were obtained.
c) From the Information Sheet, both quantitative and qualitative data were
gathered:
Quantitative data included: perception of a weight problem, weight
loss methods and participation in physical activity.
Qualitative data/descriptive data were obtained from open-ended
questions and included some of the personal experiences of the sample
group. These questions were as follows:
- In your opinion, does how much someone weighs affect their self-
esteem? Give reasons for your answer.
- Do you feel that your weight influences how you feel about yourself?
Give reasons for your answer.

METHODS OF DATA ANALYSIS AND THE WAY IN WHICH THE DATA

WERE USED TO TEST THE HYPOTHESES

The biographical information from the Information sheet was compiled for each
participant, using the information she provided on her age, grade, race and parents’
occupations. This was used for describing the sample of the study.

21
Descriptive statistics were used to describe the participants’ BMI scores (both actual
and ideal), pubertal status (menarcheal status), self-esteem scores (own and teachers’
scores), biographical information, exercise routines, weight control behaviour and
whether they have experienced a profound negative event in their life recently.

Statistical Analysis System (SAS) version 8 was utilized to conduct statistical

analyses. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test of goodness of fit was conducted to
determine the distribution of the Self-Esteem scores as perceived by learners and
teachers. Although a normal distribution was yielded, parametric tests could not be
employed due to small number (n = 30) of the sub-variables.

Statistical tests employed were the Kruskal Wallis Test (which is a test used to
determine the existence of significant difference between groups, and is conducted
when parametric assumptions were not met) and the Analysis of Covariance (which is
used to control the effects of the variable related to the variable under investigation).

22
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS

The results chapter has been divided into two sections. The first part presents the
quantitative results. The second part of the results section is a brief qualitative
analysis of the themes identified in the open-ended questions that were asked.

3.1 QUANTITATIVE RESULTS

3.1.1 Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics were conducted to summarise the information from the

Information Sheet and SES of the sample (n= 89).

The following information is presented by giving the count (n) and the converted
percentage (%) of participants’ responses.

3.1.1.1 GRADE
Table 3.1 School Grades of Participants
Grade n %
Grade 8 16 19%
Grade 9 22 24%
Grade 10 23 26%
Grade 11 20 22%
Grade 12 8 9%

Figure 3.1 Pie-graph of School Grades of Participants

Grade 8
Grade 9
Grade 10
Grade 11
Grade 12

23
3.1.1.2 AGE
The youngest participant was 13 years 3 months and the oldest was 18 years 7 months
with a mean of 15 years 9 months and a range of 5 years 4 months.

Table 3.2 Age of Participants

Stage of Adolescence n %
Early Adolescence 10 11%
Mid Adolescence 41 46%
Late Adolescence 39 43%

3.1.1.3 RACE
Race groups (Whites and Indians) were collapsed into a Non-African group because
of the small number of participants within the Indian race group. Further, due to there
being only one participant within the coloured race group, she was not included in the
analysis for statistical reasons.

Table 3.3 Race and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-Esteem
Variable Sub-variables N % Mean SD N Mean SD
Race Non-African 69 78 35.31 5.6 69 35.53 6.5
African 20 22 38.25 6.7 20 36.30 7.6

3.1.1.4 RECENT NEGATIVE LIFE INCIDENT

Changes in self-esteem occur in response to serious life events (Baumeister, 1993).
Therefore it was deemed important to control for the impact this would bear on the
results of the present study.
Have you had a serious negative incident in your life recently?
Thirty-six participants, that is, 40% responded YES while fifty-three participants, that
is, 60% responded NO.

3.1.1.5 PUBERTAL STATUS

Eighty-seven participants, that is, 97% responded that they are postmenarcheal and
two participants, that is, 3% responded that they are premenarcheal.

24
The earliest onset was 4 years 4 months and the latest was 17 years with a mean of 12
years 3 months and a range of 13.

Table3.4 Age of onset of Menstruation and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-Esteem
Variable Sub-variables N Mean SD N Mean SD
Early 12 36.66 5.4 12 35.83 7.0
Menstrual Age Average 68 35.67 5.8 68 35.94 7.0
Late 7 37.14 8.1 7 33.85 4.9

3.1.1.6 BODY MASS INDEX (BMI)

Table 3.5 Actual and Ideal BMI and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-Esteem

Variable Sub-variables N % Mean SD N Mean SD

Underweight 22 24 35.40 5.7 22 32.77 6.1
BMI-A Normal 55 62 36.34 5.8 55 36.65 6.2
Overweight 12 14 35.33 7.1 12 36.75 9.1

Underweight 54 62 35.62 5.8 54 35.38 7.1

BMI-I Normal 35 38 36.51 6.2 35 36.20 6.4
Overweight

The lowest Actual BMI score was 15.2 (Underweight category) and the highest was
28 with a mean of 20.69 (Normal weight category)
The lowest Ideal BMI score was 12.3 (Underweight category) and the highest was
24(normal weight category) with a mean of 17.7 (Underweight category) and a range
of 11.7.

3.1.1.7 SELF-ESTEEM SCORES (SES)

Table 3.6 SES (Self-esteem Scores)

Mean Highest Lowest Range
Participants’ Ratings 35.9 50 24 26
Teachers’ Ratings 35.8 50 15 35

25
3.1.1.8 EXERCISE

Table 3.7 Exercise and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-Esteem
Variable Sub-variables N % Mean SD N Mean SD
Exercise Yes 62 69 36.79 5.3 62 36.01 6.5
No 27 31 34.11 6.9 27 35.00 7.3

The mean number of exercise sessions per week was 3 which met the minimum
frequency guideline as proposed by the American College of Sports Medicine
(ACSM, 1998) and the mean length in minutes per session was 1 hour 12 minutes.

3.1.1.9 WEIGHT CONTROL BEHAVIOUR

Table 3.8 Weight control behaviour

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-Esteem
Variable Sub-variables N % Mean SD N Mean SD
No diet 20 22 36.55 5.8 20 35.30 6.3
Dieting Healthy diet 39 44 36.71 5.9 39 35.69 6.8
Moderate diet 17 19 34.05 5.6 17 35.11 5.5
Dangerous 13 15 35.38 6.8 13 37.15 9.2

3.1.1.10 PERCEPTION OF A WEIGHT PROBLEM

Note: Due to the small number of subjects in the ‘serious problem’ group, the four
groups were collapsed into three for statistical analysis.

Table 3.9Perception of weight problem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-Esteem
Variable Sub-variables N % Mean SD N Mean SD
Not at all 27 30 38.85 4.3 27 36.29 5.1
Weight Problem Small problem 36 40 35.75 6.3 36 35.77 6.8
Average problem 26 30 33.30 5.8 26 35.00 8.2

26
3.1.2 Tests of Significance

Statistical tests employed are the Kruskal Wallis Test (which is a test used to
determine the existence of significant difference between groups, and is conducted
when parametric assumptions were not met) and the Analysis of Covariance (which is
used to control the effects of the variable related to the variable under investigation).
The assumptions for a Kruskal-Wallis test was met in that the subjects were randomly
chosen and variables were theoretically continuous and ordinal in kind (McCall, 1970,
pg. 302). It tests the hypothesis that all samples were taken from similar populations
and is especially sensitive to differences in central tendency (Howell, 2002).
Analysis of covariance was conducted where significant differences were yielded.
The purpose of the simple analysis of variance is to determine the probability that the
means of several groups of scores deviate from one another merely by sampling error
(McCall, 1970 pg 224).

3.1.2.1 PERCEIVED WEIGHT PROBLEM

Table 3.10 Analysis of Variance: Perceived Weight Problem and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-
Esteem
Variable DF Sig. DF Sig.
Not at all
Weight Problem Small problem 2 10.81** 2 NS
Average problem
* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01 NS = Not Significant

Hypothesis one supported

Statistically significant difference between the learners with no weight problem

and those with average weight problem as a function of self-esteem was found in
favour of the not at all group. On the teacher self-esteem, a non-significant
difference was found between the three groups.

27
3.1.2.2 BODY MASS INDEX

Table 3.11Analysis of Variance: Actual and Ideal BMI and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-
Esteem
Variable DF Sig. DF Sig.
Underweight
BMI-A Normal 2 NS 2 5.80*
Overweight
Underweight
BMI-I Normal 1 NS 1 NS
Overweight
* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01 NS = Not Significant

Hypothesis two supported but not three

No statistically significant difference between the Actual BMI groups (Under-

weight, Normal and Over-weight) was found as a function of learner self-esteem.
However, statistically significant difference between the groups as perceived by
teachers was yielded in favour of the Normal and Over-weight groups. This
implies that no significant difference was observed between the Normal and Over-
weight groups. On both the actual and ideal self-esteem, no statistically significant
difference between the Ideal BMI groups was demonstrated.

3.1.2.3 ONSET AGE OF MENSTRUATION

Table 3.12 Analysis of Variance: Onset age of Menstruation and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-
Esteem
Variable DF Sig. DF Sig.
Early
Menstrual Age Average 2 NS 2 NS
Late
* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01 NS = Not Significant

Hypotheses four and five not supported

On both the dependent variables, i.e. learner self-esteem and teacher self-esteem,
non-significant results were yielded.

28
3.1.2.3 EXERCISE

Table 3.13 Analysis of Variance: Participation in exercise and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-
Esteem
Variable DF Sig. DF Sig.
Exercise Yes 1 NS 1 NS
No

* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01 NS = Not Significant

Hypothesis six not supported

No statistically significant difference between participating and non-participating

groups in exercise as a function of learner self-esteem and teacher self-esteem.

3.1.2.4 WEIGHT CONTROL BEHAVIOUR

Table 3.14 Analysis of Variance: Weight Control Behaviour and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-
Esteem
Variable DF Sig. DF Sig.
No diet
Dieting Healthy diet
Moderate diet 3 NS 3 NS
Dangerous

* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01 NS = Not Significant

Hypothesis seven not supported

No statistically significant difference between the groups (no diet, healthy,

moderate and dangerous diet) was demonstrated on both the actual self-esteem
and self-esteem as perceived by teachers.

29
3.1.2.5 RACE

Table 3.15 Analysis of Variance: Race and Self-esteem

Learner Self-Esteem Teacher Self-
Esteem
Variable DF Sig. DF Sig.
Race Non-African 1 4.99* 1 NS
African

* p < 0.05 ** p < 0.01 NS = Not Significant

Hypothesis nine supported

Statistically significant difference between the African and Non-African learners

was found as a function of self-esteem in favour of the Africans. In contrast, no
significant difference between these groups on self-esteem as perceived by
teachers was found.

3.2 QUALITATIVE RESULTS

In addition to the quantitative results, qualitative data based on the personal responses
of participants to two open-ended questions included in the Information Sheet was
collected. It was felt that a thematic analysis of these answers could expand on the
understanding of the quantitative results and thus provide further insight into the
influence that body weight has on self-esteem. It afforded the researcher the
opportunity to establish not only whether a relationship between body weight and
self-esteem exists, but also the reasons why this relationship does or does not exist.

Answers were divided up into two groups: those who answered ‘yes’, i.e. participants
who felt that a relationship between self-esteem and weight does exist; and those who
answered ‘no’, i.e. participants who felt that there is no relationship between self-
esteem and weight. Following this answers were analysed for prominent or
frequently recurring answers. Similar and related answers were then grouped and
labelled as common themes.

30
3.2.1 In your opinion, does how much someone weighs affect their self-esteem? Give
reasons for your answer.

3.2.1.1’yes’: THEMES

● Depressed Mood- Many of the participants felt that being overweight caused people
to feel negative, hopeless, worthless and possibly even suicidal. “My friend once tried
to commit suicide because she thought she was fat- now she’s bulimic”.

●Self-effacing Disposition- A large majority of adolescent girls believe that being

overweight causes a loss of self-confidence which leads to self-doubt, feeling ‘less
than others’ and unattractive. “If I were fat I don’t think I would cope. Sometimes I
have nightmares about being big”.

●Social-Withdrawal- Being overweight causes people to feel very self-conscious,

reserved and withdrawn.

●Socially Ridiculed and Judged- People who are overweight are laughed at, teased,
unaccepted, unpopular and therefore not befriended. They are further seen as being
unable to wear certain clothes, as they do not conform to the ‘perfect body’ portrayed
by the media.

3.2.1.2 ‘no’: THEMES

● Availability of Social Support

●Individual Personality Traits and Values- people with ‘strong’ personalities will be
unaffected, as will those who do not see weight as influencing who they or others are.

● Locus of Control- some people blame their genes or others for their weight

●Reasons for being overweight- some people are just ‘big-boned’.

31
3.2.2 Do you feel that your weight influences how you feel about yourself? Give
reasons for your answer.

3.2.2.1 ‘yes’: THEMES

●Depressed Mood- Concern, guilt and worry about being overweight.

●Lack of Self-confidence- Lowers self-confidence: one feels useless, ‘a fat blob of

nothing’.

●Socially Ridiculed and Judged- Feeling embarrassed, self-conscious and

uncomfortable. It affects the type of clothes one can wear e.g. short and tight are out
and the types of activities you can engage in e.g. swimming. It leads to comparisons
with others which makes you feel like the ‘odd one out’. Being overweight leads to
being teased, picked on and stared at and ultimately not wanting to go out and be
around others.

●Results in Dieting

3.2.2.2 NO: THEMES

●Locus of Control -Weight is not something one can control; some people are
naturally fat.

●Individual Personality Traits and Values- They are happy with both their weight and
who they are. What matters is what’s on the inside; ‘I am more than just my weight’.
‘I will always value myself regardless of what I weigh’.

Qualitative results thus corroborate with the quantitative hypotheses that proved to be
significant. In addition it provides insight into why having a weight problem leads to a
lower self-esteem.

32
 CHAPTER 5

DISCUSSION

This section discusses the research findings in relation to the aims, which motivated
the research study. This study explored the association between global self-esteem
and, actual and ideal Body Mass Index (BMI) scores, in adolescent girls, investigating
differences in perceived weight problems, racial identity, physical exercise, weight-
control behaviour and stage of pubertal development. The research was guided by a
particular set of hypotheses, which pertained to each of the variables specified above.
The measures used were the Rosenburg Self-Esteem Scale and the Information Sheet.
The discussion draws heavily on the literature review discussed in Chapter Two in
considering the extent to which the research findings either support or disconfirm
theory and research. Thereafter the general implications of the study are examined,
and the limitations and suggestions for future research are outlined.

5.1 Interpretation and Implications of findings

The first hypothesis suggested that global self-esteem scores in adolescent girls (as
measured by the Rosenburg Self-esteem Scale) are significantly related to the
perception of having a weight problem. Indeed, the results indicated that girls who
saw themselves as having no weight problem at all had significantly higher subjective
self-esteem scores. The present study therefore replicates the findings of Harter
(1990) cited in Baumeister (1993), Kim & Kim (2001), Tiggerman (2001), Furham et
al. (2003) and Prester (2003) - a perception of a weight difficulty contributes
significantly to the prediction of level of self-esteem. Results show that a perception
of a weight difficulty, not actual BMI, contributed significantly to the prediction of
level of self-esteem. Ninety one percent of the adolescent sample sought to loose
weight despite the fact that only fourteen percent of them were actually overweight.
The most generally acknowledged and empirically held justification for high levels of
discontentment with body weight is offered by the socio-cultural theory which
suggests that societal standards of beauty overemphasize the prestige of thinness and
that this ideal of thinness is taken on by most women, although it is not possible to

33
achieve (Tiggerman, 2001). This result may be explained by the current societal ideals
of thinness, which require a BMI that is well underweight. The pressure to be thin has
the most detrimental impact on females’ perception of their bodies and their self-
esteem (Mendelson, 2001). However this difference was not found when using the
objective self-esteem scores allocated to the learners by their educators. This
discrepancy could be explained by the fact that this hypothesis was dealing with a
perceived weight problem not an actual weight problem which educators may not be
aware of and therefore would not have impacted on their rating of learners self-
esteem.

The second hypothesis proposed that adolescent females whose actual BMI fell into
the normal weight group would have significantly higher self-esteem scores than
those whose BMI fell into the over and underweight group. Results revealed that
statistically significant differences between the groups were found as perceived by the
educators’ objective self-esteem scores in favour of the normal and overweight groups
but not by the learners’ subjective scores. This supports theory that states that
individuals who are underweight and are suffering from an eating disorder endure low
self-esteem. However, it contradicts French, Story & Perry (1995) cited in Prester
(2003), Miller & Downey (1999) and Strauss (2000) who found that being heavy
weight is negatively correlated with self-esteem. However these studies did not take
into account the influence of race or culture, which may account for the significant
results of the current study. In addition this result may support studies that have
shown it is the belief about whether you are over weight that is more powerfully
related to self-esteem than actual body weight (Kim & Kim, 2001). This supports
results found by Field, Wolf & Hertzog (1993) cited in Cameron (1999) that although
adolescent girls are preoccupied with appearance in adolescence, this occurs
independently of weight.

The significant association found when using the educators’ self-esteem scores may
be understood by taking into account the possibility that they may believe that
adolescents who are underweight have fallen prey to the emphasis society places on
thinness and would thus feel these girls have less self confidence and lower self-
esteem. Contrary to Guin et al. (1997) and Tiggerman (2001) the current study found

34
that actual BMI did help predict the level of self-esteem and that females of differing
weight do have significantly different self-esteems.

According to the third hypothesis, global self-esteem scores would be significantly

higher for those learners whose ideal BMI was in the normal weight group than those
whose ideal BMI fell in the underweight group. However, results did not support this
hypothesis and previous studies that show that females who report a greater desire for
a thinner body have lower self-esteem (Abell & Richards, 1996 and Tiggerman, 2001)
This discrepancy could be because the girls who wish to be underweight see
themselves as conforming to the standards of thinness portrayed in the media and thus
it in fact impacts positively on their sense of a self-worth as they feel they will attain
the ideal weight. Newton (1995) claims that in fact girls seek to achieve an
underweight BMI as a way of enhancing their self-worth and thus the more weight
control behaviours one uses the better ones sense of self would be. In the same way
girls who are of normal weight may perceive themselves to be overweight relative to
the role models provided by society, which would thus impact negatively on their
self-esteem.

The fourth and fifth hypothesis suggested that girls who were premenarcheal or those
who started their menstruation at an average age would have significantly higher self-
esteem scores than those who were postmenarcheal and had late or early onset of
menstruation. On both the dependent variables i.e. learner (subjective) self-esteem
and educator (objective) self-esteem scores, non-significant results were yielded.
These results support Wolman’s (1998) and Tiggerman’s, (2001) findings that
females of differing pubertal status showed global self-esteem scores that did not
differ significantly and further that the negative effects of early maturation disappear
and girls are able to make adequate social adjustment. It further supports claims made
by Brodie et al. (1994) cited in Castle & Phillips (2002) that body image and self-
concept are firmly developed prior to puberty as children are exposed to cultural
standards of beauty long before they reach puberty and thus have incorporated
societal messages of body ideals. However this does not explain why most eating
disorders begin during adolescence and not earlier (Beaumont & Touyz, 1985 cited in
Tiggerman, 2001). The current study does not support results found by O’Dea &

35
Abraham (1999) and Williams & Currie (2000) cited in Castle & Phillips (2002).
Differences may be explained by the use of different methods to establish pubertal
status. The current study defined pubertal status by self-reported menarcheal status,
which may be susceptible to false in inaccurate reports.

The sixth hypothesis proposed that adolescent girls who participate in physical
exercise would have significantly higher self-esteem scores than those who did not.
However, the results of analyses demonstrate that there is no statistically significant
association between these two variables. This may be explained by the rather
simplistic method of merely asking ‘Do you participate in any physical activity or
exercise’ in order to assign participants to the exercise and non-exercise groups. A
more detailed analysis of the type of exercise done, number of exercise sessions per
week and duration of exercise sessions may have yielded a more accurate result.
Furthermore, the reason for the non-significant result may also be that the motivation
for exercising was not established. Exercising for weight control and attractiveness
may produce a negative self-esteem whereas exercising for mood, health, enjoyment
and to reduce stress levels is associated with positive self-esteem (Furnham et al.,
2002).

According to the seventh hypothesis girls who use unhealthy weight control
behaviour will have lower self-esteem scores than those who do not use any weight
control behaviour or those who use only healthy methods to control their weight. No
statistically significant differences between the groups were demonstrated on both
dependent variables. The current results do not support those found by Friedman
(2000) and Daee et al. (2002) but may be explained by claims made by Newton
(1995) that in fact female adolescents diet as a means of improving their self-worth
and thus the more weight control behaviours one uses the better ones sense of self
would be. Once again methods of weight control were self-reports from participants,
which is open to inexact reports that may have influenced the outcome of this
hypothesis.

The eighth hypothesis explored the association between race and global self-esteem of
overweight adolescent females. Statistically significantly higher self-esteem scores

36
were found for African adolescents. This supports results found by Altabe (1978)
cited in Castle & Phillips (2002), Thompson et al. (1997) cited in Castle & Phillips
(2002), and Cox (2003). These findings sustain ideas that in some cultures, increased
weight can be seen as a benefit, principally in places where there is a shortage of food
and that racial variables play an important role in how stigmatising being heavyweight
is (Miller & Downey, 1999). In the African culture there appears to be greater
flexibility in the definition of the so-called ideal body and that ‘attractiveness’ is more
closely related to public image and character traits than to weight (Russell & Cox,
2003). Additionally African females may also be discontent with their bodies but that
they are less at risk to self-presentation concerns, possibly because they have not
taken on the stereotype and internal benchmark of the ideal body of the Western
culture (Cox, 2003). Lastly one’s global self-esteem is the result of evaluations of
one’s adequacy in various areas deemed important. Body weight may not be an
important domain to African females.

There is little consensus in the literature and conflicting results in past investigations
of the association between self-esteem and weight with the exception that the large
majority have shown that it is not actual body weight but ideal body weight that has
the significant impact on self-esteem (Kim & Kim, 2001). In a similar vein the
perception of being overweight impacts more negatively on one’s global self-esteem
than actually being overweight. The current study indicated that a perceived weight
problem was a strong predictor of low self-esteem. However it did not show a
relationship between ideal BMI and self-esteem, which contradicts several studies
where it was found to play a major role. Instead actual BMI that was normal or
overweight was predictive of a higher self-esteem than those females whose actual
BMI was underweight. A significant differences in self-esteem scores of African and
non-African participants who were overweight were found in favour of the African
participants.

37
 CHAPTER 6

CONCLUSIONS

6.1 Summary of Findings

A synopsis of the results of the present study show that despite the fact that only 14%
of the sample was overweight a staggering 62% had an ideal weight that was in fact
underweight. Significant relationships were found to be present between having a
perceived weight problem, actually being underweight and belonging to the non-
African race and having a lower self-esteem. However, age of onset of menstruation,
participation in exercise regimes and use of weight control behaviour were not found
to have a significant impact on global self-esteem scores.

6.2 Limitations and Shortcomings of the Study

6.2.1 Measures used

Despite the anonymity of the study some participants may wish to provide a false
impression of their self-esteem, as high self-esteem is socially desirable, which places
a question mark as to the reliability of self-reported data. Although this limitation was
partially addressed by the educators scoring learners self-esteem, it would increase the
reliability of results if self-esteem scores were collected in many ways. The
Rosenburg Self-esteem Scale does not find many people with low self-esteem scores,
which has lead to suspicions that participants may be marking the acceptable not
accurate options (Hoyle et al., 1999).

Little attention has been paid to group and cultural biases and differences in value
systems in self-esteem assessment (Robinson et al., 1991). It remains to be seen if the
Rosenburg Self-esteem Scale has robust construct reliability and validity when used
on a South African sample (Krasner, 2003). Lastly, unlike other measures of self-

38
esteem the Rosenburg does not have a sub-scale that accesses respondents’ feelings
about their physical self and appearance.

6.2.2 Conceptualisation of Self-esteem

It may be that there is more to self-esteem than merely whether it is high or low.
Individuals who score high on a self-esteem scale are not all the same (Hoyle et al.,
1999). It may be that the Rosenburg Self-esteem Scale is only assessing the explicit
self-esteem i.e. that which the individual is conscious of possessing and does not take
into account the implicit non-conscious self-esteem. In addition Hoyle et al. (1999)
purport that people have both a defensive and genuine self-esteem and that current
measures of self-esteem may not tap into the genuine self-esteem. Hoyle et al. (1999)
further argue against the concept of a stable self-esteem, insisting rather that feelings
of worth are intertwined with experiences making it instable. However positive or
negative experiences may also not be a sufficient predictor of global self-esteem as
two people in a similar situation may experience very different levels of self-esteem
(Kernis, 1995). Pelham & Swann (1989) emphasize that it is not just the content of
ones beliefs but how they are organised that influences ones reactions. Thus it is
important to take into account the relative importance of different domains of self for
each individual. A high self-esteem may signify a healthy acceptance of self or a
haughty arrogance (Campell, 1990 cited in Baumeister, 1999). Inflated self-esteem
can be linked to maladjustment patterns and interpersonal problems.

6.2.3 Sample

It would have been beneficial to have had a larger sample of participants from the
Indian and Coloured race groups so as not to have had to collapse the groups which
would have provided more specific results and would have allowed the use of
parametric tests of significance which would provide more information about the
interactions in the analysis of variance. It is also generally accepted that parametric
methods have a greater power efficiency than do non-parametric methods i.e. there is
a higher probability that the test will reject the null hypothesis when the hypothesis is
in fact true (McCall, 1970).

39
The results of the present study are based on primarily middle class adolescent
females and may not generalise to other samples. Despite possible limits to their
generalizability, the results of the study are still significant because although it is not
clear how exactly the body image relates to overall feelings of self-worth, females
from upper class families are more preoccupied with thinness than are females from
families of lower socio-economic status Garner et al. (1983) cited in Abell &
Richards, 1996).

The large number of participants who reported having recently experienced a negative
life event limits the reliability of results as the current study does not allow for the
differentiation of the impact of body weight and the impact of life events that on
participants’ self-esteem.

6.2.4 Direction of Causality

It is impossible to establish the direction of causality through this study i.e. is it low
self-esteem that causes adolescents to be overweight or is it being overweight that
leads to the low self-esteem.

6.3 Suggestions for Further Research

6.3.1 Although there is no widely accepted method currently in use, future research
should assess self-esteem indirectly by examining individuals’ emotional or non-
verbal reactions in order to tap into implicit and genuine levels of self-esteem.
Projective techniques, dichotic listening tasks, sub-threshold measures and priming
procedures are suggested by Kernis (1995) as procedures that may be useful in
tapping into both implicit and explicit self-esteem.

6.3.2 It would be beneficial to investigate the relationship between narcissism and

self-esteem, as this would provide a more objective appreciation of the payback and
expenses of holding a favourable view of oneself (Baumeister, 1999).

40
6.3.3 Structuring future studies so that the direction of causality can be established in
the relationship between weight and self-esteem.

6.3.4 Cognitive evaluation of one’s adequacy in domains deemed important results in

a global concept of self (Baumeister, 1993). Possibly it would be more useful to use a
measure of self-esteem that has a subscale, which can access respondents’ feelings
about their physical self and appearance in addition to providing a global self-esteem
score as the use of a global self-concept measure may disguise the variation that
would be spotted by a multidimensional tool (Kimm, Sweeney & Janosky, 1991 cited
in O’Dea & Abraham, 1999). This would also allow for the ranking of the importance
of various aspects of the self-concept by adolescent participants.

6.3.5 More precise measures of pubertal status such as a checklist of characteristics of

puberty that participants have experienced may provide a more accurate evaluation
and therefore categorisation of pubertal status.

6.3.6 There is a need for rigorous research on the role of low self-esteem in Anorexia
and Bulimia (Baird & Sights, 1986).

41
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78-94.

Baumeister, R.J. (Ed) (1993). The Puzzle of Low Self-regard. New York:
Plenumpress.

Baumeister, R.F. (Ed) (1999). The Self in Social Psychology. New York: Psychology
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Bedner, R.L. & Peterson, S.R. (1995). Self-esteem: Paradoxes and Innovations in
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Cameron, J.W. (1999). Self-esteem changes in children enrolled in weight

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Carwell, M., Clark, L., & Meldrum, C. (2001). Psychology for A2 level. London:
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Castle, D.J. & Phillips, K.A. (Eds) (2002). Disorders of Body Image. United Kingdom
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Clemes, H., Bean, R., & Clark, A. (1990). How to Raise Teenagers’ Self-esteem.
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Daee, A., Robinson, P., Lawson, M., Turpin, J., Gregory, B. & Tobias, J.D. (2002).
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Desai. A. (2003). The Impact of Learning in a Second Language and Academic

Competence on Learners’ Self-esteem. A study of Grade Four girls from 2 schools in
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Faculty of Humanities.

De Reuck, J. (2002). An Exploratory Study of the relationship between Fathering and

Self-esteem of young adult woman. Masters Research Report submitted to the
University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Humanities.

English, A. (2003). Attitude towards First Name and its Relationship to Self Concept
among South African Adolescents. Masters Research Report submitted to the
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Ferrer, I.H. (2003). White teachers’ Attitudes towards black and white pupils in the
multicultural classroom. Masters Research Report submitted to the University of the
Witwatersrand, Faculty of Humanities.

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Friedman, S.S. (2000). When Girls Feel Fat. New York Firefly books.

Furnham, A., Badmin, N., & Sneade, I. (2002). Body image dissatisfaction: Gender
differences in eating attitudes, self-esteem, and reasons for exercise. The Journal of
Psychology, 136 (6), 581.

Goodman, E. & Whitaker, R.C. (2002). A Prospective study of the Role of

Depression in the Development and Persistence of Adolescent Obesity. Paediatrics
109, 3.

Hartgill, M. (2003). Increasing Self-esteem in the Therapy setting through the use of a
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Faculty of Humanities.

Hoyle, R.H, Kerns, M.H. Leary, M.R. & Baldwin, M.W. (1999). Selfhood. Identity,
Esteem & Regulation. London: Westview Press

Hornibrook, R. (1988). The Development of the Psychological Andrology. Masters

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Howell, D.C. (2002). Statistical methods for Psychology Fifth Edition. USA:
Duxbury.

Jacoby, M. (1994). Shame and the Origins of Self-Esteem. A Jungian approach.

London & New York: Routledge.

Jambekar, S., Quinn, D.M., & Crocker, J. (2001). The Effects of Weight and
Achievement messages on the Self-esteem of women. Psychology of Women
Quarterly, 25, 48-56.

Kernis, M. (Ed) (1995). Efficacy, Agency and Self-esteem. New York & London:
Plenum Press.

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Kim. O. & Kim. K. (2001). Body Weight, Self-esteem, and Depression in Korean
Female Adolescents. Adolescence, 36,142.

Klass, P. (2001). What really shapes a girl’s self-image? Family life; March 27.

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Learners’ Self-esteem and Behaviour. Masters Research Report submitted to the
University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of Humanities.

Lawrence, D. (1987). Enhancing Self-esteem in the classroom. Bury St Edmunds: St

Edmundsbury Press.

McCall, R.B. (1970). Fundamental Statistics for Psychology. New York: Harcourt,
Brace & World, INC.

Mendelson, M.J. (2001). Body-Esteem Scale for Adolescents and Adults. Journal of
Personality Assessment, 79(1),90.

Miller, C.T. & Downey, K.T. (1999). A Meta-Analysis of Heavyweight and Self-
esteem. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 3(1) 88-84.

Newton, M. (1995). Adolescence: Guiding Youth through the perilous ordeal. New
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O’Dea, J.A. & Abraham, S. (1999). Association between Self-concept and Body
Weight, Gender, and Pubertal Development among Male and Female Adolescents.
Adolescence, 34(1),69.

Prester, T.A. (Ed) (2003). Psychology of Adolescents. New York: Nova Science
Publishers, Inc.

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Robinson, J.P, Shaver, P.R., & Wrightsman, L.S. (Eds) (1991). Measures of
Personality and Social Psychological attitudes. USA: Academic Press.

Russell, W.D & Cox, R.H. (2003). Social Physique Anxiety, Body Dissatisfaction and
Self-esteem in College Females of differing: Exercise Frequency, Perceived Weight
Discrepancy, and Race. Journal of Sport behaviour, 26(3),298.

Sky, M.A. (2003). The contribution of Intelligence, Learning, Strategies, and

Personal Development to Engineering students’ Academic Performance. Masters
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Humanities.

Soellaart, B.M. (2003). A Comparison of the Performance of normal black South

African and British infants on the Griffiths Scales of Mental Development. Masters
Research Report submitted to the University of the Witwatersrand, Faculty of
Humanities.

Tiggerman, M. (2001). The Impact of Adolescent Girls’ Life Concerns and Leisure
Activities on Body Dissatisfaction, Disordered Eating, and Self-esteem. The Journal
of Genetic Psychology, 162(2),133.

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London: Greenwood Press.

46
APPENDIX A & B
19 July 2004
Dear Parent

I am presently completing my Masters degree in Educational Psychology at the

University of the Witwatersrand. I am conducting research on the relationship
between self-esteem and body weight. In order to do this I intend to weigh and
measure heights of participants (this will be done individually in absolute privacy
behind closed doors) as well as administer a 20-minute questionnaire, to which there
are no right or wrong answers. Your daughter has been selected from a group of
learners in her grade as a possible participant. I wish to invite you to grant permission
for your daughter to participate in the group. The questionnaire consists firstly of a
Information sheet asking for: age, race, socio-economic status (by asking about her
parent’s profession), ideal weight and height, whether she sees herself as having a
weight problem, whether she participates in physical activity, whether she has begun
to menstruate and if so, at what age she started and methods she uses to lose weight.
Secondly a self-esteem questionnaire designed to measure global feelings of self-
worth or self-acceptance. The questionnaire asks for no identifying data and contains
items that will not be harmful to your child. I intend using the responses obtained to
determine group trends only. Confidentiality and anonymity are assured.

This entire process should not take more than 30 minutes and will be conducted with
the permission of the school in a time specified by the school. Participation in this
study is voluntary and not compulsory. Should you choose not to provide your
consent there will be no further consequences for you or your child. She will thus not
participate in the research and you will not have to respond to this letter. Learners
who will not participate will be involved in normal school activity during the time
allocated to administer the questionnaire to participating learners. Should you grant
consent, I ask you to please complete and return the form overleaf. In addition your
daughter has the right to choose not to participate or to withdraw from the study at
any time.

This is a project under the auspices of the University of the Witwatersrand and is not
affiliated to the school in anyway. Apart from my supervisor and myself no one else
will have access to the data. On completion of my research report the school will be
given a feedback sheet that you and your daughter will receive on finalization of this
study. Since only group trends will be considered, I will not provide individual
feedback. However a once off group feedback that is in no way compulsory will be
offered during a time arranged with the school. If participation in the study
inadvertently awakens any negative feelings or there is concern regarding an
individual, participants will be referred to The Johannesburg Parent and Child
Counselling Centre (011-4841734) for appropriate support if they so wish.

47
I would appreciate your consent for your child to participate, since this study will
provide valuable insight into the problems of self-esteem and body weight in the
South African female, adolescent population. Once more, I assure you that all
responses are confidential and anonymity is assured. All questionnaires will be
destroyed after I have analyzed them. Should you have any questions please do not
hesitate to contact me. My details appear below.

Thanking you in anticipation

_____________________
Bronwyn Webber (Miss)
Cell: 083 27 949 73
E-mail: [email protected]

…………………………………………………………………………………………
(Please tear off this part and return via your daughter to Mrs Potgieter at the front
office no later than the 26th July)

I have read and understood the information provided in this consent form
and I _________________________ grant permission for my daughter
________________________ Grade ____to take part in a study
considering the relationship between self-esteem and body weight.

Signed _________________ Date______________

48
Dear learner 27 July 2004

My name is Bronwyn and I am currently completing my Masters in Educational

Psychology at the University of the Witwatersrand. I am conducting my research on
the relationship between self-esteem and body weight. You have been selected from a
group of learners in your grade as a possible participant in this research. I would
appreciate it if you would participate in this study by allowing me to record you
weight and height (this will be done individually behind closed doors) and by
completing a self-esteem questionnaire designed to measure global feelings of self-
worth or self-acceptance. I require 30 minutes of your school time.

Participation in this study is VOLUNTARY and not compulsory and you may
withdraw your responses at any stage. Should you choose not to participate or to
withdraw your responses there will be no negative consequences. Please note that if
you participate, all responses will be treated in strictest confidence. Under no
circumstances will any of your responses be shown to anyone except the researchers
involved in the study. Your anonymity will be ensured in that you are not required to
provide any identifying data. Only group trends will be determined, from which it will
be impossible to identify any particular person.

Given understanding of anonymity and confidentiality, I will ask you to please

respond as openly and honestly as possible. There are no right or wrong answers.
Instead I am trying to determine YOUR responses to each item. A once-off group
feedback session will be offered during a time arranged with your school in addition
to a report of group trends that will be given to both you and your parents. If
participation in the procedure inadvertently awakens any negative feelings or there are
particular concerns you may be referred to The Johannesburg Parent and Child
Counselling Centre for appropriate support if you so wish (011-4841734). Should you
require further information or feedback on the results of this study please feel free to
contact me. My details appear below.

Should you grant me permission to use your responses I request that you fill in the
informed consent form below.

Last but by no means last, THANK YOU for reading this.

Yours sincerely
_______________
Bronwyn Webber
Cell: 083 27 949 73
e-mail: [email protected]
……………………………………………………………………………………
I ____________________, Grade ____do hereby grant Bronwyn Webber a Masters
student at the University of the Witwatersrand permission to use my responses in her
research concerning self-esteem and body weight. I understand that participation in
this research is voluntary and that my anonymity and confidentiality will be
maintained. I also accept that I may withdraw my responses at any time.
_____________ ____________
Signed Date

49
APPENDIX C & D
GRADE ___ No ___

Information sheet

1) Age: ________ years ________ months

2) What is your father’s occupation? ___________________________

3) What is your mother’s occupation? __________________________

4) Race: (These categories are used solely for research purposes and are not meant to
be offensive)

Black Coloured Indian White

Other
(Please specify)________________

5) How tall would you like to be? ______ Meters ______ Centimeters.

6) How much would you like to weigh? _______ Kilograms.

7) Do you see yourself as having a weight problem?

Not at A small An A serious
all problem average problem
problem
bl

8) Do you regularly participate in any physical activity or exercise?

YES NO

If you answered YES, on average how many times per week? ___________
On average how long is each exercise session? _________
Please state what type of exercise you do:
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
9) Have you started menstruating (your period)?
YES NO

10) If YES, at what age did you start mensturating? _______ Years _____ Months
old.

50
11a) Weight loss methods you currently use:
Diet pills Exercise Vomiting Fasting Laxatives
e.g. Thins e.g.
Skipping Decreased
Diuretics Laxador
Participation Calorie
In a weight-loss meals e.g.
group intake Fat
Aldactone None
burners
11b) On average how often do you use these weight loss methods?
Daily Weekly Monthly

Self-Esteem Scale (Rosenburg, 1965)

12) I feel that I am a person of worth, at least on an equal basis with others.
STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY
AGREE DISAGREE

13) I feel that I have a number of good qualities

STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY

AGREE DISAGREE

14) All in all, I am inclined to feel that I am a failure

STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY

AGREE DISAGREE

15) I am able to do things as well as most other people

STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY
AGREE DISAGREE

16) I feel I do not have much to be proud of.

STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY
AGREE DISAGREE

17) I take a positive attitude towards myself.

STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY
AGREE DISAGREE

18) On the whole, I am satisfied with myself.

STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY
AGREE DISAGREE

51
19) I wish I could have more respect for myself.
STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY
AGREE DISAGREE

20) I certainly feel useless at times.

STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY
AGREE DISAGREE

21) At times I think I am no good at all

STRONGLY AGREE NEUTRAL DISAGREE STRONGLY

AGREE DISAGREE

22) Have you had a serious negative incident in your life recently? E.g. death of a
loved
one or parental divorce.
YES NO

please specify _______________________________________

23) Who or what is responsible for your weight?

YOURSELF SOMEONE ELSE

OR
SOMETHING
ELSE

24) In your opinion, does how much someone weighs affect their self-esteem?

_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
____________

25) Do you feel that your weight influences how you feel about yourself?
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________

52