MEBS7012 PART 1 – AIR CONDITIONING AND VENTILATION

Pointers for review – major concepts and formulas (note formulas in red needs to be memorized)
Chapter 1 Introduction to air conditioning and refrigeration (11 concepts, 6 set of formulas)
Concepts: air conditioning, ventilation, HVAC, air handling unit,
humidification of air, heat conduction, convection heat transfer,
radiation heat transfer, thermal insulation materials, equivalent
thermal resistance, overall heat transfer coefficient.
Formulas:
𝑘𝐴 𝑇 −𝑇
• Conduction 𝑄 = 𝐿 (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 ) = 0𝑅 𝐿, or 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ
𝑡ℎ
• For thermal resistance in series, 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄(𝑅𝑡ℎ1 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ2 +
1
𝑅𝑡ℎ3 ) = 𝑄𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 ; 𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈(𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ), where 𝐴𝑈 = 𝑅
𝑡𝑜𝑡
1 1 1 1 𝑇1 −𝑇2
• For thermal resistance in parallel 𝑅 = (𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 ), and 𝑄 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ1 𝑡ℎ2 𝑡ℎ3 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡
1
• Convection 𝑄 = 𝐴ℎ(𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ) or 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑄 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑄

Chapter 2. Psychrometric principles and air conditioning systems

(16 concepts, 4 set of formulas)
Concepts: Dry air, dew point, saturated air, relative humidity,
humidity ratio, enthalpy of moist air, psychrometric chart, four
basic psychrometric processes for heating and air conditioning,
dehumidification by cooling, bypass factor, evaporative cooling,
coil condition line, space cooling line, basic single-zone air
conditioning system, multi-zone air conditioning systems with
reheat

Formulas:
• Enthalpy of moist air ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡); An
alternative approximate relation ℎ = 𝑐𝑝𝑚 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔𝑜 where 𝑐𝑝𝑚 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔𝑐𝑝𝑤 is the specific heat of moist
air. Consider a process from state 1 to state 2: ∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1 = ∆ℎ𝑠 + ∆ℎ𝑙 , and ∆ℎ𝑠 = 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ), and
∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ).
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
• Mixing of two moist air streams 𝑡3 = 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝑡2 ;
𝑎3 𝑎3

𝑚̇𝑎𝑏
• A simple bypass model for cooling coil: 𝑚̇𝑎 = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑏 + 𝑚̇𝑎𝑐 ; bypass factor 𝑏 = . Sensible cooling rate
𝑚̇𝑎
𝑄𝑠 ̇
𝑄̇𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (1 − 𝑏)(𝑡1 − 𝑡𝑑 ) ; total cooling rate 𝑄̇𝑡 = 𝑆𝐻𝑅 .
• Sensible cooling load and latent cooling load: 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) and 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎 ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 );
𝑄̇
𝑄̇ =̇ 𝑄 + 𝑄̇ . Sensible heat ratio (SHR) is SHR= 𝑠𝑡.
𝑡 𝑠𝑡 𝑙𝑡 𝑄̇𝑡

Chapter 3. Heat and moisture transfer in buildings, and cooling and heating loads (9 concepts, 2 sets of
formulas)
Concepts: The overall thermal resistance of the wall, the overall heat transfer coefficient, heating load, cooling
load, minimum recommended ventilation rates, basic principles of RTS and CTS methods, sol-air temperature,
degree days

1
Formulas:

• A simple model of a thin wall; thin wall surface or thin interior

𝑑𝑇
surface: The wall temperature. (𝜌𝑐𝑙𝐴) 𝑑𝑡𝑠 = 𝐴𝛼𝐼(𝑡) − 𝐴ℎ𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 );
The heat flux 𝑞𝑖 = ℎ𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 );
𝑑𝑞𝑖 ℎ 𝛼ℎ𝑠
Thus + 𝑞𝑖 = 𝛽𝐼(𝑡), where  = 𝜌𝑐𝑙𝑠 and 𝛽 = = 𝛼 .
𝑑𝑡 𝜌𝑐𝑙

For 24-hour steady periodic conditions, we define radiant time

factors; we have 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = ∑23 23
𝑛=0(𝛼𝐼𝑛 )𝑟𝑛 or 𝑞𝑖,𝑡 = ∑𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 .

For thick walls, the hourly heat gain due to conduction, 𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 at hour 𝑡 is 𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 = ∑23
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 ; where 𝑐𝑛 is
the so-called conduction time factor for hour 𝒕 or interval 𝒏 and 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑡𝑠𝑎,𝑡−𝑛 − 𝑡𝑎 );

Chapter 4 Air and water distribution systems (12 concepts, 11 formulas)

Concepts: Total head, Moody chart, local loss coefficient, fan laws, damper control, variable speed drive, equal
friction method, static regain method

Formulas:
𝐸𝑚 𝑝 𝑣2
• The total head, 𝐻 = = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧.
𝑔
Between two sections 1 and 2 of the duct:
𝐸𝑚1 𝐸𝑚2 𝑝 𝑣2 𝑝 𝑣2
∆𝐻12 = ( − ) = (𝜌𝑔1 + 2𝑔1 + 𝑧1 ) − (𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔2 + 𝑧2 );
𝑔 𝑔

𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
• Darcy-Weisbach equation: ∆𝑃𝑓 = 𝑓 𝐷 ;
2

• The volume flow rate of a fluid through a circular duct:

1
𝑄 = 4 𝜋𝐷2 𝑉
1
• Pressure loss in fittings: ∆𝑝𝑡,𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 𝑝𝑣𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 );
𝐿 1 1
• Total pressure loss in duct sections ∆𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 );
𝑛
• Fan characteristics: total pressure: ∆𝑝𝑡 = 𝑝𝑡,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑡,𝑖 ,; static pressure: ∆𝑝𝑠 = 𝑝𝑠,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑠,𝑖 ; ideal power input:
𝑚̇(𝑝𝑡,𝑜 −𝑝𝑡,𝑖 )
𝑊̇𝑖𝑑 = 𝜌

𝑄̇ 𝑝 𝑊̇
• Fan laws 𝐷3𝜔 = 𝑐1; 𝜌𝐷2𝑡𝜔2 = 𝑐2 ; 𝜌𝐷5𝜔3 = 𝑐3 ,

𝐿 1 1
• Fan-duct network ∆𝑃1−2 = 𝑝0 − 𝑝2 = [∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 )] ;
𝑛 1−2

2
Chapter 1 Introduction to air conditioning and refrigeration

Air conditioning refers to the control of air temperature, moisture, and air quality as required by occupants, a
process or a product in an enclosed space. Simply speaking, it is the technologies used to maintain an enclosure
at a desired set of physical conditions.

The enclosure can be a building, a car, a bus, a train cabin, an aircraft cabin, a space station or a submarine. For
some engineers, air conditioning refers to air cooling/heating only. In such situations, we differentiate air
conditioning and ventilation, as the latter refers to supply of outdoor air into a space, and distribute within it.
HVAC is a commonly used acronym for heating, ventilation, and air conditioning, apparently first coined by
Chinese.

(a) (b)

Figure 1. (a) A conceptual diagram of HVAC system. (b) All-water two-pipe heating and cooling system in
a multi-story building.

Table 1. Properties of dry air at atmospheric pressure

T (oC)  (kg/m3) cp (kJ/kg.K)  (kg/s.m)  (cm2/s) k (W/m.K)  (cm2/s) Pr (-)

-50 1.582 1.006 1.45×10-5 0.092 0.020 0.130 0.72
0 1.293 1.006 1.71×10-5 0.132 0.024 0.184 0.72
10 1.247 1.006 1.76×10-5 0.141 0.025 0.196 0.72
20 1.205 1.006 1.81×10-5 0.150 0.025 0.208 0.72
30 1.165 1.006 1.86×10-5 0.160 0.026 0.223 0.72
60 1.060 1.008 2.00×10-5 0.188 0.028 0.274 0.70
100 0.946 1.011 2.18×10-5 0.230 0.032 0.328 0.70

Table 2. Properties of water at atmospheric pressure

T  cp  (kg/s.m)  k  ℎ𝑓𝑔
(oC) (kg/m3) (kJ/kg.K) (cm2/s) (W/m.K) (cm2/s) (kJ/kg)
0 0.9999 4.217 0.01787 0.01787 0.56 0.00133 2501.0
3
 10 0.9997 4.192 0.01304 0.01304 0.58 0.00138 2477.7
20 0.9982 4.182 0.01002 0.01004 0.59 0.00142 2454.2
30 0.9957 4.178 0.00798 0.00802 0.61 0.00146 2430.4
40 0.9923 4.178 0.00654 0.00659 0.63 0.00152 2406.8
50 0.9881 4.180 0.00548 0.00554 0.64 0.00155 2382.8
100 0.9584 1.011 0.00283 0.00295 0.68 0.00166 2257.0

Cooling is the transfer of energy from a space or to the air in a space by virtue of a difference in temperature
between the source and the space/air. In air conditioning, the cooling is usually achieved by passing the air over
a cool surface, e.g. a cooling tube surface. The tube surface may be cooled by a chilled liquid, say water or
refrigerant. Cooling usually signifies sensible heat transfer, with a decrease in the air temperature.

Dehumidification refers to the removal of water vapor to air. This can be done by circulating air over a
sufficiently cold surface which leads to condensation of water vapor from the air. It is also possible to
dehumidify by spraying cold water droplets into the air.

Ventilation refers to the supply of outdoor “fresh” air into a space and distribute within it. Air cleaning refers to
the removal of airborne pollutants from air, such as particles by filtration and volatile organic compounds by
adsorption etc.

Typical large commercial air-conditioning systems

The major elements of a commercial air-conditioning system is shown in Figure 3.
• The air conditioning and distribution system (also called secondary components of the HVAC system) – in
general, this system design first involves the determination of individual zones to be conditioned. A zone is
a conditioned space under the control of a single thermostat, which senses the space temperature and sends a
correction signal if it is not within a desired range.
• Return air from the conditioned space is drawn into the air handling unit (AHU) by the return air fan. As
the air passes through the AHU, a fraction of it is discharged to the outside ambient through the exhaust
port, and replaced by an equal amount of fresh outdoor air through inlet. Dampers are used to control this
process. The mixture of return air and fresh air then passes through a filter before entering the cooling and
dehumidifying coil for the major operation of the HVAC system, i.e. air cooling and dehumidification. The
condensed water is drained out. The supply air fan then distributes the cold air through the supply duct
network to the conditioned space, and the desired quantity of air is discharged to each conditioned space or
room through flexible ducts connected to supply diffusers.

• Chillers and boilers (also called primary components of HVAC system) provide chilled water and hot ware
or steam through a piping system to the entire facility. For large college campuses such as this campus, a
central plant for chillers and boilers may be used.

• The cooling coil receives chilled water pumped from the chiller, which is essentially a refrigerator, where
the evaporator cools water to a temperature of about 3-6oC. The heat rejected by the condenser of the
refrigerator is carried away by cooling water, pumped through the tubes of the condenser. This cooling
water finally discharges heat to the atmosphere in a cooling tower, before being circulated back to the
condenser by the cooling tower pump. A fuel-fired boiler can provide hot water for the heating coil of the
AHU. Chillers and boilers covert fuel or electrical energy to heating and cooling effects respectively.

4
Figure 3. A typical central and large heating and air conditioning system using air and water.

Introduction to heat transfer

Air conditioning is about the transport and transfer of heat. Hence a basic knowledge is reviewed here with a
reference to building applications.

Figure 5. Modes of heat transfer (conduction, convection and radiation) for a wall

5
Figure 6. Illustrations of heat conduction through a wall and convection
𝑘𝐴
1D heat conduction 𝑄 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 ), where k is the thermal conductivity of the wall material(s) [W/mK].
𝐿
𝜕𝑇
The general form of the Fourier’s Law 𝑄 = 𝑘𝐴 (𝜕𝑥 )

Materials such as fiberglass have very low thermal conductivity, and they are called thermal insulation
materials.
𝑘𝐴 𝑇0 −𝑇𝐿 𝐿
We write 𝑄 = (𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 ) = , where 𝑅𝑡ℎ = 𝑘𝐴 is the equivalent thermal resistance,
𝐿 𝑅𝑡ℎ
or 𝑇0 − 𝑇𝐿 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ

For thermal resistance in series,

𝑇1 − 𝑇2 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ1 ; 𝑇2 − 𝑇3 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ2 ; 𝑇3 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄𝑅𝑡ℎ3 ;
hence 𝑇1 − 𝑇4 = 𝑄(𝑅𝑡ℎ1 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ2 + 𝑅𝑡ℎ3 ) = 𝑄𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

We define overall heat transfer coefficient

1
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑈(𝑇1 − 𝑇4 ), where 𝐴𝑈 = 𝑅
𝑡𝑜𝑡

1 1 1 1 𝑇1 −𝑇2
For thermal resistance in parallel 𝑅 = (𝑅 +𝑅 +𝑅 ), and 𝑄 =
𝑡𝑜𝑡 𝑡ℎ1 𝑡ℎ2 𝑡ℎ3 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡

When the wall surface is specified with a temperature or a heat flux, then the above equations can be directly
used.

When there is a convective heat transfer, we need to use the Newton’s law of convection, which states
1
𝑄 = 𝐴ℎ(𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 ) or 𝑇𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑓𝑎𝑐𝑒 − 𝑇𝑓𝑙𝑢𝑖𝑑 = 𝐴ℎ 𝑄 = 𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑄
where ℎ is the convective heat transfer coefficient. Thus, the thermal resistance for a convective boundary is
1
𝑅𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 = 𝐴ℎ

6
Example 6. A concrete wall of thickness 8 cm and thermal conductivity 1.6
W/mK, absorbs solar radiation at a steady rate of 300 W/m2. The heat transfer
coefficient between the outer surface of the wall and the ambient at 30 oC is 25
W/m2K. The heat transfer coefficient between the room air at 20 oC and the inner
surface of the wall is 10 W/m2K.

Calculate the rate of heat flow into the room, and the temperature of the outer
surface of the wall.

Figure 8. Heat flow through a concrete wall, and its thermal network

Solution:
Consider a unit area of the wall.
1 1 1 1 𝐿 0.08
𝑅𝑐𝑖 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×10 = 0.1 K/W; 𝑅𝑐𝑜 = 𝐴ℎ = 1×25 = 0.04 K/W; 𝑅𝑤 = 𝐴𝑘 = 1×1.6 = 0.05 K/W

Energy balance at the outer surface node

𝑄𝑜 + 300 = 𝑄𝑖 ;
30−𝑇 30−𝑇
𝑄𝑜 = 𝑅 𝑠𝑜 = 0.04𝑠𝑜;
𝑐𝑜
𝑇 −20 𝑇𝑠𝑜 −20
𝑄𝑖 = 𝑅𝑠𝑜+𝑅 = .
𝑤 𝑐𝑖 0.15

Substitute 𝑄𝑜 and 𝑄𝑖 into the energy balance equation, gives 𝑇𝑠𝑜 = 37.37 oC.

Then we can find that 𝑄𝑜 = −184.2 W/m2, suggesting that some of radiation absorbed by the wall is lost to the
ambient air by convection.

Chapter 2. Psychrometric principles and air conditioning systems

In the case of a mixture of a gas and vapor, such as dry air and water vapor, the vapor could change phase
during a process. For example, when ambient air passes through the cooling coil of an air conditioner, some of
the water vapor in the air condenses to water on the cold surface of the coil. The air delivered to the conditioned
space after passing through the cooling coil, is therefore drier than the original ambient air. The reverse process
occurs in a cooling tower where the air leaving the system becomes moist due to the water vapor added to the
air.

In order to analyze these practical situations, we need to develop a set of parameters to characterize a mixture of
gases and vapors, and also obtain expressions for the relevant thermodynamic properties of the mixture.

7
How special is the mixture of dry air and water vapor?
Dry air is the air that is free of any moisture. The water vapor is generally present in moist air in a superheated
state. The pressure of water vapor in typical ambient air is relatively low. For example, at 30oC the water vapor
pressure in air that is fully saturated with water vapor is about 4.24 kPa, which is the saturated pressure of water
vapor at 30oC from the steam table. This is compared with a mixture pressure about 100 kPa. Under such dilute
conditions, we assume that water vapor and dry air behave like ideal gases, which are independent from each
other, i.e. the properties of water vapor are not influenced by the presence of air.

Figure 1. The saturation vapor pressure as a function of its temperature.

Table 1. Part of the steam table

T (oC) Saturation pressure Enthalpy of saturated Enthalpy of Enthalpy of

Pg (kPa) liquid (kJ/kg) vaporization saturated vapor,
(kJ/kg) ℎ𝑔 (kJ/kg)
0.010 0.6113 0.0 2501.3 2501.3
2 0.7056 8.4 2496.6 2505.0
5 0.8721 21.0 2489.5 2510.5
10 1.228 42.0 2477.7 2519.7
15 1.705 63.0 2465.9 2528.9
20 2.338 83.9 2454.2 2538.1
25 3.169 104.9 2442.3 2547.2
30 4.246 125.8 2430.4 2556.2
35 5.628 146.7 2418.6 2565.3
40 7.383 167.5 2406.8 2574.3
45 9.593 188.4 2394.8 2583.2
50 12.35 209.3 2382.8 2592.1
55 15.76 230.2 2370.7 2600.9
60 19.94 251.1 2358.5 2609.6
65 25.03 272.0 2346.2 2618.2
70 31.19 293.0 2333.8 2626.8
75 38.58 313.9 2321.4 2635.3
80 47.39 334.9 2308.8 2643.7
8
 85 57.83 355.9 2296.0 2651.9
90 70.13 376.9 2283.2 2660.1
95 84.55 397.9 2270.2 2668.1

We consider a piston cylinder with moist air at state A, shown in the temperature-volume diagram. The pressure
of air in the cylinder is kept constant. Due to Dalton’s rule, we have
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑎 + 𝑃𝑣 ;
where 𝑃 is the pressure of the mixture; 𝑃𝑎 and 𝑃𝑣 the partial pressure of the air and water vapor respectively.

Figure 1. (a) piston-cylinder set-up with moist air; (b) T-v diagram for vapor.

Properties of air-water mixtures (Note that formulas (except those in Page review list) are not required)
The relative humidity  is the ratio of the partial pressure of the vapor, 𝑃𝑣 in the mixture to the saturation
𝑃𝑣
pressure 𝑃𝑔 (𝑡) of the vapor at the mixture temperature, 𝑡, i.e.  = 𝑃 (𝑡) .
𝑔

The humidity ratio, 𝜔 is defined as the mass of water vapor in a given volume of mixture to the mass of dry air
in the same volume.
∆𝑚 ∆𝑚 /∆𝑉 𝜌
𝜔 = ∆𝑚𝑣 = ∆𝑚 𝑣//∆𝑉 = 𝜌𝑣 ;
𝑎 𝑎 𝑎
where ∆𝑚𝑣 and ∆𝑚𝑎 the mases of vapor and dry air respectively in a volume of ∆𝑉. 𝜌𝑣 and 𝜌𝑎 the densities of
vapor and dry air respectively.

As 𝑃𝑣 = 𝜌𝑣 𝑅𝑣 𝑇 and 𝑃𝑎 = 𝜌𝑎 𝑅𝑎 𝑇, 𝑅𝑣 and 𝑅𝑎 are the respective gas constants of water vapor and air.

𝑅 ̅𝑅 ̅ 𝑅 𝑅 ̅ ̅
𝑅𝑎 = 𝑀 = 28.96; and 𝑅𝑣 = 𝑀 = 18, where 𝑅̅ is the universal gas constant, and 𝑀𝑎 and 𝑀𝑣 are the molecular
𝑎 𝑣
masses.

𝜌 𝑃 𝑅 𝑃𝑅 𝑅𝑎 𝑃𝑔 (𝑡) 18𝑃𝑔 (𝑡) 0.622𝑃𝑔 (𝑡)

Hence 𝜔 = 𝜌𝑣 = 𝑃𝑣 𝑅𝑎 = (𝑃−𝑃
𝑣 𝑎
= = = .
𝑎 )𝑅𝑎 𝑣 𝑣 𝑣 𝑅𝑣 (𝑃−𝑃𝑔 (𝑡)) 28.96(𝑃−𝑃𝑔 (𝑡)) (𝑃−𝑃𝑔 (𝑡))
The degree of saturation, 𝜇 is defined as the ratio of the mass of water vapor in a mixture of air and water
vapor to the mass of vapor that would be present if the air was in a saturated state at the same temperature and
mixture pressure.
𝜔
𝜇 = 𝜔 , where 𝜔𝑠 is the specific humidity of saturated air at the same temperature and mixture pressure.
𝑠

0.622+𝜔
𝜇 =  [0.622+𝜔 ].
𝑠

9
Enthalpy of moist air (kJ/kg of dry air)
The enthalpy of moist air is equal to the sum of enthalpy of dry air, ℎ𝑎 and that of superheated water vapor, ℎ𝑔
ℎ = ℎ𝑎 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡);

where 𝑡 is the dry-bulb temperature, 𝜔 humidity ratio, 𝑐𝑝𝑎 the specific heat capacity at constant pressure of dry
air. For the typical range of temperature of about 0-60 oC, we may use 𝑐𝑝𝑎 = 1.00 kJ/Kkg.

From the steamtable, under low pressures, the enthalpy of superheated steam is approximately equal to the
enthalpy of saturated stream at the same temperature. So we choose ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) to be the saturated vapor enthalpy.

An alternative approximate relation for the moisture air enthalpy can be obtained by assuming that low pressure
water vapor behaves like an ideal gas.

ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡 + ℎ𝑔𝑜 ; where ℎ𝑔𝑜 = 2501 kJ/kg is the enthalpy of saturated water vapor at the reference
temperature of 0oC, and 𝑐𝑝𝑤 = 1.86 kJ/kgK is the specific heat capacity of water vapor.

Hence
ℎ = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔(𝑐𝑝𝑤 𝑡 + ℎ𝑔𝑜 ) = 𝑐𝑝𝑚 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔𝑜
where 𝑐𝑝𝑚 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔𝑐𝑝𝑤 is the specific heat of moist air.

Consider a process from state 1 to state 2 where the change of enthalpy is ∆ℎ = ℎ2 − ℎ1 , we can derive
(derivation omitted)

∆ℎ = ∆ℎ𝑠 + ∆ℎ𝑙 where the sensible heat ∆ℎ𝑠 = 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ), and the latent heat ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ). Both
𝑐𝑎𝑚 and ℎ𝑔𝑚 are evaluated at mean temperature and mean humidity ratio of the two states.

𝜔2 +𝜔1 𝑡2 +𝑡1
𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔
̅𝑐𝑝𝑤 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝑐𝑝𝑤 ; and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = ℎ𝑔𝑜 + 𝑡̅𝑐𝑝𝑤 = ℎ𝑔𝑜 + 𝑐𝑝𝑤
2 2

For the temperature range from 0 oC to 60oC of a typical psychrometric chart, the following mean values may be
used. 𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 1.02 kJ/kgK and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = 2555 kJ/kg. (Note: not the enthalpy of vaporization is used, but the mean
enthalpy of the saturated water vapor).

Specific volume of moist air 𝑣 (m3/kg dry air) can be obtained by using the ideal gas equation for dry air

𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝑃 𝑅
𝑣 𝑎 0.622(𝑃−𝑃𝑎 ) 𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔 𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔
𝑣= , we can also obtain 𝜔 = (𝑃−𝑃 )𝑅
= ;𝑣= [1 + 0.622], so 𝑣 = [1 + 0.622].
𝑃𝑎 𝑣 𝑣 𝑃𝑎 𝑃 𝑃

Adiabatic saturation and wet-bulb temperature

An ideal process is shown in Figure 3a, where
a stream of air passing steadily through to a
saturated state. The walls are perfectly
insulated, and the water pool is sufficiently
long and large. It can be derived that at ideal
conditions, the air entering with different
combined conditions, would result in the same
fully saturated air at the same saturation
temperature. This saturation temperature is
web-bulb thermometer to measure the
10
thermodynamic web-bulb temperature, though only appropriate, but fairly accurate (not derived here). The web-
bulb thermometer consists of an ordinary liquid-in-glass thermometer whose bulb is covered with a wet porous
wick, continuously supplied with water. The air whose humidity is to be determined is blown over the wick
usually with aid of a fan. The temperature indicated by the thermometer under steady conditions is called the
web-bulb temperature.

The psychrometric chart

Exterminating the physical and thermodynamic properties of air-water vapor mixtures as above is referred to as
psychrometrics or psychrometry. The term comes from the Greek psuchron (ψυχρόν) meaning "cold" and
metron (μέτρον) meaning "means of measurement". A psychrometric chart is a graph of the thermodynamic
parameters of moist air at a constant pressure, i.e. at a particular elevation relative to sea level. The ASHRAE-
style psychrometric chart, pioneered by Willis Carrier in 1904, is often used in Hong Kong.

(a) (b)

Figure 3. (a) Adiabatic saturator; (b) The coordinates of a commonly used psychrometric chart, and from
any of the two known parameters, one can determine the other parameters. The results are equivalent to using
the formulas shown/derived earlier. Computer software is now widely used for the determination, however,
reading psychrometric chart is still common.

Sensible heat ratio protractor

The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is defined as the ratio of the change in sensible enthalpy ∆ℎ𝑠 to the change in the
total enthalpy ∆ℎ
∆ℎ ∆ℎ
SHR = ∆ℎ𝑠 = 1 − ∆ℎ𝑙;
As ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 ) = ℎ𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔, hence
ℎ𝑔𝑚 ∆𝜔 ℎ𝑔𝑚
SHR = 1 − = 1− ; where 𝑞 = ∆ℎ/∆𝜔.
∆ℎ 𝑞

11
Figure 2. The ASHRAE psychrometric chart at 101.325 kPa pressure

12
Example 1. Atmospheric air at a pressure of 95 kPa has a humidity ratio of 0.016 kg/kg DA, and a temperature
of 27oC. Determine the following quantities: (a) the dew point temperature; (b) the relative humidity, (c) the
specific volume, and (d) the enthalpy.

Solution In theory, you may use psychrometric chart, but be careful as the chart is generally for the sea level
pressure as shown here.
0.622𝑃𝑣
(a) 𝜔 = (𝑃−𝑃𝑣 )
= 0.016, 𝑃 = 95 kPa, we can find out 𝑃𝑣 = 2.382 kPa, from the steam table (Table 1), the
dew point is 20.3oC. (i.e. using at 25oC, the saturation pressure is 3.169 kPa, at 20oC, 2.338 kPa)
𝑃𝑣 2.382
(b)  = 𝑃 (𝑡) = 3.600 = 66.2%, where 3.600 kPa is the saturation vapor pressure at 27oC.
𝑔
𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔 0.287×(27+273) 0.016
(c) 𝑣 = 𝑃 [1 + 0.622] = [1 + 0.622] = 0.93 m3/kg dry air
95
(d) ℎ = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) = 1.0 × 27 + 0.016 × 2552.6 = 67.8 kJ/kg [Note the ℎ𝑔 (𝑡) is obtained by
interpolation from Table 1 for the enthalpy of the saturated vapor]

Example 2. The dimensions of the room are 10 m × 6 m × 3 m. The pressure, temperature and degree of
saturation of the air in the rom are 100 kPa, 25oC, and 55% respectively. (a) Calculate the mass of air in the
room. (b) If the surface temperature of a window of the room is 10.5oC, will moisture condense out of the air?

Solution
From the steam table, the saturation vapor pressure at 25oC is 3.169 kPa.

The humidity ratio of saturated air at 25oC can be obtain

0.622𝑃𝑣𝑠 0.622×3.169
𝜔𝑠 = (𝑃−𝑃𝑣𝑠 )
= = 0.02035; note that 𝑃𝑣𝑠 is the saturation vapor pressure at 25oC.
100−3.169

𝜔 ω
𝜇 = 𝜔 = 0.02035 = 0.55; hence ω = 0.011196
𝑠
𝑅𝑎 𝑇 𝜔 0.287×(25+273) 0.011196
𝑣 = 𝑃 [1 + 0.622] = [1 + 0.622 ] = 0.8707 m3/kg dry air
100
The room volume 𝑉 = 10 × 5 × 3 = 180 m3
𝑉 180
The mass dry air in the room is 𝑚𝑎 = 𝑣 = 0.8707 = 206.73kg
The mass of moist air is 𝑚 = 𝑚𝑎 (1 + 𝜔) = 206.73 × (1 + 0.011196) = 209.04 kg
13
 0.622𝑃𝑣
𝜔= (𝑃−𝑃𝑣 )
= 0.011196, hence 𝑃𝑣 = 1.7682 kPa. The dew point is the saturation temperature at this pressure,
which is 15.5oC. The window surface temperature is much lower than this, hence condensation will occur.

Example 3. The pressure and dry-bulb temperature of the air in a house are 100 kPa and 22oC respectively. The
surface temperature of a window of the house is 6oC. What is the maximum relative humidity allowable in the
house if no condensation is to occur on the surface of the window?

Solution
Assume dew point is 𝑡𝑑𝑝 =6oC, from the steam table, the saturation pressure at this temperature is 0.9433 kPa.
The saturation vapor pressure at the air dry-bulb temperature of 22oC is 2.670 kPa.
𝑃𝑣 0.9433
At 𝑡𝑑𝑏 = 22 oC, 𝑡𝑑𝑝 =6oC,  = 𝑃 (22℃) = 2.670 = 35.33%, which is the max allowance RH.
𝑔

Example 4. Moist air undergoes a process from an initial state 1 with 𝑡𝑑𝑏1 = 10℃ and 𝜔1 = 0.005 to a final
state 2 with 𝑡𝑑𝑏1 = 40℃ and 𝜔1 = 0.021. Obtain the changes in enthalpy using three ways (a) the basic
formula for enthalpy of moist air; (b) the formula for the change in sensible enthalpy and latent enthalpy, and
(c) the Psychrometric chart.

Solution
(a) ℎ = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔 (𝑡), and the saturation vapor enthalpy obtained from the steam table (Table 1), and also the
specific heat capacity as a function of temperature (Table 1 in Chapter 1).
ℎ1 = 1.006 × 10 + 0.005 × 2519.7 = 22.66 kJ/kg
ℎ2 = 1.006 × 40 + 0.021 × 2574.3 = 94.32 kJ/kg
ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 94.32 − 22.66 = 71.66 kJ/kg.

(b) ∆ℎ = ∆ℎ𝑠 + ∆ℎ𝑙 where

∆ℎ𝑠 = 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ), ∆ℎ𝑙 = ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )

We use the mean values for the specific heat capacity and enthalpy. 𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 1.02 kJ/kgK and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = 2555
kJ/kg.

∆ℎ𝑠 = 1.02 × (40 − 10) = 30.6, and ∆ℎ𝑙 = 2555 × (0.021 − 0.005) = 40.88
∆ℎ = ∆ℎ𝑠 + ∆ℎ𝑙 = 30.6 + 40.88 = 71.48 kJ/kg.

(c) ℎ2 − ℎ1 = 72 kJ/kg
14
Psychrometric processes for heating and air conditioning
The processing units of air conditioning systems use psychrometric processes to produce air with the required
temperature and relative humidity to be supplied to a space.

Basic psychrometric processes include mixing of two moist air streams, sensible heating and cooling of air,
dehumidification of air by cooling, humidification of air by adding moisture,.

Mixing of two moist air streams

The two streams 1 and 2 are mixed to become a joint stream 3. The change in enthalpy is much greater than
those in kinetic energy and potential energy, which are ignored here. We also assume adiabatic process at
steady state conditions and constant pressure.
• Mass balance of air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 , All there symbols represent respectively dry air mass
flow rates of the three streams.
• Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 𝜔3
• Energy balance of moist air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 ℎ3

𝑚̇ ℎ −ℎ 𝜔 −𝜔
Thus, 𝑚̇𝑎1 = ℎ3−ℎ2 = 𝜔3−𝜔2, suggesting that 1-2-3 is a line.
𝑎2 1 3 1 3

(a) (b)

Figure 5. (a) Mixing of two air streams; (b) psychrometric chart.

15
From the energy balance equation, we have

𝑚̇𝑎1 [(𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔1 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡1 + 𝜔1 ℎ𝑔𝑜 ] + 𝑚̇𝑎2 [(𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔2 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡2 + 𝜔2 ℎ𝑔𝑜 ] = 𝑚̇𝑎3 [(𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔3 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡3 + 𝜔3 ℎ𝑔𝑜 ];

As 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 𝜔3 , we have

𝑚̇𝑎1 (𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔1 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 (𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔2 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 (𝑐𝑝𝑎 + 𝜔3 𝑐𝑝𝑤 )𝑡3;

If we assume that the specific heat capacities of the moist air are equal in the three streams, then we can obtain
he following appropriate relation for the mixed temperature

𝑚̇ 𝑚̇ 𝐿 𝐿
𝑡3 = 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝑡2 ; or 𝑡3 = 𝐿23 𝑡1 + 𝐿13 𝑡2 ;
𝑎3 𝑎3 21 21

Sensible heating and cooling

Heating may be obtained by an electrical resistance heater or a tubular coil carrying a hot fluid. The air can be
cooled by passing a cold fluid like chilled water or a refrigerant through a similar coil.

(a) (b)
Figure 6. (a) Sensible heating or cooling; (b) psychrometric chart.

During sensible heating and cooling, the moisture content of the air remains constant. This means that we need
to ensure that the coil surface temperature is above the dew-point of the entering air.

• Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎

• Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2
• Energy balance: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2

Hence 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 )

Assume that the specific heat capacity of moist air is constant, 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑝𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 )

Note that 𝑄̇𝑖𝑛 can be negative, which applies to cooling.

Dehumidification by cooling
Useful to consider the following three situations:
• S1 - the piston cylinder set up discussed earlier;
• S2 - flowing over a cold plate; and
• S3 - an actual system using cooling coil.
16
On a psychometric chart, S1 goes along the 1-3-4 line, S2 goes along the straight dashed line 1-4 and S3 long
the solid curved line 1-2.

(d)

Figure 7. (a-b) Three ideal cooling processes (S1, S2 and S3) and (d) their illustration on the
psychrometric chart.

S1 is an ideal process, with line 1-3 representing a sensible cooling phase with the humidity ratio being kept
constant. After Point 3, the air attains its dew-point temperature, and become fully saturated with water vapor.
Further cooling results in vapor condensation and temperature reduction, hence following the saturation curve
3-4.

S2 is more realistic. The cold plate temperature is below the dew-point, and water vapor will condense on the
plate from the air layer just adjacent to it. However, the mean temperature of the air at a section would be above
the dew-point for some distance along the plate. A detailed analysis of the heat and moisture between the air
and the plate is possible, but beyond the scope here. The main result, pertinent to the present discussion is
𝑑𝑡 (𝑡𝑝 −𝑡)
= Le (𝜔
𝑑𝜔 𝑝 −𝜔)
where 𝑡𝑝 and 𝜔𝑝 are respectively the constant plate temperature and the saturation humidity ratio of the air
adjacent to the water film, and 𝑡 and 𝜔 the meam temperature and humidity ratio of the air at a section
respectively.

17
If the Lewis number is unity (1), then line 1-4 is approximately linear. This is sometimes called the straight line
law. At point 4, the air temperature approaches the plate temperature.

S3 is more like an actual system. Moist air flows over the outside tube surface of the coil. The air is cooled
sensibly as it passes over the first few tube rows, and condensation of water vapor occurs over the rest of the
rows. Ideally, vapor condensation begins at the tube row where the tube surface temperature is just below the
dew-point. The condensed water drains through exit 3.

Unlike the plate cooling S2, the tube surface temperature of the actually cooling coil is not uniform over
different tube rows. This results in the non-linear variation of the mean air temperature, i.e. curve 1-2.

Consider the simplified control volume,

• Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎
• Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2 + 𝑚̇𝑤3 (note: 𝑚̇𝑤3 is the condensate flow at 3).
• Energy balance: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2 + 𝑚̇𝑤3 ℎ𝑤3 + 𝑄̇𝑜𝑢𝑡
̇
𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡 is the total rate of heat transfer from the air to the cooling fluid flowing through the tubes. This is called
the refrigeration load or refrigeration capacity.

A simple bypass model for the cooling coil

A complete analyses of the cooling coil is also possible, just like that for a cold plate. Here a semi-empirical
model using the bypass factor is presented for understanding.

The cooling process can be considered as a composite process. The bypass portion does not contact the cold
tube surface, with its state unchanged. The cooled portion undergoes cooling similar to the cold plate process
S2. The two portions are mixed adiabatically to obtain state 2.

The cooling coil temperature or apparatus dew-point is 𝑡𝑑 .

Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎 = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑏 + 𝑚̇𝑎𝑐 (note: 𝑚̇𝑎𝑏 and 𝑚̇𝑎𝑐 are the dry air flow rates of the bypass portion
and the cooled portion, respectively)

𝑚̇𝑎𝑏
A bypass factor is defined 𝑏 = .
𝑚̇𝑎
For the assumed adiabatic mixing process, we obtain
𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
𝑡2 = 𝑚̇𝑎𝑏 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎𝑐 𝑡𝑑 ; (note: 𝑡𝑑 equals to 𝑡4 in the figure).
𝑎 𝑎
𝑡 −𝑡
Using the above three equations, we have 𝑏 = 𝑡2 −𝑡𝑑.
1 𝑑

The sensible cooling rate 𝑄̇𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡1 − 𝑡2 ) = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (1 − 𝑏)(𝑡1 − 𝑡𝑑 ) (note: consider the situation if 𝑏 =
0, i.e. no bypass)

The total cooling rate is given by

𝑄̇ 𝑚̇ 𝑐 (1−𝑏)(𝑡1 −𝑡𝑑 )
𝑄̇𝑡 = 𝑠 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑚 .
SHR SHR
Where SHR is the sensible heat ratio (SHR = 𝑄̇𝑠 /𝑄̇𝑡 ), , which may be obtained directly from the protractor in
the psychrometric chart for the process 1-4 as shown for S2.

Humidification of air

18
Here we show a humidifier where a series of nozzles spray moisture directly to the air stream. Under ideal
conditions, we assume that all the moisture sprayed is retained in the air stream. Consider the control volume as
shown.

(a) (b)

Figure 8. (a) Humidification of air; (b) psychrometric chart.

• Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎

• Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2
• Energy balance: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇𝑤 ℎ𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2

The enthalpy-humidity ratio 𝑞is obtained by the manipulating the three equations.
ℎ −ℎ
𝑞 = 𝜔2−𝜔1 = ℎ𝑤 ;
2 1
where ℎ𝑤 is the enthalpy of the sprayed moisture.

Consider the change of enthalpy of the two points 1 and 2 in case the dry-bulb temperature is unchanged.
ℎ −ℎ
ℎ2 (𝑡) − ℎ1 (𝑡) = (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )ℎ𝑔 (𝑡); hence if 𝑞 = 𝜔2 −𝜔1 = ℎ𝑤 = ℎ𝑔 (𝑡), i.e. the line 1 − 2 is the constant dry-
2 1
bulb temperature line passing through 1.

Hence
• If ℎ𝑤 > ℎ𝑔 (𝑡), i.e. the air will be sensibly heated during humidification process, i.e. line 1-2 in Figure 8b.
• If ℎ𝑤 < ℎ𝑔 (𝑡), i.e. the air will be sensibly cooled during humidification process, line 1 − 2′ in Figure 8b.

Evaporating cooling
In such a system, ambient is passed through a porous structure supplied with water, and the non-evaporated
water dripping down which is then recirculated. The porous structure distributes water in the form of a thin film,
and increases the contact area between air and water to facilitate evaporation. The incoming air is relatively dry,
so during evaporation, water absorbs the latent heat of evaporation from air. Air is then cooled.

19
 (a) (b)

Figure 9. (a) Evaporative cooler; (b) psychrometric chart.

The above simple analysis for air humidification can be done here, but not useful. Again a detailed design
analysis can be carried out, but beyond the scope here. One useful conclusion is that under ideal conditions, the
state of air during adiabatic evaporative cooling follows a constant wet-bulb temperature in the psychrometric
chart. However, in practice, the moist air leaving the cooler at 2 is not cooled to the wet-bulb temperature,
which is the lowest possible temperature to which the air could be cooled.

Space condition line

It is customary to list all energy and moisture flows into the space which the air conditioning system needs to
remove in two groups, i.e. sensible cooling load and the latent cooling load.
• The sensible cooling load (total sensible heat gain) 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 : heat flow through walls, roofs, and windows;
appliances generating heat, lighting and occupants within the space; unintended air infiltration.
• The latent cooling load 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 : the moisture released by appliances and occupants within the space, and moist
air infiltration. The total rate of moisture gain by the air is 𝑚̇𝑤𝑡 .

For heating, we have heating load. We assume that these are available for our analyses. Their calculation is
discussed later.

We assume that the space conditions are steady, and the air is well mixed within the space. Thus, the return air
condition is the same as in the space.

(a) (b)

Figure 10. (a) Air conditioned space; (b) psychrometric chart.

Consider a control volume with a single inlet port 1 and a single outlet port 2, surrounding the space.
20
Mass balance of dry air: 𝑚̇𝑎1 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 = 𝑚̇𝑎
Mass balance of water: 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑤𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2
Energy balance: 𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2
Manipulating the three equations, we have

ℎ −ℎ 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 +𝑄̇𝑙𝑡
𝑞 = 𝜔2−𝜔1 = ;
2 1 𝑚̇𝑤𝑡

Thus, for fixed values of the sensible and latent cooling loads, and the rate of moisture gain, the enthalpy-
moisture ratio, 𝑞 is constant. Moreover, the state point of supply air at 1 on the psychrometric chart must lie on
∆ℎ
a straight line drawn through 2, parallel to the direction of 𝑞 in the ∆𝜔-protractor.

This straight line is the space condition line.

• If 𝑞 = ℎ𝑔2 , or the enthalpy-moisture ratio equals to the enthalpy of vapor in the space, then we have the line
1 − 2 in Figure 10b, the constant dry-bulb temperature line.
• If 𝑞 > ℎ𝑔2 , i.e. the supply air at 1 is cooler, and less humid than the air in the space (line 1-2). This is the
condition line for a typical summer air conditioning situation.
• If 𝑞 < ℎ𝑔2 , i.e. the supply air is warmer and less humid than the air in the space (line 1′ − 2). This could be
a typical winter air conditioning situation.
The above arguments can be derived mathematically, though not done here.

Using the earlier results, the sensible cooling load 𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 and the latent cooling load 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 may be expressed by
𝑄̇𝑠𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ) and 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 = 𝑚̇𝑎 ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔2 − 𝜔1 )
𝑄̇𝑡 =̇ 𝑄𝑠𝑡 + 𝑄̇𝑙𝑡 .

Again, for the temperature range from 0 oC to 60oC of a typical psychrometric chart, the following mean values
may be used. 𝑐𝑎𝑚 = 1.02 kJ/kgK and ℎ𝑔𝑚 = 2555 kJ/kg.

𝑄̇𝑠𝑡
The sensible heat ratio (SHR) is SHR= .
𝑄̇𝑡

Application of the psychrometric processes

As shown above, the desired conditions of the space, its heating/cooling loads, and the required supply air
conditions are related by the condition line of the space.
• Zone: a space or a room with a specified temperature, humidity ratio and heating/cooling load.
• Single-zone: controlled by its own thermostat.
• Multi-zone: a large building may have many different rooms with different heating/cooling loads, and
different temperature and humidity ratio requirements.

Here we show how the psychrometric processes can be used for analyzing single-zone and multi-zone systems.

Single-zone air conditioning system: summer air conditioning systems

The essential air processing components consisting of a filter, a cooling and dehumidifying coil, and a fan are
arranged in series. These are connected using ducts through which air flows. For ventilation, a portion of the air
withdrawn from the space at 2 is discharged to the ambient at 3, and replaced with an equal mass of outdoor air
at 4. Again, we assume steady state condition.

21
• Point 2 and condition line of the space– this is the space condition in term of the temperature and humidity
ratio or other moist air properties. If the sensible and latent cooling loads of the space are estimated, then
SHR can be calculated. The condition line of the space is obtained by drawing a straight line through Pont 2
in the direction of the line on the protractor pointing towards the SHR-value for the space.
• Point 4 – the state of outdoor air is easily located by knowing two thermodynamic properties of the ambient
air. The dry air mass fraction of the outdoor air to compensate for the return air discharged at 3 is usually
specified.
• Point 5 – the mixture of the outdoor air of 4 and the return air of 2. This uses the adiabatic mixing analysis
early, and 5 can be obtained by dividing the straight line 2-4 in the inverse ratio of the dry air mass flow
rates of the two air streams.

The curved line 5-1, or the coil condition line gives the state of air as it flows through the cooling and
dehumidifying coil. This can be obtained using the coil manufacturer’s data or the computer-based heat and
mass transfer analyses of the cooling coil.

(a) (b)

Figure 11. (a) Summer air conditioning system; (b) psychrometric chart.

The air undergoes a slight increase in temperature as it flows through the fan, which for all practical purposes,
could be neglected. However, we could add the energy input to the fan as a sensible cooling load to the space.
In the basic air conditioning system, the cooling and dehumidifying coil is the sole air processing unit, and
therefore only one property of the air could be controlled. In most systems, this property would be the dry-bulb
temperature.

Summer air conditioning systems with reheat

If the condition line of a space is very steep, then the coil condition line and the space condition line drawn on
the psychrometric chart may not intersect. In physical terms, this implies that the cooling coil is unable to
produce the required state of the supply air to meet the cooling load of the space. Inclusion of a reheat coil after
the cooling coil may remedy this situation.

As shown in the psychrometric chart, in the reheat coil, the air leaving the cooling coil at 6 undergoes sensible
heating with the humidity ratio remaining constant. Therefore, the intersection of the space condition line and
the horizontal line through 6 gives the supply air state 1. The rest is similar to the basic system.

22
 (a) (b)

Figure 12. (a) Air conditioning system with reheat; (b) psychrometric chart.

Since the energy has been expended to cool the air to state 6, the energy input to the reheat coil is an additional
energy input that lowers the overall energy efficiency of the system. This demonstrates that there is a trade-off
between the desired comfort conditions in a space and the operating energy cost of the system.

Example 5. In an air conditioning system return air at 26oC dry-bulb temperature and 50% relative humidity is
mixed with outdoor ambient air at 34oC dry-bulb temperature and 60% relative humidity. The dry air mass flow
rate of outdoor air is 30% of the supply air mass flow rate to the space. The pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa.
(a) Calculate the enthalpy, the humidity ratio and the dry bulb temperature of the supply air using the ideal
gas expressions.
(b) Obtain the answers using the psychrometric chart.

Solution
(a) Let 1 and 2 denote properties of the two air streams and 3 the properties of the mixed stream.

We extract the following steam table data (Table 1)

For 𝑡𝑑𝑏1 = 26 oC, 𝑃𝑔1 = 3.384 kPa, ℎ𝑔1 = 2549.0 kJ/kg;

For 𝑡𝑑𝑏2 = 34 oC, 𝑃𝑔2 = 5.350 kPa, ℎ𝑔1 = 2563.5 kJ/kg;
The total pressure 𝑃 = 101.3 kPa

The humidity ratio

0.6221 𝑃𝑔1 (𝑡) 0.622×0.5×3.384
𝜔1 = = (101.3−0.5×3.384) = 0.010566;
(𝑃−1 𝑃𝑔1 (𝑡))

0.6222 𝑃𝑔2 (𝑡) 0.622×0.6×5.350

𝜔2 = = (101.3−0.6×5.350) = 0.02036;
(𝑃−2 𝑃𝑔2 (𝑡))

The enthalpy
ℎ1 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡1 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔1 (𝑡) = 1.0 × 26 + 0.010566 × 2549.0 = 52.93 kJ/kg;
ℎ2 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡2 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔2 (𝑡) = 1.0 × 34 + 0.02036 × 2563.5 = 86.19 kJ/kg;

After mixing
𝑚̇𝑎1 ℎ1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 ℎ2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 ℎ3 ; so ℎ3 = 0.7 × 52.93 + 0.3 × 86.19 = 62.91 kJ/kg
𝑚̇𝑎1 𝜔1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝜔2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 𝜔3 ; so 𝜔3 = 0.7 × 0.010566 + 0.3 × 0.02036 = 0.01350

23
The enthalpy at exit 3 may be written as
ℎ3 = 𝑐𝑝𝑎 𝑡3 + 𝜔ℎ𝑔3 (𝑡) or 1.0𝑡3 + 0.01350ℎ𝑔3 (𝑡) = 62.91
We can make an initial guess of the temperature 𝑡3 , and then obtain the saturation vapor enthalpy from the
steam table. The process can be iterated to adjust the guessed value until the above equation is satisfied. We
find 𝑡3 = 28.4℃.

We can also use the following approximate relation

𝑚̇ 𝑚̇
𝑚̇𝑎1 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝑡2 = 𝑚̇𝑎3 𝑡3 or 𝑡3 = 𝑚̇𝑎1 𝑡1 + 𝑚̇𝑎2 𝑡2 = 0.7 × 26 + 0.3 × 34 = 28.4℃.
𝑎3 𝑎3
(b) Using the

The solutions obtained are ℎ3 = 65 kJ/kg; 𝑡3 = 29℃; 𝜔3 = 0.014, which agree relatively with the first
method. The psychrometric chart is found to be useful.

Example 6. In a summer air conditioning system, 25% of the return air from a space at 30 oC dry-bulb
temperature, and 22 oC web-bulb temperature is exhausted and an equal quantity of outdoor air at 34 oC dry-
bulb temperature, and 28 oC web-bulb temperature is mixed with the remaining return air.

The mixture passes over a cooling coil whose coil surface temperature (apparatus dew-point) is 8 oC, and the
bypass factor is 0.25.

The mass flow rate of dry air to the space is 0.8 kg/s; and the pressure is constant at 101.3 kPa.

Calculate (a) dry-bulb temperature and the relative humidity of the

air leaving the cooling coil; (b) enthalpy-humidity ratio of the
cooling process, and (c) the refrigeration capacity of the cooling
coil.

Solution
We use psychrometric chart. Identify state 1 (space air) and state 2
(outdoor air), and divide line 1-2 such that (length 1-3)/(length 2-3)
= 1/3. We have 𝑡𝑑𝑏3 = 31℃ and 𝑡𝑤𝑏3 = 23.5℃.

For the cooling coil process, the bypass factor is 0.25, meaning only 75% of the air passes through the ideal
straight line (3-4), to finally achieve the apparatus dew-point of 8oC, i.e. state 4. The cooled air at state 4 mixes
24
with the bypass air at state 3, to produce the supply air at state 5. To locate 5, we divide line 3-4 so that (length
4-5)/(length 3-5) =1/3.

(a) 𝑡𝑑𝑏5 = 13.8℃ and 5 =89%

(b) To obtain the enthalpy-humidity ratio of the cooling process, we draw a line parallel to line 3-4 through
∆ℎ
the centre of protractor. This gives the ∆𝜔-ratio as 5300 kJ/kg.
(c) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil is given by
𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓𝑟𝑖𝑔 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ3 − ℎ5 ) = 0.8 × (71 − 36.5) = 27.6 kW.

Example 7. Return air from an air conditioned space is at 32oC db-temperature, and 50% relative humidity. To
satisfy the design requirements of the space, air has to be supplied at 16oC db-temperature, and 65% relative
humidity. The pressure is constant, at 101.3 kPa. Answer the following two questions:
(a) Can a cooling and dehumidifying coil be used as the only processing unit of the system?
(b) What other processing units could be included to satisfy the required conditions of the supply air?

Solution: We find state 1 (32oC db, 50% RH) and state 2 (16oC db, 65%)
on the psychrometric chart. We observe that the condition line 1-2 of the
required ideal cooling coil does not intersect the saturation line. Hence it
is not possible to achieve state 2 of the supply air by a cooling coil alone.

If we draw line 1-3 that is tangential to the saturation curve, then state 3
gives the lowest temperature (3.7oC) to which air could be cooled using
an ideal cooling coil.

Air at stage 5 lying on the horizontal line through 2, can be produced by

cooling 75% of the dry air mass flow to state 3 and later mixing it with the 25% of the bypass mass flow. We
obtain mixed state 5 as 10.8oC. Reheat from 5 to 2, we can produce the required state 2.

Another method – we cool the entire air flow to the saturated state 4 (9.3oC). Reheat sensibly from 4 to 2.

Example 10. The rate of sensible heat gain and the rate of moisture gain by a space are 23 kW and 0.0024 kg/s
respectively. The space is maintained at 24oC db-temperature and 50% RH. The air supplied to the space is at
db-temperature of 15oC. Assume that the moisture entering the space has an enthalpy of 2555 kJ/kg. The
pressure is constant at 101.3kPa. Calculate
(a) The relative humidity, the wb-temperature, and the dry air mass flow rate of air supplied;
(b) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil; and
(c) The bypass factor and the apparatus dew-point of the cooling coil.

Solution
A schematic diagram of the system is shown in Figure 10a. We locate state
2 of the space air (24oC db-temp and 50%RH).

To find state 1 (supply air), we use SHR protractor.

𝑄̇𝑠 = 23kW; 𝑄̇𝑙 = 0.0024 × 2555 = 6.13kW. ( as ℎ𝑔𝑚 = 2555 kJ/kg.)
𝑄̇ 23
The sensible heat ratio 𝑆𝐻𝑅 = 𝑄̇ +𝑠𝑄̇ = 23+6.13 = 0.7895.
𝑠 𝑙

25
We first draw a line on the SHR-protractor pointing towards the value of 0.7895. The space condition line is
obtained by drawing a straight line through 2, parallel to the line drawn on the protractor. State 1 is located by
the intersection of the space condition line and the 15oC constant db-temp line.

(a) Read state 1 properties on the psychrometric chart. wb-temp = 12.8oC, and RH = 78%.
23
The mass flow rate of dry air is obtained by 𝑄̇𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡2 − 𝑡1 ), hence 𝑚̇𝑎 = 1.02(24−15) = 2.505
kg/s.
(b) The refrigeration capacity of the cooling coil is given by
𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ2 − ℎ1 ) = 2.505(48 − 36.3) = 29.3 kW, where the enthalpies are obtained from the
chart. The total heat load on the space is 23+6.13= 29.13 kW. This value should equal to 𝑄̇𝑟𝑒𝑓 by energy
conservation.
(c) The apparatus dew-point or the ideal coil surface temperature is the temperature at the point of
intersection 3, of the line 1-2 and the saturation line. We read 𝑡𝑑 = 𝑡3 = 10.5oC.
The bypass factor of the coil is
𝑡 −𝑡 15−10.5
𝑏 = 𝑡1 −𝑡𝑑 = 24−10.5 = 0.33.
2 𝑑

Chapter 3. Heat and moisture transfer in buildings, and cooling and heating loads
Steady heat transfer through multi-layered structures
As shown in Figure 1, a typical wall consists an outer layer 1, followed by a sheathing layer 2, that bears
agonists a wooden frame made of vertical beams called studs, (s). The space between these studs is filled with
insulation material (in). The inside of the wall consists of a layer of wall board 4. Hence this is a thermal
network with both series and parallel heat flow paths, which can be handled by at least two methods, i.e. the
parallel path method and the isothermal plane method. The final results are the same.

Figure 1. (Left) typical arrangement of a multi-layered wall structure; (Right) Corresponding networks
with (a) parallel path; and (b) isothermal plane.

In the isothermal plane method, we assume that the heat flow paths are parallel only through the insulation and
the studs.

The individual thermal resistances of the wall sections are

1 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 𝐿 1
𝑅𝑜𝑎 = 𝐴 ℎ ; 𝑅1 = 𝐴 1𝑘 ; 𝑅2 = 𝐴 2𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑠 = 𝐴 𝑘𝑠 ; 𝑅4 = 𝐴 4𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = 𝐴 𝑖𝑛𝑘 ; 𝑅𝑖𝑎 = 𝐴 ℎ
𝑤 𝑜 𝑤 1 𝑤 2 𝑠 𝑠 𝑤 4 𝑖𝑛 𝑖𝑛 𝑤 𝑖

26
Where the total wall area 𝐴𝑤 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐴𝑖𝑛
The overall thermal resistance of the wall
1 1 −1
𝑅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝑅𝑜𝑎 + 𝑅1 + 𝑅2 + (𝑅 + 𝑅 ) + 𝑅4 + 𝑅𝑖𝑎 ;
𝑠 𝑖𝑛
We can then calculate the overall heat transfer coefficient, 𝑈𝑜
∆𝑇
𝑄 = 𝐴𝑤 𝑈𝑜 ∆𝑇 = 𝑅 ; where ∆𝑇 = 𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 is the overall temperature difference.
𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙

Infiltration
This is the unintended air flows into a conditioned space through cracks and openings in the building envelope.
The infiltration rate 𝑚̇𝑎 can be estimated using the air flow theory.

The cooling load 𝑄𝑖𝑛 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (ℎ𝑜 − ℎ𝑖 ) = 𝑄𝑠 + 𝑄𝑙

The sensible and latent cooling loads
𝑄𝑠 = 𝑚̇𝑎 𝑐𝑎𝑚 (𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖 ); 𝑄𝑙 = 𝑚̇𝑎 ℎ𝑔𝑚 (𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 ) and added moisture 𝑚𝑤 = 𝑚̇𝑎 (𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 ).

Substituting the density and specific heat capacity of air at standard conditions of 1 bar (100kPa) and 15oC, i.e.
𝜌𝑎 = 1.2255 kg/m3; 𝑐𝑝 =1.006 kJ/kg; ℎ𝑓𝑔 = 2465.95 kJ/kg
𝑄𝑠 [kW] = 1.23𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 (𝑡𝑜 − 𝑡𝑖 ); 𝑄𝑙 [kW] = 3020𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑜 − 𝜔𝑖 )
where 𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 is the volume flow rate of infiltration air (m3/s).
The infiltration air flow rate is sometimes specified as air exchanges per hour (ACH).
3600𝑉̇𝑖𝑛
ACH= , where V is the building volume.
𝑉

Solar radiation
Solar radiation incident on the external surfaces of a building contributes significantly to the cooling load of the
building.
• Opaque surfaces such as walls and roofs absorb a fraction of the incident solar radiation, and reflect the
rest. A portion of the absorbed radiation is conducted through the wall or roof, while the rest is lost to
the ambient by convection, and thermal radiation exchange with surrounding surfaces.
• On transparent surfaces like glass windows and skylights, the solar radiation incident undergoes
reflection, absorption and transmission. The absorbed is either transferred to the inside air by conduction
and then convection, or to the surroundings by radiation. The transmitted arrive on different inner
surfaces such the floor, being absorbed, conducted or radiated again by these inner surfaces. The glass
windows and skylights are usually called fenestrations.

Total solar radiation incident on a surface (horizontal, vertical or inclined) can be calculated or measured, as a
function of the three fundamental angular quantities, the latitude, the declination and the hour angle. The
location of the sub at any time during the day can be specified by two angles, i.e. the solar altitude angle and the
solar azimuth angle.

The shading of surfaces from solar radiation can also be estimated.

Example 1. An exterior wall of a building has a 10cm thick layer of face brick on the outside, followed by a
layer of 20 cm thick concrete. A 15 cm thick layer of mineral wool insulation is sandwiched between the
concrete and a layer of plywood of thickness 10 mm. The wall is 10 m long and 3 m high. The outside and
inside heat transfer coefficients are 30 W/m2K and 9 W/m2K respectively. The inside and outside air
temperature are 22oC and -15oC respectively. Calculate

27
 (a) The total thermal resistance;
(b) The overall heat transfer coefficient, and
(c) The total heat transfer rate through the wall.

Solution: Consider unit area of the wall where the

constituent layers are in series. The thermal resistance of
1
a layer is 𝑅𝑖 = 𝐴 𝐾 . Here we obtain the data as follows
𝑖 𝑖
(note: we obtain the thermal conductivity values from
ASHRA 2013 Fundamentals).

Layer, i 𝑘𝑖 ,W/mK 𝐿𝑖 , mm 𝑅𝑖 , m2K/W

Brick 0.81 100 0.123
Concrete 1.8 200 0.11
Mineral wool 0.035 150 4.29
Plywood 0.095 10 0.105

1 1 1 1
Also 𝑅𝑖𝑛 = ℎ = 9 = 0.11 m2K/W; 𝑅𝑜𝑢 = ℎ = 30 = 0.033 m2K/W
𝑖𝑛 𝑜𝑢
Total thermal resistance 𝑅𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 0.033 + 0.123 + 0.11 + 4.29 + 0.105 + 0.11 = 4.77 m2K/W;
1 1
The overall heat transfer coefficient is 𝑈𝑜 = 𝑅 = 4.77 = 0.21W/ m2K.
𝑡𝑜𝑡
The total heat transfer rate through the wall is 𝑄𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝐴𝑈𝑜 (𝑇𝑖 − 𝑇𝑜 ) = 10 × 3 × 0.21 × (22 + 15) = 233W.

Cooling load and heating load calculations

Space heating load refers to the rate of heat input needed to maintain the indoor temperatures and humidity of a
building within specified limits during the winter heating season. The heating load includes:
• The heat loss to the outside ambient across the building envelope
• The heat required to raise the temperature of the infiltrated air as the outdoor air is colder than the indoor
air.

Space cooling load refers to the total rate of heat that is needed to be removed from the space to maintain a
comfortable temperature and relative humidity. The cooling load includes
• The heat gain from the outside ambient across the building envelope
• Solar radiation entering through the windows
• Heat released from lighting, occupants and other equipment such as computers.
• Heat gained due to the infiltration of the outside warmer and humid air

The space loads are time varying.

The detailed energy and moisture flows in a building are shown in Figure 3. Clearly, a detailed analysis of all
the transient process is complex and also tedious. In real design, load estimation is done by computer software.
Our aim here is to describe the physical principles that form the basis of these computerized procedures of load
estimation.

Note that ASHRAE simplified the wind heating load estimation, by ignoring the solar radiation gain.

28
Assume that we have a magic and accurate computer software which can simulate the entire system of a
building including the heat and moisture transfer, and the air conditioning system operation. We have the
detailed, say hourly weather data over the last 100 years. We can simulate how the system performs all the
100 × 365 × 24 hours, and a large number of design options need to be tested. We can choose an ideal design
which can satisfy, say 99% of time, as the most extreme weather conditions may lead to unrealistic cost. In
practice, we cannot choose such a process, and engineers are smarter (as always). They choose the design
conditions for both outdoor and indoor, and they make assumptions so that their design calculations are
sufficiently fast.

Outdoor design conditions

The design is normally done to meet the first the extreme weather conditions expected at a location. The
weather records for a large number of locations around the world have been compiled and processed to develop
a series of weather related outdoor design conditions. They are tabulated in ASHRAE Fundamentals.

Table 1. Design weather data for winter heating systems

Location Lat deg. Long. deg DB (oC) DB (oC) Wind Wind

99.6% 99% speed (m/s) speed (m/s)
1% 5%
New York 40.7N 73.8W -13.0 -10.2 12.1 9.2
Dallas 32.9N 97.04W -5.0 -2.6 11.6 9.2
Toronto 43.68N 79.63W -16.1 -13.3 13.3 10.5
Sydney 33.93S 151.18E 6.1 7.1 12.9 10.2
Beijing 39.93N 116.28E -11.0 -9.1 9.8 6.7
Bangalore 12.97N 77.58E 15.2 15.9 5.5 4.1
Hong Kong 22.33N 114.18E 9.0 10.8 10.2 9.4

Table 2. Design weather data for summer cooling systems

Location DB/MCWB (oC) DB/MCWB (oC) DB/MCWB (oC) 2.0%

0.4% 1.0 %
New York 29.8/22.4 27.8/21.6 26.6/21.1
Dallas 38.0/23.6 37/23.7 35.8/23.9
Toronto 28.5/21.8 26.8/21.4 25.3/20.8
Sydney 32.9/19.5 30.1/20.1 28.2/20.0
Beijing 35//22.0 33.2/22.5 32/22.4
Bangalore 34.2/19.8 33.4/19.8 32.6/19.8
HK 33.2/26.3 32.9/26.3 32.1/26.2

In Table 1, the middle two columns give the dry bulb temperatures during the coldest month of the year with
respective annual cumulative frequencies of 99.6% and 99%. The values listed under 99.6% is the ambient
temperature exceeded 99.6% of the time during a year. In the case of New York, this implies that, on average,
the low temperature of -13oC is exceeded during 8725 out of 8760 hours a year. In the last two columns, the
wind speeds exceeded, on average, during 1% (88 hours) and 5% (438 hours) of the time during a year, are
shown

In Table 2, the dry bulb (DB) temperatures under 0.4%, 1% and 2% levels are the high temperature exceeded,
on average, 0.4% (35 hours), 1% (88 hours) and 2% (175 hours) of the time during a year. The “mean

29
coincident wet-bulb temperature “(MCWB) is the average value of the wet-bulb temperature at the
corresponding dry-bulb temperature. 0.4% level is often selected for design.

Human body thermal balance

The human body converts chemical energy from food into heat and mechanical work by a process called
metabolism. The metabolic energy generation rate, usually in met unit in thermal comfort (1 met = 58.2 W/m2
of body area), depending on the activity level, age and health conditions.

Temperature regulation of the body is achieved through the control of blood flow rate to the skin. As the
environmental temperature goes up, the blood flow rate to the skin increases to raise the skin temperature,
which in turn, increases the heat transfer rate to the environment. This process is effective until the skin
temperature reaches the core body temperature of 37 oC. At this stage, sweating is initiated, which transfer the
metabolic heat to the surroundings by evaporation.

Question: Can the temperature of surrounding surfaces in a room differ from the air temperature? Explain your
answer.

• The rate of energy transfer to the ambient due to the evaporation of sweat is dependent on the ambient
temperature, the relative humidity and the speed of air movement.
• Heat is also transferred from the body to the ambient due to respiration. The rate of energy transfer in this
case depends on the average air flow rate into the lungs and the temperature and relative humidity of
ambient air.

Two important physiological variables affecting thermal comfort are the skin temperature and the evaporation
rate due to sweating.

Figure 5. The ASHRAE summer and winter comfort zones.

Question: What humidity ratio benefits thermal comfort? A higher value or a lower value?

30
Indoor design conditions
The ASHARE thermal comfort chart based on the effective temperature concept is shown in Figure 5. The
indicated comfort zones for winter and summer are for people performing office type work, and wearing
clothing with thermal resistances of 1.0 clo (winter) and 0.5 clo (summer) respectively. The speed of air
movement is less than 0.2 m/s. The upper limit of the humidity ratio is 0.012 kg/kg DA, and no lower limit is
recommended. The recommended temperature range is 20-25oC for winter and 24-28 oC for summer.

In the middle of a thermal comfort zone, a person wearing the prescribed clothing would have a neutral thermal
sensation. The middle of the winter and summer comfort zones are 22oC /50% RH, and 25oC/50%RH
respectively.

Indoor air quality

The minimum ventilation rates are given by recognizable standards such as those form ASHRAE. The values
depend on the number of occupants, and their activities, as well as the indoor materials.

Table 3. Minimum ASHRAE recommended ventilation rates.

Application Function Design occupancy/100m2 Ventilation air flow rate
per person (L/s)
Office Offices 7 10
Conference room 50 10
Restaurant Lounge 100 15
Dining room 70 10
Kitchen 20 7.5
Retail store Shops, malls 20 1 (L/sm2)
Sport area Ballrooms 100 13
Gymnasiums 30 10

Transient effect (Note that formulas (except those in Page review list) are not required)
If all the heat gains can be added together, then the calculation of cooling load is easy. The difficulty arises due
to the temporary storage of walls and other surfaces. We shall demonstrate this by a simple case.

We assume that the room air temperature, 𝑇𝑎 is constant. The interior or exterior surface absorbs a fraction 𝛼 of
the incident solar radiation or lighting radiation, 𝐼(𝑡) as a function of time, and also exchange heat with room
air by a combined convection and thermal radiation (ℎ𝑠 ). The wall is thin with a high conductivity, so that we
assume that its temperature is uniform, at 𝑇𝑠 .

31
Figure 6. A simple model of a thin wall; (a) thin wall surface; (b) thin interior surface.
𝑑𝑇𝑠
(𝜌𝑐𝑙𝐴) = 𝐴𝛼𝐼(𝑡) − 𝐴ℎ𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ); (1)
𝑑𝑡

where A is the wall surface area, l is the thickness, c is the specific heat capacity, and 𝜌 is the density of wall
material.

The heat flux per unit area entering the room from the surface is
𝑞𝑖 = ℎ𝑠 (𝑇𝑠 − 𝑇𝑎 ); (2)
𝑑𝑞
Thus 𝑑𝑡𝑖 + 𝑞𝑖 = 𝛽𝐼(𝑡), (3)
ℎ 𝛼ℎ𝑠
where  = 𝜌𝑐𝑙𝑠 and 𝛽 = = 𝛼.
𝜌𝑐𝑙

We define radiant time factors

1−𝑒 −∆𝜏 23 1−𝑒 −∆𝜏 23
𝑟𝑛 = [1−𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏 ] 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 ; and we can find out ∫𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 = [1−𝑒 −𝑁∆𝜏 ] ∫𝑛=0 𝑒 −𝑛∆𝜏 = 1

Hence 𝑞𝑖 (𝑡) = ∑23

𝑛=0(𝛼𝐼𝑛 )𝑟𝑛 .

This is an amazing formula, showing that the instantaneous heat flux (cooling load) at time 𝑡 can be calculated
using the radiant time factors, which depends only on the geometrical and thermal properties.

We write 𝛼𝐼𝑛 as 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 , the radiant heat gain rate during the 𝑛-th hour before the current hour 𝑡, and 𝑟𝑛 is the
radiant time factor for hour 𝑛. Hence

𝑞𝑖,𝑡 = ∑23
𝑛=0 𝑟𝑛 𝐼𝑠,𝑡−𝑛 .

Note that this approaches works for a thin wall, which can be assumed to have a uniform temperature
distribution.

In case, a thick wall does not have a uniform temperature distribution, the basic 1D heat conduction equation
can also be analyzed, though the procedure becomes complex. The results are similar as follows.

The hourly heat gain due to conduction, 𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 at hour 𝑡 is

𝑞𝑖𝑐,𝑡 = ∑23
𝑛=0 𝑐𝑛 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 .

Where 𝑐𝑛 is the so-called conduction time factor for hour 𝒕 or interval 𝒏. 𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 is the heat imput at the
exterior surface of the wall during the 𝑛-th hour before the current hour.

𝑄𝑒,𝑡−𝑛 = 𝑈𝐴(𝑡𝑠𝑎,𝑡−𝑛 − 𝑡𝑎 ); where 𝑈 is the overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall, 𝐴 surface area, 𝑡𝑎 indoor
air temperature (constant). 𝑡𝑠𝑎 is the sol-air temperature.

The cooling load calculation by the RTS and CTS methods

The above derived radiant time factor series (RTS) and conduction time factor series (CTS) can be used to
convert heat gains on surfaces to cooling loads by accounting for the time delays caused by the thermal storage
of walls, roofs and surfaces within a zone.

Values for RTS and CTS for different walls and roofs are available in ASHRAE 2013 Fundamentals.
32
Example 5. A thin vertical metal wall of a building at a location with a northern latitude of 40 faces 35 east of
south. The measured direct beam and diffuse solar radiation intensities at the location on August 15 at 10 am
solar time are 580 W/m2, and 148 W/m2 respectively. The reflectivity of the ground surrounding the wall is 0.3.
With such information, we can estimate the direct radiation incident on unit area of the wall surface is 331.8
W/m2; the diffuse radiation incident on unit area is 133.57 W/m2; and the ground-reflected radiation falling on
unit area of surface is 89.4 W/m2. Thus the total solar radiation incident on unit area of the wall is 554.8 W/m2.
(Note the solar radiation and solar shading calculations are beyond the scope of the lecture).

The average emissivity of the wall surface is 0.85. The ambient temperature and the inside air temperature are
28oC and 23oC respectively. The overall external and internal heat transfer coefficients are 35 W/m2K and 8.5
W/m2K respectively. Assume that the heat capacity and the thermal resistance of the wall are negligible,

Calculate
(a) Sol-air temperature; and
(b) The temperature of the wall.

Solution: The sol-air temperature

𝑞 −𝜀∆𝑅 0.85×554.8
𝑇𝑠𝑎 = 𝑇𝑎 + 𝑠𝑜𝑙ℎ = 28 + = 41.47℃. Note that we assume that ∆𝑅 = 0.
𝑜 35

Since the thermal capacity and the thermal resistance of the wall are negligible, the net heat flow rate

𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛 = ℎ𝑜 (𝑇𝑠𝑎 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = ℎ𝑖 (𝑇𝑤 − 𝑇𝑖𝑛 ); 35(41.47 − 𝑇𝑤 ) = 8.5(𝑇𝑤 − 23).

𝑇𝑤 = 37.86℃.

Example 8. The wall of a building is 8 m long and 3 m high. It has two equal sized windows of length 2.5 m
and height 2 m located in it. The overall heat transfer coefficient for the wall is 0.246 W/m2K. The overall heat
transfer coefficient for the window is 3.02 W/m2K. The outdoor and indoor design temperatures are -10oC and
20oC, respectively. Calculate the total heat load due to heat loss through the wall.

Solution: 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 3 × 8 − 2 × 2.5 × 2 = 14 m2;

̅𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 (𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) = 14 × 0.246 × (20 + 10) = 103.3 W;
𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 = 𝐴𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑈

𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 2 × 2.5 × 2 = 10 m2;

𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 𝐴𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 𝑈 ̅𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤𝑙 (𝑇𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑜𝑟 − 𝑇𝑎𝑚𝑏 ) = 10 × 3.02 × (20 + 10) = 906 W;
Therefore, the total heating load due to wall heat loss is
𝑄̇𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑄𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 + 𝑄𝑤𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑜𝑤 = 103.3 + 906 = 1009.6W.

Example 9. For a two-story building, the infiltration rate is 0.068 m3/s. The indoor design conditions are 22oC
and 40% relative humidity. The outdoor ambient air is saturated at -10 oC. The pressure is 101 kPa. Calculate
the sensible and latent heat loads due to infiltration of ambient air.

Solution: From the psychrometric chart, 𝜔𝑖 = 0.0066; and 𝜔𝑜 = 0.0016 (the values were actually from
tabulated data).

𝑄𝑠 = 1.23𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 (𝑡𝑖 − 𝑡𝑜 ) × 1000 = 1.23 × 0.068 × 1000 × [22 − (−10)] = 2676.5 W;

𝑄𝐿 = 3020𝑉̇𝑖𝑛 (𝜔𝑖 − 𝜔𝑜 ) × 1000 = 3020 × 0.068 × 1000 × (0.0066 − 0.0016) = 1026.8W.

33
Chapter 4 Air duct system and ventilation

The topics include the pressure losses across ducts and fittings, arrangement of duct work, characteristics of
fans, interaction of fan and duct network and distribution of air within the conditioned space.

Total pressure distribution

At any section of a duct system, the total mechanical energy per unit mass of fluid, 𝐸𝑚 (J/kg) is
𝑝 𝑣2
𝐸𝑚 = 𝜌 + + 𝑔𝑧; where the three RHS terms are potential energy due to static pressure (N/m2), kinetic energy
2
due to fluid velocity and gravitational potential energy due to vertical height.

The total head, 𝐻 (m) of fluid at any section is defined as

𝐸𝑚 𝑝 𝑣2
𝐻= = 𝜌𝑔 + 2𝑔 + 𝑧; where the three RHS terms are the static pressure head, velocity head and elevation
𝑔
head respectively.

Figure 1. (a) A typical duct network of an air conditioning system; (b) the total pressure (total head)
distribution.

As fluid flows through a duct work, a fraction of its mechanical energy is converted to internal thermal energy
due to fluid friction, resulting in a small rise of the fluid temperature. We usually call the change in the
mechanical energy between any two sections as an energy loss, 𝐸𝐿 (J/kg), or expressed by the head loss ∆𝐻 and
total pressure loss ∆𝑃 (Pa)

Between two sections 1 and 2 of the duct.

𝐸𝑚1 𝐸𝑚2 𝑝 𝑣2 𝑝 𝑣2
∆𝐻12 = ( − ) = (𝜌𝑔1 + 2𝑔1 + 𝑧1 ) − (𝜌𝑔2 + 2𝑔2 + 𝑧2 );
𝑔 𝑔

34
Or
𝜌𝑣 2 𝜌𝑣 2
∆𝑃12 = 𝜌ℎ∆𝐻12 = (𝑝1 + 21 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧1 ) − (𝑝2 + 22 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧2 );
The variation of total pressure (total head) of the air in shown in Figure 1 for a duct network.
• The total pressure entering the return air duct decreases progressively as it passes through the grill, return
duct and filter. The graph slow indicates the total pressure loss in each element. There is a sharp increase
across the fan due to the work input by the fan.
• The heating and cooling coils also result in a significant loss. The air flow divides into three streams. Each
air stream loses total pressure due to friction in the duct, fittings and diffuser.

Pressure loss in duct networks

The frictional pressure loss ∆𝑃𝑓 [Pa] in a straight duct of circular cross section is given by the Darcy-Weisbach
equation
𝐿 𝜌𝑉 2
∆𝑃𝑓 = 𝑓 𝐷 2 ; (1)
where
64
• for laminar flow, 𝑓 = Re and
1 𝐷 𝐷 1
• for turbulent flow, = 1.14 + 2log ( 𝜀 ) − 2log [1 + 9.3 ( 𝜀 ) ( )]. (2)
√𝑓 Re√𝑓

The latter is the Colebrook equation, which is a transcendental equation, and has to be solved iteratively. The
friction factor can also be obtained from the Moody chart.

𝐿 – pipe length (m); 𝐿 – pipe diameter (m); 𝑉 – fluid velocity (m/s); 𝜌 – fluid density (kg/m3); 𝑓 = friction factor
𝜌𝑉𝐷
[-], Reynolds number Re= 𝜇 ; 𝜇- dynamic viscosity of fluid (Pas), 𝜀 – absolute surface roughness [m].

In air-conditioning, we develop a simple graphical method as follows. The volume flow rate of a fluid through a
circular duct is
1
𝑄 = 4 𝜋𝐷2 𝑉 (3)
From (1) and (3), we obtain
∆𝑃𝑓 8𝜌𝑓 𝑄 2
= ( 𝜋2 ) 𝐷5;
𝐿
∆𝑃 8𝜌𝑓
Hence log ( 𝐿 𝑓 ) = 2log(𝑄) − 5log(𝐷) + log ( 𝜋2 )
Either for a constant diameter or a constant fluid velocity, the friction coefficient 𝑓 can be determined. Hence
∆𝑃𝑓
log ( 𝐿 ) and log(𝑄) has a linear relationship. A typical graph is shown in Figure 2. The actual design values
for diameter and flow velocity falls within the area bounded by the bold lines considering duct cost, fan power
and noise level. Larger duct sizes usually associated with lower fan power and noise levels, have higher initial
cost. Smaller ducts on the other hands, have higher noise levels and require more fan power.

35
Figure 2. Friction chart for round ducts with curves for constant diameter and constant velocity. (Temperature =
20oC, density 1.2041 kg/m3, and roughness = 0.09 mm).

The above formulas and graph can also be applicable to a rectangular duct with side lengths 𝑎 and 𝑏, by using
the equivalent diameter.

36
 (𝑎𝑏)0.625
𝐷𝑒𝑞 = 1.30 (𝑎+𝑏)0.25 .

Pressure loss in fittings

Air duct system consists of straight ducts and fittings, such as contractions, enlargements, elbows, branches,
dampers, filters and diffusers.

In fittings, mechanical energy losses or dynamic losses, as commonly called, occur as a result of direction
changes in elbows, flow area changes in expansions and contractions, and mixing as in branches.

The total pressure loss in a fitting is generally considered as

1
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 𝑝𝑣𝑜 = 𝑐𝑜 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 );
where 𝑐𝑜 – local loss coefficient referenced to section o [-]; 𝑝𝑣𝑜 - velocity pressure at the selected referenced
section o [Pa]; 𝑉𝑜 -velocity at the selected referenced section o [m/s].

ASHRAE duct fitting database (2012) contains an extensive data set of loss coefficients for nearly all air duct
fittings. ASHRAE Handbooks also contain a limited list. Here we cited some representative values for the
typical fittings shown in Figure 3.

For some fittings like contractions, with unequal inlet and outlet areas, the loss coefficient may be changed from
section o (outlet) to i (inlet) by applying the mass balance equation.
1 𝐴 2
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑖 = 𝑐𝑖 𝑝𝑣𝑖 = 𝑐𝑖 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑖2 ), where 𝑐𝑖 = 𝑐𝑜 (𝐴 𝑖 ) .
𝑜

For diverging and converging flow junctions, the total pressure loss (mechanical energy) through the straight
(main) section is
1
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑠 = 𝑐𝑠 𝑝𝑣𝑠 = 𝑐𝑠 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑠2 );
where 𝑐𝑠 – local loss coefficient referenced to section s [-]; 𝑝𝑣𝑠 - velocity pressure at the selected referenced
section s [Pa]; 𝑉𝑠 -velocity at the selected referenced section s [m/s].

The total pressure loss through a branch section is

1
∆𝑝𝑡,𝑏 = 𝑐𝑏 𝑝𝑣𝑏 = 𝑐𝑏 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑏2 );
where 𝑐𝑏 – branch loss coefficient [-]; 𝑝𝑣𝑏 - velocity pressure at the selected referenced section b [Pa]; 𝑉𝑏 -
velocity at the selected referenced section s [m/s].

In converging sections, mechanical energy is exchanged between two fluid streams moving at different
velocities due to turbulent mixing. Consequently, under some flow conditions, the mechanical energy per unit
mass of the slower moving stream can increase due to mixing. This results in a negative loss coefficient for the
lower velocity stream.

Total pressure loss in duct sections

The total pressure loss in a duct section consisting of straight sections and fittings can be obtained

𝐿 1 1
∆𝑃𝑡𝑜𝑡 = ∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 );
𝑛
The loss coefficient 𝑐𝑛 and the friction coefficient 𝑓𝑛 have to be referenced to the appropriate sections. It is
possible to have a computer code doing all the calculations.

Air distribution fans

37
The mechanical work input to a fan generates the pressure necessary to overcome the pressure loses in the ducts
and the fittings. Some fans, used mainly for exhaust, are placed at the discharge end of a duct, while some are
placed near the center. The commonly used fans in air conditioning systems are either axial flow fans or
centrifugal fans.

(a)

(b)

Figure 4. (a) A schematic diagram of axial fan, and their static pressure rise, ideal fan power and efficiency; (b)
those for a centrifugal fan with forward-curved blades.

• In an axial fan, the air is moved axially by the propeller blades, mounted on a concentric hub, rotated by an
electric motor. The kinetic energy imparted to the air is converted to a pressure rise by the stationary blades
located downstream of the propeller. The stationary blades also help improve the efficiency of the fan by
reducing the swirl of the air. As axial flow fans are located axially in the flow duct, they do not require a
change in flow direction of the air. Axial flow fans are used mainly in high volume flow applications.
• A centrifugal fan consists of an impeller with a series of blades attached to a hub, driven by an electric
motor. The power is usually transferred from the motor to the fan through a belt drive with pulleys attached
to the motor and the impeller. Air enters at the center of the impeller in a direction normal to the plane of the
figure as shown. The centrifugal force created by the rotating blades accelerates the air in the radial

38
 direction. The kinetic energy gained by the air is converted to a high static pressure in the diffusing section
of the fan.

Four types of blades are used in the impellers of centrifugal fans.

• Radial, airfoil and backward-curved – commonly used in high pressure or high volume flow system.
• Forward-curved – commonly used in low pressure systems, shown in Figure 4b, are curved in the same
direction as the direction of rotation of the impeller.

Fan characteristics
These parameters are generally included in tabular form or graphical form in manufacturer’s catalogues.
• Total pressure – the rise in total pressure cross the fan. ∆𝑝𝑡 = 𝑝𝑡,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑡,𝑖 , where i and o denote conditions at
the inlet and outlet respectively.
• Static pressure - the rise in the static pressure across the fan. ∆𝑝𝑠 = 𝑝𝑠,𝑜 − 𝑝𝑠,𝑖 .
• Ideal power input – required to operate the fan under the given conditions. Assuming the temperature rise of
𝑚̇(𝑝𝑡,𝑜 −𝑝𝑡,𝑖 )
air to be negligible, and the density to be constant, 𝑊̇𝑖𝑑 = , where 𝑚̇ is the mass flow rate of air.
𝜌

For the typical performance characteristics of an axial fan and a centrifugal fan, the fan produces a large
increase in the static pressure, followed slow decreases as the airflow rate increases, and a very sharp and rapid
decrease in static pressure at higher flow rates. The fan power, which is proportional to the product of the static
pressure rise and the volume flow rate, increase up to a point, and then decreases at higher flow rates. The ideal
power approaches zero at very low and very high flow rates, results in the efficiency variation.

Fan-duct network interaction

Referring to the simple duct network in Figure 5, we have duct sections and fittings before and after the fan. For
duct sections 1-2 and 3-4:

𝐿𝑛 1 1
∆𝑃1−2 = 𝑝0 − 𝑝2 = [∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 ( 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 ( 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 )] ;
𝐷𝑛 2 2 1−2
𝐿𝑛 1 1
∆𝑃3−4 = 𝑝3 − 𝑝0 = [∑𝑛 𝑓𝑛 𝐷 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 )] . (5)
𝑛 3−4
where 𝑝0 is the uniform pressure of the space to which the inlet and outlet of the duct system are connected at
locations 1 and 4, respectively.

Figure 5. A simple duct network with a fan.

𝑄
The velocity 𝑉𝑛 = 𝐴 at a section with an area of 𝐴𝑛 . Substituting for the velocities in term of flow rate in (5),
𝑛
we have

39
∆𝑃1−2 = 𝑝0 − 𝑝2 = 𝑐12 𝑄 2 and ∆𝑃3−4 = 𝑝3 − 𝑝0 = 𝑐34 𝑄 2; where 𝑐12 and 𝑐34 are terms involving various
friction factors, duct dimensions and the loss coefficients of the fittings, and the two terms can be assumed
constant for a particular system.

We have ∆𝑝𝑑𝑠 = 𝑝3 − 𝑝2 = (𝑐12 + 𝑐34 )𝑄 2, and the variation of the total pressure loss in the duct system
∆𝑝𝑑𝑠 with the volume flow rate 𝑄 is the system curve. Ideally, the system curve is parabola.

The operation of the duct-fan system also depends on the fan characteristics, which is the variation of the
pressure generated by the fan with the flow rate, at a fixed value of the fan speed. The point of intersection of
the fan characteristic and the system curve gives the fan pressure and flow rate under steady operating
conditions, i.e. the operating point of the system.

(a) (b)

Figure 6. Flow rate control by (a) damper control; and (b) fan speed control.

Two basic air flow rate control methods

• Damper control – as the damper closes, the system curves changes. The new fan power, which is
proportional to the product of the fan pressure and the flow rate may not decrease much from the initial one.
• Variable speed drive – this changes the fan speed, and the fan characteristics change as a result. The new fan
power is significantly reduced.
Many AHUs operate under part-load conditions much of the year except during peak load conditions. Using
variable speed drive can reduce energy use. In a VAV system, both damper control and variable speed drive are
used, hence VAV systems can reduce significantly fan power under part-load conditions.

Design methods for duct systems

The main requirements of a duct system are:
• It supplies the specified rates of air flow to the different zones;
• It is economical in initial cost, operating cost and also the cost of the building space
• The noise level is acceptable.

Two methods are discussed here, i.e. the equal friction method and the static regain method. Other two other
methods are the velocity method and the T-method.

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Figure 7. An example for design methods of duct networks

Equal friction method

In this method, the frictional pressure loss per unit length (unit pressure loss) is assumed to be the same for all
sections of the duct network. Pressure losses through any fittings in the duct section are not included in the
assumed unit pressure loss. The ASHRAE 2013 Fundamentals recommended the selected pressure drop be
within the enclosed region of the duct friction chart as earlier.

Using the system shown in Figure 7 as an example, here is how the method works.
(i) The flow rates to the zones 𝑄3 , 𝑄4 and 𝑄5 are estimated from the thermal loads of the zones. If the
air density is assumed constant, then the flow rate from the fan is 𝑄 = 𝑄3 + 𝑄4 + 𝑄5 .
(ii) The layout of the duct network is based on the location of the zones, and AHU. For each duct
section, the length, and the number and type of fittings are specified.
(iii) The pressure for each zone is also specified. Usually, all the zones are at the same pressure.
(iv) An initial unit frictional pressure loss 𝑝0 is chosen. This value is applied to all duct sections of the
duct network.
(v) Obtain the diameter and the air velocity from the duct friction chart based on the flow rate 𝑄 and
pressure loss.
(vi) As the value of 𝑝0 is usually chosen based on past design experience, the duct sizes obtained in (v)
may not always deliver the specified flow rates to the three zones. This has to be checked by
calculating the total pressure loss from 1 to exits at 6, 8 and 10, ∆𝑝𝑡,1−6, ∆𝑝𝑡,1−8,and ∆𝑝𝑡,1−10. The
three total pressure losses must be equal to deliver the specified flow rates.
(vii) If the pressure losses are not equal, then dampers may have to be installed at the exit of some ducts
to increase the pressure drop artificially to achieve the desired flow rates to the zones. An alternative
approach is to change the diameter of some branches of the network to obtain the desired pressure
losses.

Static regain method

It only applies to supply air duct systems as shown in Figure 7. The aim is to maintain the same static pressure
at all the entry points to the fittings where the air flowing through the network diverges. Maintaining a low
static pressure throughout the entire duct system helps minimize duct leakage and also reduce stresses in the
duct wall.

Example 1. The supply duct of an air conditioning system, shown in Figure 8 delivers 0.8 m3/s of air at 20oC
dry-bulb temperature. The diameter of the duct is 0.4 m, and the total length of the straight duct sections from 1
to 10 is 80 m. The fan generates a total pressure of 125 Pa at section 1.

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Figure 8. A supply air duct section for Example 1.

The loss coefficient for each right angle bend is 0.1. The friction coefficient is 0.0186. The density of air is 1.2
kg/m3.

Calculate

(a) The static pressure and velocity pressure at section 1

(b) The total frictional pressure loss from 1 to 10;
(c) The pressure loss in the fittings from 1 to 10.
(d) The total static and velocity pressure at section 10
(e) The static and velocity pressure heads at section 1
(f) The total mechanical energy loss per unit mass of air from 1 to 10; and
(g) The rate of mechanical energy loss from 1 to 10.

𝑄 𝑄 4×0.8
Solution: The air velocity through the duct is 𝑉 = 𝐴 = 1 = 3.14×0.42 = 6.37 m/s
𝜋𝐷 2
4
1 1
(a) The velocity pressure at section 1 is 𝑝𝑣1 = 2 𝜌𝑉 = 2 × 1.2 × 6.372 = 24.34 Pa
2

Hence the static pressure 𝑝𝑠1 = 𝑝𝑡1 − 𝑝𝑣1 = 125 − 24.34 = 100.9 Pa
𝐿 1 1
(b) and (c) The total pressure loss ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡 = 𝑓 𝐷 (2 𝜌𝑉 2 ) + ∑𝑛 𝑐𝑛 (2 𝜌𝑉𝑛2 )
80 1 1
∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 0.0186 × 𝐷0.4 (2 × 1.2 × 6.372 ) + (4 × 0.1) (2 × 1.2 × 6.372 ) = 90.56 + 9.73 = 100.3
Pa;
(d) The total pressure at section 10, 𝑝𝑡,10 = 𝑝𝑡1 − ∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 125 − 100.3 = 24.7Pa
𝑝𝑠10 = 𝑝𝑡10 − 𝑝𝑣1 = 24.7 − 24.34 = 0.36 Pa
𝑝𝑠1 100.9 𝑝𝑣1
(e) The static pressure head at 1 𝐻𝑠1 = = 1.2×9.81 = 8.57 m; and the velocity heat at 1 is 𝐻𝑣1 = =
𝜌𝑔 𝜌𝑔
24.34
= 2.06 m;
1.2×9.81
(f) The mechanical energy loss per kg of air from 1 to 10 is
∆𝑝 100.3
∆𝐸𝑚,1−10 = 𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 1.2 = 83.58 J/kg;
𝜌
(g) The rate of mechanical energy loss from 1 to 10
∆𝑊𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 = 𝑄∆𝑝𝑡𝑜𝑡,1−10 = 0.8 × 100.3 = 80.24 W. Thus the mechanical energy loss or conversion to
heat results in a rise in temperature of air of about 0.08 oC.

Example 2. The dimension of a duct system, supplying air at 20oC to two zones 5 and 6 are shown in Figure
2.1. The flow rates to the two zones are 1.4 m3/s and 1.0 m3/s respectively. The fan generates a total pressure of
285 Pa at the entrance section 1. Calculate (a) (i) the velocity pressures in the duct sections; (ii) the total

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pressures at all sections from 1 to 6. (b) If a damper is installed just upstream of section 5 to make the total
pressures at 5 and 6 equal, calculate the required pressure loss through the damper.

Figure 2.1 A supply air duct system.

Solution: The air velocities in the duct sections 1-2, 3-5 and 4-6 are given by
𝑄 4×2.4 𝑄 4×1.4 𝑄 4×1.0
𝑉12 = 𝐴12 = 3.14×0.62 = 8.49 m/s; 𝑉35 = 𝐴35 = 3.14×0.52 = 7.13 m/s; 𝑉46 = 𝐴46 = 3.14×0.42 = 7.95 m/s
12 35 46
The velocity pressure in the duct sections are
1 2 1 2
𝑝𝑣12 = 2 𝜌𝑉12 = 0.5 × 1.2 × 8.492 = 43.2Pa; 𝑝𝑣35 = 2 𝜌𝑉35 = 0.5 × 1.2 × 7.132 = 30.5Pa;
1 2
𝑝𝑣46 = 2 𝜌𝑉46 = 0.5 × 1.2 × 7.952 = 37.9Pa.
The frictional pressure losses in the straight duct sections can be calculated (See below Appendix A)
∆𝑃𝑓12 = 53.5 Pa; ∆𝑃𝑓35 = 42.7 Pa; ∆𝑃𝑓46 = 120.8 Pa

The loss for the 90 bend 4-6, diverging tee-junction 2-3-4
1 2 1
∆𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑−46 = 2 𝑐𝑜 𝜌𝑉46 = 2 × 0.11 × 1.2 × 7.952 = 4.17 Pa;
1 2 1
∆𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−23 = 2 𝑐𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝜌𝑉12 = 2 × 0.14 × 1.2 × 8.492 = 6.05 Pa;
1 2 1
∆𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑−24 = 2 𝑐𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑 𝜌𝑉12 = 2 × 1.2 × 1.2 × 8.492 = 51.89 Pa;

The total pressure at different sections are

𝑝𝑡1 = 285 Pa; 𝑝𝑡2 = 𝑝𝑡1 − ∆𝑝𝑓12 = 285 − 53.5 = 231.5Pa;
𝑝𝑡3 = 𝑝𝑡2 − ∆𝑝𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡−23 = 231.4 − 6.05 = 225.35Pa; 𝑝𝑡4 = 𝑝𝑡2 − ∆𝑝𝑏𝑒𝑛𝑑−24 = 231.4 − 51.89 = 179.5a;
𝑝𝑡5 = 𝑝𝑡3 − ∆𝑃𝑓35 = 225.35 − 42.7 = 182.65Pa; 𝑝𝑡6 = 𝑝𝑡4 − ∆𝑃𝑓46 = 179.5 − 120.8 = 58.7Pa;

Hence the required pressure loss through the damper at section 5 is

∆𝑝𝑑𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑒𝑟 = 𝑝𝑡5 − 𝑝𝑡6 = 182.65 − 58.7 = 123.95Pa.

Appendix A: We assume that the roughness 𝜖 = 0.3 mm. The friction coefficients can be obtained from the
Moody diagram.
𝜌𝑉12 𝐷12 1.2×8.49×0.6 𝜖 0.0003
For duct 12, 𝐿12 = 45m; 𝐷12 = 0.6m; Re= = = 3.36 × 105 ;𝐷 = = 0.0005; hence
𝜇 1.82×10−5 12 0.6
𝑓 = 0.0165.
𝜌𝑉35 𝐷35 1.2×7.13×0.5 𝜖 0.0003
For duct 35, 𝐿35 = 40m; 𝐷35 = 0.5m; Re= = = 2.35 × 105 ;𝐷 = = 0.0005; hence
𝜇 1.82×10−5 12 0.6
𝑓 = 0.0175.

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 𝜌𝑉46 𝐷46 1.2×7.95×0.4 𝜖 0.0003
For duct 46, 𝐿46 = 70m; 𝐷46 = 0.4m; Re= = = 2.10 × 105 ;𝐷 = = 0.0005; hence
𝜇 1.82×10−5 12 0.6
𝑓 = 0.0182.
1 𝐿 2
Thus, the pressure droplet can be obtained, e.g. ∆𝑃𝑓12 = 2 𝑓 𝐷12 𝜌𝑉12 .
12

Example 3. The breath and height of the outlet diffuser of a centrifugal fan are at 0.62 m and 0.32 m
respectively. The fan delivers 1.6 m3/s of air when the rotational speed is 205 rpm. The static pressure at the
outlet is 540 Pa. (a) Calculate the ideal power output required to operate the fan; (b) if the efficiency of the
motor and drive is 72%, calculate the power input to the motor.
𝑄 1.6
Solution: The outlet velocity of the air is given by 𝑉𝑜 = 𝐴 = 0.62×0.32 = 8.06 m/s.
𝑜
1 1
The velocity pressure at the outlet of the fan is 𝑝𝑣𝑜 = 2 𝜌𝑉𝑜2 = 2 × 1.2 × 8.062 = 39.0 Pa
The total pressure at the outlet 𝑝𝑡𝑜 = 39 + 540 = 579 Pa
The ideal power input 𝑊𝑖𝑑 = 𝑄𝑝𝑡𝑜 = 1.6 × 579 = 926.4 W.
𝑊 926.4
Actual power 𝑊𝑎𝑐 =  𝑖𝑑 = 0.72 = 1287W.
𝑚𝑑

Example 4. Ambient air at 20oC and density 1.2 kg/m3 enters a fan rotating at 180 rpm. The total pressure of
the air delivered by the fan is 11.5kPa, and the volume flow rate 4.5 m3/s.
(a) Calculate the ideal power input to the fan;
(b) Calculate the volume flow rate, the pressure rise and the power input; if the fan speed is increased to 200
rpm with the same density; or if the speed remains constant but the ambient air temperature increases to
40oC.
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Solution: The ideal power input is 𝑊̇1 = 𝑄1 𝑝𝑡1 = 4.5 × 11.5 = 51.75 kW.

If the fan speed increases from 180 rpm to 200 rpm (density is constant)
𝜔 200
𝑄̇2 = 2 𝑄̇1 = × 4.5 = 5.0 m3/s
𝜔1 180
𝜔2 2 200 2
𝑝𝑡2 = (𝜔 ) 𝑝𝑡1 = (180) × 11.5 = 14.2 kPa
1

𝜔 3
200 3
𝑊̇2 = (𝜔2) 𝑊̇1 = (180) × 51.75 = 71 kW
1

If the speed remains constant but the ambient air temperature increases to 40oC, we assume the air is an ideal
gas, 𝑝 = 𝜌𝑅𝑇, hence
𝜌2 𝑇 𝑇 273+20
= 𝑇1 ; , 𝜌2 = 𝜌1 (𝑇1) = 1.2 × (273+40) = 1.123 kg/m3.
𝜌1 2 2
The flow rate is independent of the density, so remains constant. For the same fan seed

𝜌 1.123
𝑝𝑡2 = (𝜌2) 𝑝𝑡1 = ( ) × 11.5 = 10.76 kPa;
1 1.2
𝜌2 1.123
𝑊̇ = (𝜌 ) 𝑊̇1 = ( ) × 51.75 = 48.4kW.
1 1.2

Example 5. Figure 5.1 shows a supply air duct system and all ducts are circular. The flow rates and duct lengths
are indicated in the figure. The loss coefficient for the duct exists is 0.6.
(a) Use the equal friction method to size all ducts;
(b) Determine where dampers should be located to achieve the desired air flow rates to the spaces;
(c) Can the pressure losses in the duct runs be balanced by changing the duct diameters?

Figure 5.1. The duct network for Example 5.

Solution
(a) The flow rates (m3/s) through the different duct sections are as follows.
𝑄̇12 = 4.5; 𝑄̇34 = 3.5; 𝑄̇56 = 1.5; 𝑄̇78 = 1.5; 𝑄̇9,10 = 2.0; 𝑄̇11,12 = 1.0

To apply the equal friction method, we assume air velocity in section 1-2 is 9m/s. On the friction chart, we
obtain the duct diameter as 0.8 m, and unit pressure loss as 0.93 Pa/m, which all within the recommended
bounds.

45
Using the same unit pressure loss for all other duct sections, and their flow rates, we obtain their duct diameters.
We than calculate their velocities, velocity pressure and losses in Table 4.1.

Table 4.1 The chosen duct diameters and other parameters for each section

Section 𝐿, m 𝑄, m3/s 𝐷, m 𝑉, m/s 𝑃𝑣𝑒𝑙 , Pa 𝑃𝑙𝑜𝑠𝑠 , Pa

1-2 15 4.5 0.8 9.0 48.3 13.95
11-12 7 1.0 0.45 6.2 23.3 6.5
3-4 12 3.5 0.73 8.4 42.7 11.2
9-10 6 2.0 0.59 7.36 32.6 5.58
5-6 20 1.5 0.53 6.87 28.4 18.6
7-8 8 1.5 0.53 6.87 28.4 7.4

(b) Based on the flow rates and duct diameters, we obtain the loss coefficients of the two diverging tee-
junctions, and the 90 bend from tabulated data set.
𝑐2,3 = 0.13; 𝑐2,11 = 2.4; 𝑐4,5 = 0.14; 𝑐4,9 = 1.5; 𝑐6,7 = 0.11.
The total pressure losses in different duct runs are
• 𝑃1 − 𝑃8 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃23 + 𝑃34 + 𝑃45 + 𝑃56 + 𝑃67 + 𝑃78 + 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 13.95 + 0.13 × 48.3 + 11.2 +
0.14 × 42.7 + 18.6 + 0.11 × 28.42 + 7.4 + 0.6 × 28.42 = 83.6Pa;
• 𝑃1 − 𝑃12 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃2,11 + 𝑃11,12 + 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 13.95 + 2.4 × 48.3 + 6.5 + 0.6 × 23.3 = 150 Pa;
• 𝑃1 − 𝑃10 = 𝑃12 + 𝑃23 + 𝑃34 + 𝑃4,9 + 𝑃9,10 + 𝑃𝑒𝑥𝑖𝑡 = 13.95 + 0.13 × 48.3 + 11.2 + 1.5 × 42.7 +
5.58 + 0.6 × 32.64 = 120.6 Pa.

The fan has to deliver the largest pressure loss of 150 Pa for section1-12. To balance the pressure losses in the
three duct runs, dampers have to be installed along section 7-8 and 9-10 to artificially introduce additional
pressure losses, i.e. with magnitudes of ∆𝑃7−8 = 150 − 83.6 = 66.4Pa, and ∆𝑃9−10 = 150 − 120.6 = 29.4Pa.

(c) We can reduce the duct 7-8 and duct 9-10 diameters to increase their pressure losses. After some
calculations, the solutions are for section 7-8, the diameter is reduced to 0.37 m so that velocity = 13.4 m/s and
pressure in 1-8 is 120 Pa. For section 9-10, the diameter is reduced to 0.42 m so that velocity = 14 m/s and
pressure in 1-10 is 145 Pa. Note that these changes bring the unit pressure loses in 7-8 and 9-10 to the boundary
of the recommended region in the friction chart.

-End-

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