Lecture 2 MATH1014 Mathematics 1A

Complex Numbers

Table of Contents

2.1 Introduction to Complex Numbers ...................................... 3

2.2 Operations on Complex Numbers ....................................... 8
2.3 Argand Diagram and Polar Form ...................................... 12
2.4 Changing Between Polar and Cartesian Forms ................. 15
2.5 Euler’s Formula ................................................................. 18
2.6 Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers……….……………….. 21
2.7 Consequences of Euler’s Formula…………………………………… 25

Page 1 of 30
Thought for the week:
Many mathematicians through the ages contributed to the
“ideas” behind complex numbers. But it’s widely held that
Cardano first discussed them in some detail in 1545.

Gerolamo Cardano (1501-1576)

Italian scientist, mathematician, philosopher and a dabbler
in literature.

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gerolamo_Cardano

Although it seems that, at first glance, square roots of negative numbers “do not
seem real”, they do have many applications in various fields such as physics,
chemistry, biology, economics, electrical engineering and statistics.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Complex_number

LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of this lecture students should be able to:

• perform operations on complex numbers;

• change between polar and Cartesian forms;

• use Euler’s formula;

• prove De Moivre’s Theorem, and use it to calculate

powers and roots of complex numbers;

• prove results using Euler’s formula as a starting point.

Page 2 of 30
2.1 Introduction to Complex Numbers
Complex numbers came into existence when it was found
that the solution to the simple quadratic equation
𝑧2 + 1 = 0
had no solution in the real number system. Solving this
equation leads to
𝑧 2 = −1
𝑧 = ±√−1 .

There is no real number that is equal to √−1 . Some time

ago, an adventurous mathematician took a giant leap by
assigning a symbol to this troublesome quantity. (Who did
this? When?).

Definition
𝑖 = √−1.
Note
𝑖 2 = −1 .

Many texts (especially for physics and engineering) use the

symbol j instead of i. Great care needs to be taken with this
new symbol. However, the equation we were discussing
above now has a solution. The equation 𝑧 2 + 1 = 0 now has
solution
𝑧 = ±𝑖 .

Page 3 of 30
The general quadratic equation

𝑎𝑧 2 + 𝑏𝑧 + 𝑐 = 0,

(𝑎, 𝑏 and 𝑐 are real numbers, and 𝑎 ≠ 0), has solutions given by

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑧= .
2𝑎
If 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 > 0, the solutions are real; but if 𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐 < 0, we
need the complex number system to find the values of 𝑧.

Example
Solve 𝑧 2 + 2𝑧 + 3 = 0.
For this quadratic equation,
𝑎 = 1, 𝑏 = 2, 𝑐 = 3.
Using the quadratic formula,

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑧=
2𝑎
−2 ± √22 − 4(1)(3)
=
2(1)
−2±√−8
= 2

−2 ± √8 × √−1
=
2

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Hence
−2 ± √4 × √2 × 𝑖
𝑧=
2
−2 ± 2 × √2 × 𝑖
=
2
2(−1 ± 𝑖 √2)
=
2
= −1 ± 𝑖√2 .

This expression cannot be simplified any further. The term

involving 𝑖 √2 has a totally different character to the term
involving the real number −1. Remember that 𝑖 is not a real
number!

All quadratic equations with real coefficients have solutions

that can be expressed as combinations of real numbers and the
symbol 𝑖. These particular combinations are referred to as
“complex numbers”.

Definition
A complex number can be written in the form 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦, where 𝑥
and 𝑦 are real numbers. This is usually denoted by 𝑧. So
𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 .
The real part of 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 is denoted by 𝐑𝐞(𝒛) = 𝒙.
The imaginary part of 𝒛 = 𝒙 + 𝒊𝒚 is denoted by 𝐈𝐦(𝒛) = 𝒚.

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So
𝒛 = 𝐑𝐞(𝒛) + 𝒊 𝐈𝐦(𝒛).

Example
−𝟏+𝒊√𝟐
Consider the complex number 𝒛 = . Rewriting this,
𝟑

𝟏 √𝟐
𝒛 = − + 𝒊 ( ).
𝟑 𝟑
1
So the real part of 𝑧 is Re(𝑧) = − 3 .
√2
The imaginary part of 𝑧 is Im(𝑧) = .
3

Miscellaneous Examples

(1) Simplify √−25 .

√−25 = √−1√25
=𝑖×5
= 5𝑖 .
(2) Simplify 𝑖 3 .
𝑖3 = 𝑖2 × 𝑖
= (−1) × 𝑖
= −𝑖 .

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(3) Simplify 𝑖 4 .
𝑖4 = 𝑖2 × 𝑖2
= (−1) × (−1)
=1.

(4) Solve 2𝑧 2 − 3𝑧 + 5 = 0.

−𝑏 ± √𝑏2 − 4𝑎𝑐
𝑧=
2𝑎
−(−3)±√(−3)2 −4(2)(5)
= 2(2)

3 ± √9 − 40
=
4
3 ± √−31
=
4
3 ± √−1√31
=
4
3 ± 𝑖√31
=
4
3 √31
= ±𝑖 .
4 4

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(5)* Comment on:
−1 = 𝑖 2
=𝑖×𝑖
= √−1 × √−1
= √(−1) × (−1)
= √1
=1. ☺

2.2 Operations on Complex Numbers

Addition
For example, let 𝑧1 = 5 − 3𝑖, 𝑧2 = −2 − 4𝑖 . Then

𝑧1 + 𝑧2 = (5 − 3𝑖 ) + (−2 − 4𝑖 )
= 5 − 3𝑖 − 2 − 4𝑖
= 3 − 7𝑖 .
Subtraction
For example, let 𝑧1 = 2 − 6𝑖, 𝑧2 = 5 − 8𝑖 . Then

𝑧1 − 𝑧2 = (2 − 6𝑖 ) − (5 − 8𝑖 )
= 2 − 6𝑖 − 5 + 8𝑖
= −3 + 2𝑖 .

Summary: Add/subtract the real parts, and add/subtract the

imaginary parts.

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Multiplication
For example, let 𝑧1 = 5 − 3𝑖, 𝑧2 = −2 − 4𝑖 .

𝑧1 𝑧2 = (5 − 3𝑖 )(−2 − 4𝑖 )
= 5(−2 − 4𝑖 ) − 3𝑖(−2 − 4𝑖 )
= −10 − 20𝑖 + 6𝑖 + 12𝑖 2
= −10 − 14𝑖 + 12 × (−1)
= −10 − 14𝑖 − 12
= −22 − 14𝑖 .

So the operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication

give results which are complex numbers.
It is said that the complex number system is “closed” under the
operations of addition, subtraction and multiplication.

Conjugate
The conjugate of 𝑧 is found by changing the sign of the
imaginary part of 𝑧. The conjugate of 𝑧 is denoted by 𝑧 .

Examples
𝑧1 = 5 − 3𝑖 ⇒ 𝑧1 = 5 + 3𝑖
𝑧2 = 2 + 5𝑖 ⇒ 𝑧2 = 2 − 5𝑖
𝑧3 = −6 − 4𝑖 ⇒ 𝑧3 = −6 + 4𝑖
𝑧4 = −3 + 𝑖 ⇒ 𝑧4 = −3 − 𝑖

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Theorem*
The product of a complex number and its conjugate is a real
number.

Proof
Let the complex number be
𝑧 = 𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏,
where 𝑎 and 𝑏 are real numbers. So the required product is

𝑧 𝑧 = (𝑎 + 𝑖𝑏)(𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏)
= 𝑎(𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏) + 𝑖𝑏(𝑎 − 𝑖𝑏)
= 𝑎2 − 𝑖𝑎𝑏 + 𝑖𝑏𝑎 − 𝑖 2 𝑏2
= 𝑎2 − (−1)𝑏2
= 𝑎2 + 𝑏2 ,
which is a real number. ☺

The conjugate is used when performing divisions with

complex numbers. The technique involves multiplying both
the numerator and the denominator of the fraction by the
conjugate of the denominator.

Division
For example, let 𝑧1 = 5 − 3𝑖, 𝑧2 = −3 − 2𝑖 .

Page 10 of 30
Then
𝑧1 5 − 3𝑖
=
𝑧2 −3 − 2𝑖
5 − 3𝑖 −3 + 2𝑖
= ×
−3 − 2𝑖 −3 + 2𝑖
(5 − 3𝑖 )(−3 + 2𝑖 )
=
(−3 − 2𝑖 )(−3 + 2𝑖 )
−9 + 19𝑖
=
13
9 19
=− + 𝑖.
13 13

Equality of Complex Numbers

Two complex numbers are equal only if the two real parts are
equal and the two imaginary parts are equal.

Example
Find real numbers 𝑥 and 𝑦 such that

(3 − 𝑖 )𝑥 + (4 + 2𝑖 )𝑦 + 10 = 0 .
Expanding:
3𝑥 − 𝑖𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 2𝑖𝑦 + 10 = 0
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 10 + 2𝑖𝑦 − 𝑖𝑥 = 0
(3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 10) + 𝑖(2𝑦 − 𝑥 ) = 0 + 0𝑖

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Equating real parts:
3𝑥 + 4𝑦 + 10 = 0 _______(1)
Equating imaginary parts:
2𝑦 − 𝑥 = 0 _______(2)
Solving (1) and (2) gives:
𝑥 = −2, 𝑦 = −1 .
Question*
So what would you do in the example above if you were told
that 𝑥 and 𝑦 were complex numbers whose real parts were
equal? How many solutions would there be? ☺

2.3 Argand Diagram & Polar Form

A complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 can be considered as an ordered
pair of real numbers (𝑥, 𝑦). The Argand diagram is a means of
representing complex numbers by points on a two dimensional
plane. The diagram consists of the rectangular axes 𝑥 and 𝑦.
The 𝑥-axis is called the real axis, and the 𝑦-axis is called the
imaginary axis. In the special case 𝑦 = 0, we obtain all the real
numbers 𝑧 = 𝑥, on the real number axis.

Example
Graph 𝑧1 = 2 + 3𝑖, 𝑧2 = 1 − 2𝑖 and 𝑧3 = −2 + 𝑖 on an Argand
diagram.

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See diagram below.

Where are 𝒛̅𝟏 , 𝒛̅𝟐 and 𝒛̅𝟑 on the diagram?

Now let 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) represent the complex number 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦.

The length OP, the distance of P from the origin, is called the
modulus of 𝑧, and is denoted by |𝑧|. Other notations often used
for the modulus of 𝑧 are: |𝑧| = |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = mod 𝑧 = 𝑟.

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Using Pythagoras’ Theorem:

|𝑧| = |𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .

Example
Evaluate (i) |3 + 2𝑖 | (ii) |5 − 3𝑖 |
Here

(i) |3 + 2𝑖 | = √32 + 22
= √9 + 4
= √13

(ii) |5 − 3𝑖 | = √52 + (−3)2

= √25 + 9
= √34 .

The angle X0P may be labelled as 𝜃; this is called the argument

of 𝑧, and it is denoted by arg 𝑧.

Polar Form of a Complex Number

In polar coordinates, a point is specified by:
(i) its distance from the origin, i.e. 𝑟 = |𝑧|; and
(ii) the angle in radians, 𝜃, through which the positive x-axis
must be rotated so as to pass through the point.

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See diagram below.

From this diagram, we find:

𝑥 𝑦
cos 𝜃 = , sin 𝜃 =
𝑟 𝑟
and so
𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 , 𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃.
Furthermore:
𝑦 𝑟 sin 𝜃 sin 𝜃
= = = tan 𝜃.
𝑥 𝑟 cos 𝜃 cos 𝜃
Therefore
𝑦 𝑦
tan 𝜃 = , or 𝜃 = tan−1 .
𝑥 𝑥
Don’t forget
𝑟 = |𝑧| = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 .

The position of 𝑃(𝑥, 𝑦) in the plane can also be characterised

by (𝑟, 𝜃), called the polar coordinates of 𝑃.

Page 15 of 30
Hence
𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦
= 𝑟 cos 𝜃 + 𝑖𝑟 sin 𝜃
= 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ).

Other notations for 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ) are

𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ) = 𝑟 cis 𝜃 = 𝑟  𝜃 .

2.4 Changing Between Polar and Cartesian Forms

Going from polar form to Cartesian form is quite easy.

Example 1
3𝜋
Express the polar form 𝑧 = 2 cis in Cartesian form.
4

3𝜋
𝑧 = 2 cis
4
3𝜋 3𝜋
= 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
4 4
1 1
= 2 (− +𝑖 )
√2 √2
= −√2 + √2 𝑖 .

On the other hand, going from Cartesian form to polar form can
be quite tricky; trickier than the above, in any case!

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Example 2
Express the complex number 𝑧 = 3 + 4𝑖 in polar form (it is
currently given in Cartesian/rectangular form).

Here

𝑥 = 3, 𝑦 = 4.
𝑟 = √32 + 42 = 5.
4
𝜃 = tan−1 3 ≈ 0.9273.
𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )
≈ 5(cos 0.9273 + 𝑖 sin 0.9273).

Example 3

Express the complex number 𝑧 = −1 − 𝑖√3 in polar form (it is

currently given in Cartesian/rectangular form).

Here

𝑥 = −1, 𝑦 = −√3.
2
𝑟 = √(−1)2 + (−√3) = 2.

−1
−√3
θ = tan ( )
−1
𝜋
= tan−1 √3 = .
3

Page 17 of 30
Hence
𝜋 4𝜋
𝜃=𝜋+3 = .
3

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )
4𝜋 4𝜋
≈ 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ).
3 3

Example 4

Express the complex number 𝑧 = −2√2 + 2𝑖√2 in polar form

(it is currently given in Cartesian/rectangular form).

Here

𝑥 = −2√2, 𝑦 = 2√2.
2 2
𝑟 = √(−2√2) + (2√2)

= 4.
2√2
"θ" = tan−1 ( )
−2√2
𝜋
= tan−1 (−1) = − 4 .

Hence
𝜋 3𝜋
θ=𝜋−4 = .
4

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )
3𝜋 3𝜋
≈ 4 (cos + 𝑖 sin ).
4 4

Page 18 of 30
Example 5

Express the complex number 𝑧 = √2 − 𝑖√2 in polar form (it is

currently given in Cartesian/rectangular form).
Here

𝑥 = √2, 𝑦 = −√2.
2 2
𝑟 = √(√2) + (−√2) = 2.

−1
−√2
"θ" = tan ( )
√ 2
𝜋
= tan−1 (−1) = − 4 .

Hence
𝜋 7𝜋
θ = 2𝜋 − 4 = .
4

𝑧 = 𝑟(cos θ + 𝑖 sin θ)
7𝜋 7𝜋
≈ 2 (cos 4
+ 𝑖 sin 4
).

2.5 Euler’s Formula

There are at least three ways of expressing complex numbers:

(1) 𝑧 = 𝑥 + 𝑖𝑦 (Cartesian form)
(2) 𝑧 = 𝑟(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ) (Polar form)

(3) 𝑧 = 𝑟𝑒 𝑖𝜃 (Exponential form)

Page 19 of 30
The third form above arises from Euler’s formula, which was
established some time during the 1740’s.
See http://eulerarchive.maa.org/hedi/HEDI-2007-08.pdf

Euler’s Formula
The result
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

is known as Euler’s formula. (How would you prove this?).

Example 1

Evaluate 𝒆𝒊𝝅 .
𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃
𝑒 𝑖𝜋 = cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋
= −1 + 𝑖. 0
= −1 .
Consequently
𝑒 𝑖𝜋 + 1 = 0 .
Example 2

Evaluate 𝒆𝟑+𝒊𝝅 .
𝑒 3+𝑖𝜋 = 𝑒 3 𝑒 𝑖𝜋
= 𝑒 3 (cos 𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 𝜋)
= 𝑒 3 (−1 + 𝑖 . 0)
= −𝑒 3 .

Page 20 of 30
De Moivre’s Theorem

(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )𝑛 = cos(𝑛𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(𝑛𝜃 )

Proof
𝐿𝐻𝑆 = (cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )𝑛
𝑛
= (𝑒 𝑖𝜃 )
= 𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝜃
= cos(𝑛𝜃 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝑛𝜃)
= 𝑅𝐻𝑆.

This theorem has many vital applications. The first is multiple

angle formulae for real trig functions. The next section uses De
Moivre’s Theorem to find powers/roots of complex numbers.

Example

Find expressions for sin(2𝜃) and cos(2𝜃).

Consider De Moivre’s Theorem:

(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )𝑛 = cos(𝑛𝜃 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝑛𝜃).

Let 𝑛 = 2:
(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )2 = cos(2𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(2𝜃)
cos 2 𝜃 + 2𝑖 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 + 𝑖 2 sin2 𝜃 = cos(2𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(2𝜃)
cos2 𝜃 + 2𝑖 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = cos(2𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(2𝜃)
(cos 2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 ) + 2𝑖 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = cos(2𝜃) + 𝑖 sin(2𝜃)

Page 21 of 30
Equate real parts:

cos2 𝜃 − sin2 𝜃 = cos(2𝜃).

Equate imaginary parts:

2 cos 𝜃 sin 𝜃 = sin(2𝜃 ).

9
Now imagine expanding something like (1 − 𝑖√3) .
9
(1 − 𝑖√3) = (1 − 𝑖√3) × (1 − 𝑖√3) × … × (1 − 𝑖√3).

The right hand side is quite forbidding. However, De Moivre’s

Theorem helps a great deal! But first we have to find the polar
form of (1 − 𝑖√3)...

2.6 Powers and Roots of Complex Numbers

Example 1

If 𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 √3 , find 𝑧 9 .

First express 𝑧 in polar form: 𝑥 = 1, 𝑦 = −√3.

2
𝑟 = √(1)2 + (−√3) = 2.

−√3 𝜋
"θ" = tan−1 ( ) = tan−1 (−√3) = − .
1 3

Page 22 of 30
Hence
𝜋 5𝜋
θ = 2𝜋 − 3 = .
3
5𝜋 5𝜋
𝑧 = 1 − 𝑖 √3 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ).
3 3

Expand and use De Moivre’s Theorem:

5𝜋 5𝜋 9
9
𝑧 = [2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )]
3 3

9 5𝜋 5𝜋 9
= 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin )
3 3
5𝜋 5𝜋
= 29 [cos (9 × ) + 𝑖 sin (9 × )]
3 3

= 512[cos(15𝜋) + 𝑖 sin(15𝜋)]
= 512[−1 + 0𝑖 ]
= −512.
So
9
(1 − 𝑖√3) = −512.

Example 2
Solve 𝑧 3 = 1.
This is the same as asking “what are the cube roots of 1?”
Write 1 in polar form: 𝑟 = 1, θ = 0. So

1 = 1(cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0).

Page 23 of 30
To solve 𝑧 3 = 1, we need to solve:
𝑧 3 = 1(cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0).
First answer:
𝑧 3 = 1(cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0)
𝑧 = [1(cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0)]1/3
= 11/3 [cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0]1/3
1 1
= 1 [cos (3 × 0) + 𝑖 sin (3 × 0)]

= cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0
= 1 + 0𝑖 = 1.

To find other answers, add 2𝜋 to the angle to obtain another

way of expressing the number 1.

Second answer:
𝑧 3 = 1(cos 2𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜋)
𝑧 = [1(cos 2𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜋)]1/3
= 11/3 [cos 2𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 2𝜋]1/3
1 1
= 1 [cos ( × 2𝜋) + 𝑖 sin ( × 2𝜋)]
3 3
2𝜋 2𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
3 3
1 √3
= −2 + 𝑖 .
2

Page 24 of 30
Let’s add another 2𝜋 to the angle to obtain yet another way of
expressing the number 1.

Third answer:
𝑧 3 = 1(cos 4𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 4𝜋)
𝑧 = [1(cos 4𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 4𝜋)]1/3

= 11/3 [cos 4𝜋 + 𝑖 sin 4𝜋]1/3

1 1
= 1 [cos ( × 4𝜋) + 𝑖 sin ( × 4𝜋)]
3 3
4𝜋 4𝜋
= cos + 𝑖 sin
3 3
1 √3
= −2 − 𝑖 .
2

The cube roots of 1 are equally spaced around the unit circle
centred at the origin.

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Further Polar Formulae
If 𝑧1 = 𝑟1 (cos 𝜃1 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃1 ) and 𝑧2 = 𝑟2 (cos 𝜃2 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃2 ), then

𝑧1 𝑧2 = 𝑟1 𝑟2 [cos(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 + 𝜃2 )],

𝑧1 𝑟1
= [cos(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 ) + 𝑖 sin(𝜃1 − 𝜃2 )].
𝑧2 𝑟2
Example
Find polar forms for 𝑧1 𝑧2 and 𝑧1 /𝑧2 , where

𝑧1 = 2√2 + 2𝑖√2, 𝑧2 = 1 + 𝑖√3 .

In polar form:
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
𝑧1 = 4 (cos + 𝑖 sin ), 𝑧2 = 2 (cos + 𝑖 sin ).
4 4 3 3
So
𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
( )
𝑧1 𝑧2 = 4 × 2 [cos ( + ) + 𝑖 sin ( + )]
4 3 4 3
7𝜋 7𝜋
= 8 [cos 12 + 𝑖 sin 12 ].

𝑧1 4 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋 𝜋
= ( ) [cos ( − ) + 𝑖 sin ( − )]
𝑧2 2 4 3 4 3
−𝜋 −𝜋
= 2 [cos + 𝑖 sin ]
12 12
23𝜋 23𝜋
= 2 [cos + 𝑖 sin ].
12 12

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2.7 Consequences of Euler’s Formula

𝑒 𝑖𝜃 = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 (1)

In (1), let 𝜃 = 𝑥:

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 (2)

In (1), let 𝜃 = −𝑥:

𝑒 𝑖(−𝑥) = cos(−𝑥) + 𝑖 sin(−𝑥)

𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 (3)
(2) + (3):

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = (cos 𝑥 + 𝑖 sin 𝑥 ) + (cos 𝑥 − 𝑖 sin 𝑥 )

𝑒 𝑖𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑖𝑥 = 2 cos 𝑥
𝑒 𝑖𝑥 +𝑒 −𝑖𝑥
= cos 𝑥 (4)
2
cosh(𝑖𝑥 ) = cos 𝑥 (5)

Formula (4) shows us a very direct relationship between the

trigonometric cosine function and the exponential function,
while formula (5) shows the relationship between the
hyperbolic cosine and trigonometric cosine functions. They are
“glued together” by the imaginary unit 𝑖 = √−1 .

Using Formulae (2) and (3), how would you show that
sinh(𝑖𝑥 ) = 𝑖 sin 𝑥 ?

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Can you simplify
tanh(𝑖𝑥 ) , sech(𝑖𝑥 ) , coth(𝑖𝑥 ) , csch(𝑖𝑥 ) ?

Next Week

Next week we look at limits of functions.

Differential calculus (as developed by Newton and Leibniz) is

not properly understood without a clear idea of limits.

Next week we take an intuitive approach, and we develop some

techniques to calculate limits of functions. We will consider
one-sided limits, limit laws, vertical asymptotes, the Squeeze
Theorem, continuity (a very important concept) and the
Intermediate Value Theorem.

This is pushed a bit further the week after, when we look at the
precise definition of a limit: one of the key concepts in this unit.

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The previous diagram is the Weierstrass function: continuous
for all real x, but never differentiable!
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weierstrass_function

Addendum 1: Justification of Euler’s Formula

Let
𝑓(𝜃) = cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 . (1)
So
𝑓 ′ (𝜃) = − sin 𝜃 + 𝑖 cos 𝜃
= 𝑖(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 ). (2)
(2)/(1):
𝑓′(𝜃) 𝑖(cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 )
= =𝑖. (3)
𝑓(𝜃) cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃

Integrate (3) with respect to 𝜃:

𝑓 ′ (𝜃)
∫ 𝑑𝜃 = ∫ 𝑖 𝑑𝜃
𝑓(𝜃)
ln 𝑓(𝜃) = 𝑖𝜃 + 𝑘 . (4)
Now
𝑓(0) = cos 0 + 𝑖 sin 0
𝑓(0) = 1. (5)

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(4) & (5) imply that
ln 𝑓(0) = 𝑖0 + 𝑘
ln 1 = 𝑘
𝑘 = 0. (6)
(4) & (6) imply that

ln 𝑓 (𝜃) = 𝑖𝜃
𝑓 (𝜃) = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃
cos 𝜃 + 𝑖 sin 𝜃 = 𝑒 𝑖𝜃 .

This is outside the scope of this unit; so do not worry if you do

not understand it. But if you are interested, you should enrol in
Mathematics 1B (only possible after successful completion of
Mathematics 1A)! All will be revealed there… ☺

Addendum 2: Consider ii… We can extend the idea of the ln function to complex numbers, but
unfortunately it is not unique. For example, we know e2πi = e0 = 1, so for complex numbers ln(1) can
be 0 or 2πi! As xy = eyln(x), this also means that xy is not unique when x and y are complex numbers.

However, there’s a solution to this problem. We know any complex number can be written z = reiθ.
Suppose ln(z) = x + iy; then eln(z) = z = ex+iy = exeiy = reiθ. So z has modulus r = ex and argument  = y.
In other words, ln(z) = ln|z| + iarg(z), where ln|z| is unique because |z| is a positive real number.

We now get around the problem by using the principal argument Arg(z) of any complex number z.
Define the principal branch of the natural logarithm Ln(z) = ln|z| + iArg(z). Using this, we can
define the principal branch of complex exponentiation to be xy = eyLn(x).

As an example, let’s use this to work out the principal value of ii. We know that eiπ/2 = i, and
i
so Log(i) = iπ/2. So ii = eLog(i ) = eiLog(i) = ei × iπ/2 = e−π/2, and this is a real number. In other words, we
take one complex number to the power of another complex number and we get a real number!

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