The Status and Natural History of Pygmy (Kogia Breviceps) and Dwarf (K. Sima) Sperm Whales Off Southern Africa

The status and natural history of pygmy (Kogia breviceps)
and dwarf (K. sima)

sperm whales off Southern Africa
A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

requirements for the degree of
PhD in Zoology
in the Department of Zoology & Entomology

Rhodes University
Grahamstown
South Africa
by
Stephanie Plön
January 2004
Abstract
For the present study 106 strandings of Kogia breviceps and 85 strandings of K.
sima along the South African coastline between 1880 and 1995 were analysed in order to
examine the age and growth, male and female reproduction, diet, stranding patterns, and
population genetic structure of both species.
Length and weight at birth were about 120cm and 53kg for K. breviceps and about
103cm and 14kg for K. sima. Von Bertalanffy growth curves were fitted to the data and
indicated that physical maturity was reached at around 15 years in both sexes of K.
breviceps and at 13 years in female and 15 years in male K. sima. Asymptotic length was
reached at 306.0 and 286.1cm in female and male K. breviceps and 249.14 and 263.75cm in
female and male K. sima, respectively. Maximum ages were16 years for male K. breviceps
and 23 years for females and 17 years for male K. sima and 22 years for females. Reversed
sexual size dimorphism was suggested for K. breviceps, while in K. sima males were larger
than females.
Attainment of sexual maturity in males occurred at between 2.5 and 5 years of age
in K. breviceps and 2.6 and 3 years in K. sima, corresponding to 241-242cm and 197cm
body length, respectively. The maximum combined testis weight comprised 1.04% and
2.00% for K. breviceps and K. sima, respectively, and a polygynous mating system with a
roving male strategy was proposed for both species. The sperm morphology for both Kogia
species was described and is characterised by 20-25 spherical mitochondria arranged in
rows around the midpiece.
Attainment of sexual maturity in females occurred at 5 years in both Kogia species,
and at 262cm and 215cm body length in K. breviceps and K. sima, respectively. The
ovulation rates were 0.9 and 0.7 per year for K. breviceps and K. sima, respectively. In K.
breviceps conceptions occurred from April to September and births from March to August,
ii
while in K. sima both conceptions and births occurred from December to March. Annual
reproduction and a post-partum oestrus was suggested for both Kogia species.
The diet of K. breviceps comprised 50 different cephalopod species from 22
families and 17 other prey species, while K. sima fed on 32 cephalopod species from 17
families and six others. Although niche overlap indices between the two species and
between groups within each species were high, some differences in diet could be
determined, which allow these two sympatrically occurring species to share the same
ecological niche off the coast of Southern Africa.
An analysis of the stranding patterns revealed that K. sima has a closer affinity to
the Agulhas current and to higher water temperatures than K. breviceps, which is supported
by differences in the size of the appendages between the two species.
The population genetic analysis revealed a high haplotype and nucleotide diversity
for K. breviceps in the Southern hemisphere, but a lack of significant phylogeographic
structure, indicating substantial gene flow among populations and inhibiting genetic
differentiation of local populations, although the South African population was somewhat
isolated from others in the Southern Hemisphere. In contrast the data on the
phylogeographic structure of K. sima were somewhat restrictive as the majority of the
samples originated from South Africa. Nevertheless, both nucleotide and haplotype
diversities were markedly lower than in K. breviceps and more similar to those for other
small cetacean populations, suggesting a smaller population size for K. sima than for K.
breviceps.
Although both Kogia species belong to the medium to larger-sized odontocetes
their life histories are located near the fast end of the slow-fast continuum of life histories of
marine mammals, indicating high mortality rates. The “false-gill” marking and the ability to
squirt ink are thought to reflect adaptations to predator mimicry and avoidance.
iii
Table of Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction
1.1 Aim of the present study .................................................................................. 1-2
1.2 General introduction ........................................................................................ 1-3
1.3 Name ................................................................................................................ 1-3
1.4 How many species?.......................................................................................... 1-4
1.5 Phylogeny ........................................................................................................ 1-6
1.5.1 Fossil record.............................................................................................. 1-7
1.6 Identification .................................................................................................... 1-7
1.6.1 External characteristics ............................................................................. 1-7
1.6.2 Morphology............................................................................................. 1-11
1.7 Biology........................................................................................................... 1-14
1.7.1 Reproduction........................................................................................... 1-14
1.7.2 Age determination................................................................................... 1-15
1.7.3 Diet.......................................................................................................... 1-16
1.8 Distribution and abundance ........................................................................... 1-17
1.8.1 Distribution ............................................................................................. 1-17
1.8.2 Habitat..................................................................................................... 1-20
1.8.3 Abundance estimates .............................................................................. 1-21
1.8.4 Migration................................................................................................. 1-23
1.9 Behaviour....................................................................................................... 1-24
1.9.1 Surface behaviour ................................................................................... 1-24
1.9.2 Diving behaviour .................................................................................... 1-26
1.9.3 Inking ...................................................................................................... 1-26
1.9.4 Sound production .................................................................................... 1-27
1.9.5 Group size ............................................................................................... 1-29
1.10 Predators ...................................................................................................... 1-30
1.11 Additional studies ........................................................................................ 1-31
1.12 Parasites and diseases .................................................................................. 1-31
1.12.1 Parasites ................................................................................................ 1-31
1.12.2 Diseases................................................................................................. 1-32
1.13 Captivity....................................................................................................... 1-32
1.14 Human consumption .................................................................................... 1-34
1.15 Threats.......................................................................................................... 1-35
1.15.1 Interactions with fisheries ..................................................................... 1-35
1.15.2 Plastic ingestion .................................................................................... 1-36
1.15.3 Pollution................................................................................................ 1-37
1.16 Conservation status ...................................................................................... 1-37
1.17 This study..................................................................................................... 1-38
1.18 Thesis structure ............................................................................................ 1-38
1.19 Bibliography ................................................................................................ 1-39
Chapter 2: Sample and Study Area

2.1 Introduction...................................................................................................... 2-2
2.2 Sample.............................................................................................................. 2-2
2.3 Sample bias ...................................................................................................... 2-3
2.4 Study area......................................................................................................... 2-7
2.5 Bibliography .................................................................................................... 2-8
iv
Chapter 3: Age and Growth
3.1 Theoretical background ................................................................................... 3-2
3.1.1 Teeth, dentition and mode of feeding ....................................................... 3-3
3.1.2 Tooth morphology and age determination................................................ 3-3
3.1.2.1 Tooth morphology and histology....................................................... 3-4
3.1.2.2 Age determination.............................................................................. 3-6
3.1.2.2.1 Dentine........................................................................................ 3-7
3.1.2.2.2 Enamel ........................................................................................ 3-8
3.1.2.2.3 Cementum ................................................................................... 3-8
3.1.3 Age determination in sperm whales (P. macrocephalus) ......................... 3-9
3.1.4 Age determination in Kogia.................................................................... 3-10
3.1.5 Length at birth and foetal growth rate..................................................... 3-12
3.1.6 Growth .................................................................................................... 3-13
3.1.6.1 Growth rate ...................................................................................... 3-13
3.1.6.2 Growth in marine mammals............................................................. 3-14
3.1.6.3 Size at attainment of sexual maturity (ASM) .................................. 3-15
3.1.6.4. Growth models................................................................................ 3-15
3.1.7 Sexual dimorphism ................................................................................. 3-16
3.1.8 Observations of morphological differences in appendage size between
K. breviceps and K. sima......................................................................... 3-18
3.1.9 Aim of the present chapter...................................................................... 3-18
3.2 Materials and methods ................................................................................... 3-19
3.2.1 Sample..................................................................................................... 3-19
3.2.3 Growth curves......................................................................................... 3-22
3.3 Results............................................................................................................ 3-22
3.3.2 Growth .................................................................................................... 3-32
3.3.2.1 Comparison with other species ........................................................ 3-38
3.3.3 Sexual size dimorphism .......................................................................... 3-43
3.3.4 Morphological differences between K. breviceps and K. sima............... 3-44
3.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 3-44
3.4.1 Tooth morphology and age determination.............................................. 3-44
3.4.1.1 Tooth morphology and histology..................................................... 3-44
3.4.1.2 Age determination............................................................................ 3-46
3.4.2 Length at birth and foetal growth rate..................................................... 3-48
3.4.3 Growth .................................................................................................... 3-49
3.4.3.1 Length and age at physical maturity ................................................ 3-50
3.4.3.2 Maximum length and age................................................................. 3-51
3.4.3.3 Body weight ..................................................................................... 3-53
3.4.3.4 Comparison with other species ........................................................ 3-54
3.4.4 Sexual size dimorphism .......................................................................... 3-54
3.4.5. Morphological differences between K. breviceps and K. sima.............. 3-55
3.5 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 3-56
Chapter 4: Male Reproduction

4.1.1 General background to reproductive studies in cetaceans ........................ 4-2
4.1.2 Male reproduction..................................................................................... 4-3
4.1.3 Reproductive anatomy .............................................................................. 4-3
v
4.1.4 Attainment of sexual maturity (ASM) ...................................................... 4-3
4.1.5 Seasonality ................................................................................................ 4-7
4.1.6 Male mating strategy................................................................................. 4-8
4.1.7 Sperm morphology.................................................................................. 4-10
4.2 Materials and Methods................................................................................... 4-10
4.2.1 Sample..................................................................................................... 4-10
4.2.2 Determination of maturity....................................................................... 4-11
4.2.3 Testis size and male mating strategy ...................................................... 4-11
4.3 Results............................................................................................................ 4-12
4.3.1 Assessment of stages of maturity............................................................ 4-12
4.3.2 Attainment of sexual maturity (ASM) .................................................... 4-18
4.3.3 Testis weight as a percentage of body weight ........................................ 4-25
4.3.4 Seasonality .............................................................................................. 4-25
4.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 4-29
4.4.1 Attainment of sexual maturity ................................................................ 4-29
4.4.2 Seasonality .............................................................................................. 4-32
4.4.3 Testis size and male mating strategy ...................................................... 4-32
4.5 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 4-45
Chapter 5: Female Reproduction

5.1. Theoretical Background.................................................................................. 5-2
5.1.1 Reproductive anatomy .............................................................................. 5-2
5.1.2 Spontaneous and induced ovulations, and ovarian symmetry .................. 5-5
5.1.3 Attainment of sexual maturity (ASM) ...................................................... 5-6
5.1.4 Ovulation rate and reproductive cycle ...................................................... 5-8
5.1.4.1 Ovulation rate..................................................................................... 5-8
5.1.4.2 Gestation .......................................................................................... 5-10
5.1.4.3 Lactation and weaning ..................................................................... 5-11
5.1.4.4 Simultaneous lactation and pregnancy............................................. 5-12
5.1.4.5 Resting period .................................................................................. 5-13
5.1.5 Seasonality .............................................................................................. 5-14
5.1.6 Reproductive strategy ............................................................................. 5-16
5.1.7 Foetal and juvenile sex ratio ................................................................... 5-17
5.2 Materials and Methods................................................................................... 5-18
5.2.1 Sample..................................................................................................... 5-18
5.2.2 Determination of past reproductive history ............................................ 5-18
5.2.3 Examination of seasonality ..................................................................... 5-19
5.3 Results............................................................................................................ 5-20
5.3.1 Female Reproduction .............................................................................. 5-20
5.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 5-38
5.4.1 Reproductive anatomy ............................................................................ 5-38
5.4.2 Ovarian symmetry................................................................................... 5-39
5.4.3 Attainment of sexual maturity (ASM) .................................................... 5-39
5.4.3.1 Ovarian weight................................................................................. 5-39
5.4.3.2 Body length...................................................................................... 5-40
vi
5.4.3.3 Age................................................................................................... 5-41
5.4.3.4 Body weight ..................................................................................... 5-41
5.4.4 Ovulation rate and reproductive cycle .................................................... 5-42
5.4.4.1 Ovulation rate................................................................................... 5-42
5.4.4.2 Gestation .......................................................................................... 5-45
5.4.4.3 Lactation and weaning ..................................................................... 5-45
5.4.4.4 Simultaneous lactation and pregnancy............................................. 5-48
5.4.4.5 Resting phase ................................................................................... 5-50
5.4.5 Seasonality .............................................................................................. 5-50
5.4.6 Reproductive strategy ............................................................................. 5-53
5.4.7 Mating system......................................................................................... 5-55
5.4.8 Foetal and juvenile sex ratio ................................................................... 5-56
5.5 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 5-57
Chapter 6: Diet
6.1.1 Stomach content analysis.......................................................................... 6-2
6.1.2 Alternative methods to study diet in marine mammals ............................ 6-5
6.1.3 Cephalopods as prey ................................................................................. 6-6
6.1.4 Teuthophagous odontocetes...................................................................... 6-8
6.1.4.1 Dentition ............................................................................................ 6-9
6.1.4.2 Diet................................................................................................... 6-10
6.1.5 Previous studies on diet in Kogia............................................................ 6-15
6.1.5.1 Studies off southern Africa .............................................................. 6-18
6.1.6 The niche concept and resource partitioning .......................................... 6-19
6.3 Results............................................................................................................ 6-23
6.3.1 Comparison of the diet of K. breviceps and K. sima .............................. 6-27
6.3.2 Comparison of the diet between different groups within K. breviceps
and K. sima using Pianka’s niche overlap index.............................................. 6-30
6.3.3 Size-frequency analysis of prey .............................................................. 6-41
6.3.4 Australian data ........................................................................................ 6-47
6.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 6-48
6.4.1 Niche partitioning between K. breviceps and K. sima ............................ 6-48
6.4.1.1 Trophic segregation ......................................................................... 6-48
6.4.1.1.1 Generalist vs. specialist............................................................. 6-48
6.4.1.1.2 Nutritional value ....................................................................... 6-49
6.4.1.2 Spatial segregation ........................................................................... 6-50
6.4.1.2.1 Depth......................................................................................... 6-50
6.4.1.2.2 Inshore/offshore ........................................................................ 6-52
6.4.1.3 Temporal segregation....................................................................... 6-53
6.4.1.3.1 Diel............................................................................................ 6-53
6.4.1.3.2 Seasonal .................................................................................... 6-53
6.4.1.4 Sympatric species............................................................................. 6-55
6.4.2 Niche partitioning within Kogia species................................................. 6-56
6.4.2.1 Males versus females ....................................................................... 6-56
6.4.2.2 Mature versus immature animals ..................................................... 6-57
6.4.2.3 Group 1 (adult males and non-reproductive adult females) versus
group 2 (pregnant and/or lactating females and immature animals).6-58
vii
6.4.3 Comparison with data on Kogia diet elsewhere ..................................... 6-60
6.5 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 6-60
Chapter 7: Stranding Patterns

7.1.1 Oceanographic features off Southern Africa ............................................ 7-2
7.1.2 Cetacean distribution at sea ...................................................................... 7-9
7.1.2.1 General............................................................................................... 7-9
7.1.2.2 Distribution of cetaceans off southern Africa .................................. 7-11
7.1.2.3. Distribution of Kogia at sea ............................................................ 7-11
7.1.3 Cetacean strandings ................................................................................ 7-13
7.1.3.1 The analysis of stranding data.......................................................... 7-13
7.1.3.2 Stranding patterns ............................................................................ 7-15
7.1.3.3 Cetacean strandings off southern Africa.......................................... 7-19
7.1.3.4 Kogia strandings .............................................................................. 7-21
7.2.1 Sample..................................................................................................... 7-25
7.2.2 Analysis of strandings............................................................................. 7-25
7.3 Results............................................................................................................ 7-26
7.3.1 Composition of stranded animals............................................................ 7-26
7.3.2 Stranding trends over time ...................................................................... 7-29
7.3.3 Seasonality of strandings ........................................................................ 7-29
7.3.4 Stranding distribution.............................................................................. 7-29
7.3.5 Temperature preferences......................................................................... 7-39
7.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 7-39
7.4.1 Composition of stranded animals............................................................ 7-39
7.4.2 Stranding trends over time ...................................................................... 7-41
7.4.3 Seasonality of strandings ........................................................................ 7-42
7.4.4 Stranding distribution and habitat preferences ....................................... 7-43
7.4.5 Temperature preferences......................................................................... 7-46
7.4.6 Distribution determined by diet .............................................................. 7-49
7.4.7 Population sizes and population “hotspots”?.......................................... 7-50
7.5 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 7-51
Chapter 8: Population Genetics

8.1.1 The study of “ancient” DNA..................................................................... 8-2
8.1.2 MtDNA as a molecular marker................................................................. 8-6
8.1.2.1. Cytochrome b.................................................................................... 8-7
8.1.3 Species identification ................................................................................ 8-7
8.1.3.1 Species identification in Kogia .......................................................... 8-8
8.1.4 Population genetic studies of cetaceans.................................................... 8-8
8.1.4.1 Stock boundaries................................................................................ 8-9
8.1.4.2 Migrations and temporal movements............................................... 8-10
8.1.4.3 Sympatric, genetically different populations ................................... 8-10
8.1.4.4 Kinship patterns ............................................................................... 8-11
8.1.4.5 Molecular studies on Kogia ............................................................. 8-13
viii
8.2.1 Samples ................................................................................................... 8-14
8.2.2 DNA extractions ..................................................................................... 8-16
8.2.2.1 From tissue samples......................................................................... 8-16
8.2.2.2 From bones and teeth (“ancient material”) ...................................... 8-16
8.2.3 Amplification and sequencing ................................................................ 8-17
8.2.4 Sequence analysis ................................................................................... 8-18
8.2.5 Assignment to species level .................................................................... 8-19
8.2.6 Analysis of population structure ............................................................. 8-19
8.2.7 Sex determination ................................................................................... 8-20
8.3 Results............................................................................................................ 8-20
8.3.1 Success of aDNA extractions.................................................................. 8-20
8.3.2 Analysis of cytochrome b sequences ...................................................... 8-21
8.3.2 Analysis of control region sequences ..................................................... 8-23
8.3.3 Comparison of cytochrome b and control region ................................... 8-26
8.3.4 Comparison with other cetaceans ........................................................... 8-26
8.3.5 Phylogeographic analysis of cytochrome b sequences ........................... 8-29
8.4 Discussion ...................................................................................................... 8-31
8.4.1 Species identification .............................................................................. 8-31
8.4.2 Success of aDNA extractions.................................................................. 8-32
8.4.3 Phylogeographic structure of K. breviceps in the Southern Hemisphere 8-32
8.4.4 Phylogeographic structure of K. sima in the Southern Hemisphere ....... 8-35
8.4.5 Dispersal ................................................................................................. 8-35
8.4.5.1 Possible factors influencing dispersal in K. breviceps..................... 8-36
8.4.5.1.1 Nutritional requirements ........................................................... 8-36
8.4.5.1.2 Prey abundance ......................................................................... 8-37
8.4.5.1.3 Predation ................................................................................... 8-38
8.4.5.1.4 Additional factors...................................................................... 8-40
8.4.6 Comparison with other cetaceans ........................................................... 8-41
8.4.7 Recommendations for conservation and management strategies ........... 8-43
8.4.8 Further research ...................................................................................... 8-44
8.5 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 8-45
Chapter 9: General Discussion and Conclusions

9.1 Summary of the results from the present study ............................................... 9-2
9.1.1 Sample....................................................................................................... 9-2
9.1.2 Age and growth......................................................................................... 9-2
9.1.3 Male reproduction..................................................................................... 9-3
9.1.4 Female reproduction ................................................................................. 9-4
9.1.5 Diet............................................................................................................ 9-5
9.1.6 Stranding patterns ..................................................................................... 9-8
9.1.7 Population structure ................................................................................ 9-10
9.2 Life history theory.......................................................................................... 9-12
9.2.1 The slow-fast continuum......................................................................... 9-13
9.2.2 The new model........................................................................................ 9-15
9.3 Life history strategy of Kogia ........................................................................ 9-17
9.3.1 Annually reproducing cetaceans ............................................................. 9-20
9.3.2 Extrinsic mortality rates in Kogia –predation and parasitism................. 9-24
9.3.2.1 Predation .......................................................................................... 9-24
9.3.2.2 Parasitism......................................................................................... 9-27
9.4 Ecology of Kogia ........................................................................................... 9-28
ix
9.5 Additional factors influencing life history strategies..................................... 9-32
9.6 Conclusions.................................................................................................... 9-33
9.7 Bibliography .................................................................................................. 9-34
Appendices
Appendix A…………………………………………………………………………....1
Appendix B……………………………………………………………………………9
Appendix C…………………………………………………………………………..17
Appendix D…………………………………………………………………………..21
Appendix E…………………………………………………………………………...29
Appendix F…………………………………………………………………………...31
Bibliography………………………………………………………………………….37
x
List of Tables
Table 3.1: Width of the first GLG for Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima................. 3-25
Table 3.2: Comparison of Ross’ (1979) results from age determination of
Kogia breviceps with the results from the present study. ....................... 3-28
Table 3.3: Parameters derived from a von Bertalanffy growth equation for male and
female Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima. ............................................... 3-32
Table 3.4: Growth rate constants (k) for different species of cetaceans (for length-age
relationships)........................................................................................... 3-42
Table 3.5: Length and age at sexual and physical maturity for Kogia breviceps and
Kogia sima .............................................................................................. 3-44
Table 4.1: Gonadal characteristics for different maturity stages in Kogia

breviceps………………………………………………………………..4-15
Table 4.2: Summary of the size and ages for different maturity stages for Kogia
breviceps males....................................................................................... 4-15
Table 4.3: Gonadal characteristics for different maturity stages in Kogia sima. ....... 4-22
Table 4.4: Summary of the size and ages for different maturity stages for Kogia sima
males. ...................................................................................................... 4-22
Table 4.5: Sperm dimensions of Kogia from the present study............................... 4-29
Table 4.6: Proposed male mating strategies for different species of odontocetes ... 4-34
Table 4.7: Sperm dimensions in marine mammals.................................................. 4-42
Table 4.8: Sperm dimensions from different orders of mammals ........................... 4-43
Table 5.1: Accumulation of corpora in the left and the right ovary of female Kogia
breviceps. ................................................................................................ 5-24
breviceps females.................................................................................... 5-25
Table 5.3: Records of female Kogia breviceps stranded along the Southern African
coastline with a foetus or calf. ................................................................ 5-26
Table 5.4: Accumulation of corpora in the left and the right ovary in female Kogia
sima. ........................................................................................................ 5-30
females. ................................................................................................... 5-34
Table 5.6: Records of female Kogia sima stranded along the Southern African
coastline with a foetus or calf. ................................................................ 5-37
Table 6.1: Species list of prey eaten by Kogia breviceps. ....................................... 6-23
Table 6.2: Species list of prey eaten by Kogia sima. ............................................... 6-26
Table 6.3: The two main prey items of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima presented in
percentage number, percentage mass and percentage frequency of occurrence
based on all prey items present................................................................. 6-28
Table 6.4: Main stomach contents of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima presented as
numerical percentages and percentage mass based on all prey items present.
................................................................................................................. 6-29
Table 6.5: Niche overlap index calculated for different groups of Kogia breviceps and
Kogia sima. .............................................................................................. 6-30
xi
Table 6.6: Main stomach contents of group 1 and group 2 of Kogia breviceps and Kogia
sima presented as numerical percentages based only on prey items identified
to genus level. .......................................................................................... 6-41
Table 6.7: Stomach contents of four Australian Kogia breviceps. .......................... 6-47
Table 8.1: Sample sizes available for extraction sorted by tissue types for the different
geographic locations in the Southern Hemisphere.................................. 8-16
Table 8.2: Sample sizes from successful extractions sorted by tissue types for the
different geographic locations in the Southern Hemisphere................... 8-21
Table 8.3: Nucleotide diversities (π) for cytochrome b and control region loci in a
number of cetacean populations.............................................................. 8-28
Table 8.4: Intra-population diversity of Kogia breviceps sub-populations in the
Southern Hemisphere...…………………………………………………8-29
Table 8.5: Inter- population structure of Kogia breviceps populations in the Southern
Hemisphere.…………………………………………………………….8-30
Table 8.6: Intra- population diversity of Kogia sima populations in the Southern
Hemisphere……………………………………………………………..8-31
Table 9.1: Summary of life history parameters of Kogia from South Africa from the
present study. .......................................................................................... 9-19
Table 9.2: Comparison of cetacean species that commonly exhibit pregnancies in
successive years. ..................................................................................... 9-21
Table 9.3: Comparison of some life history and environmental parameters of closely
related odontocetes.................................................................................. 9-29
xii
List of Figures
Figure 1.1: External features of an adult female Kogia breviceps ………………...1-10
Figure 1.2: External features of an adult Kogia sima. ............................................. 1-11
Figure 1.3: Worldwide distribution of Kogia breviceps .......................................... 1-19
Figure 1.4: Worldwide distribution of Kogia sima.................................................. 1-20
Figure 1.5: Kogia at sea off Southern Africa........................................................... 1-23
Figure 1.6: “Inky” feeding on squid. ....................................................................... 1-34
Figure 2.1: Size-frequency of Kogia breviceps strandings........................................ 2-4

Figure 2.2: Size frequency of Kogia sima strandings. ............................................... 2-5
Figure 2.3: Map of Southern Africa showing the major ocean currents off the
coastline and the topography of the continental shelf.............................. 2-8
Figure 3.1: Longitudinal section of a Kogia breviceps tooth................................... 3-23

Figure 3.2: Results of two different reading methods of teeth for Kogia breviceps.3-26
Figure 3.3: Closure of pulp cavity in relation to body length and estimated age in
Kogia breviceps. ................................................................................... 3-27
Figure 3.4: Results for two different reading methods of teeth for Kogia sima. ..... 3-30
Figure 3.5: Closure of pulp cavity in relation to body length and estimated age in
Kogia sima. ............................................................................................ 3-31
Figure 3.6: Von Bertalanffy growth curve for Kogia breviceps.............................. 3-35
Figure 3.7: Body length and age in relation to body weight in Kogia breviceps. ... 3-36
Figure 3.8: Von Bertalanffy growth curve for Kogia sima...................................... 3-39
Figure 3.9: Body length and age in relation to body weight in Kogia sima. ........... 3-40
Figure 3.10: Body length versus growth rate constants (k) obtained from Gompertz
growth models for different species of odontocetes. .......................... 3-41
Figure 4.1: Histological preparations of different maturity stages of the testes in

Kogia..................................................................................................... 4-14
Figure 4.2: Mean seminiferous tubule diameters for male Kogia breviceps of
different maturity stages in relation to body length and age.................. 4-16
Figure 4.3: Mean seminiferous tubule diameters for male Kogia sima of different
maturity stages in relation to body length and age …………………… 4-17
Figure 4.4: Mean testis length as a function of body length and estimated age in
Kogia breviceps. .................................................................................... 4-19
Figure 4.5: Attainment of sexual maturity with body length and age in male
Kogia breviceps. .................................................................................... 4-20
Figure 4.6: Mean testis length as a function of body length and estimated age in
Kogia sima. ............................................................................................ 4-23
Figure 4.7: Attainment of sexual maturity with body length and age in male Kogia
sima. ....................................................................................................... 4-24
Figure 4.8: Reproductive condition and combined testis weight over the year in
male Kogia breviceps............................................................................ 4-26
Figure 4.9: Reproductive condition and combined testis weight over the year in
male Kogia sima……………………………………………………….4-27
Figure 4.10: Scanning electron micrographs of a K. breviceps and K. sima
spermatozoa…………………………………………………………..4-28
xiii
Figure 5.1: Ovaries of Kogia. .................................................................................. 5-21
Figure 5.2: Attainment of sexual maturity and ovulation rate in female Kogia
breviceps. ............................................................................................... 5-22
Figure 5.3: Increase of combined ovary weight with body length and estimated
age in female Kogia breviceps.............................................................. 5-23
Figure 5.4: Occurrence of Kogia breviceps fetuses and juveniles throughout the
year........................................................................................................ 5-28
Figure 5.5: Corpus index of the largest corpus in relation to month and foetal or
calf length in Kogia breviceps. .............................................................. 5-29
Figure 5.6: Attainment of sexual maturity and ovulation rate in female Kogia
sima. ....................................................................................................... 5-32
Figure 5.7: Increase in combined ovary weight with body length and estimated
age in female Kogia sima...................................................................... 5-33
Figure 5.8: Occurrence of Kogia sima foetuses and juveniles throughout the year.
............................................................................................................... 5-35
Figure 5.9: Corpus index of the largest corpus in relation to month and foetal or calf
length in Kogia sima. ............................................................................ 5-36
Figure 5.10: Proposed reproductive chronology in Kogia....................................... 5-47
Figure 6.1: Diet composition of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima………………...6-32

Figure 6.2: Diet composition of female and male Kogia breviceps. ....................... 6-33
Figure 6.3: Diet composition of mature and immature Kogia breviceps................. 6-35
Figure 6.4: Diet composition of group 1 and group 2 of Kogia breviceps. ............. 6-36
Figure 6.5: Diet composition of female and male Kogia sima. ............................... 6-38
Figure 6.6: Diet composition of mature and immature Kogia sima. ....................... 6-39
Figure 6.7: Diet composition of group 1 and group 2 of Kogia sima...................... 6-40
Figure 6.8: Size-frequency distribution of squid eaten by Kogia breviceps and Kogia
sima. ....................................................................................................... 6-43
Figure 6.9: Size-frequency of male and female Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima.. 6-44
Figure 6.10: Size-frequency distribution of squid eaten by immature and sexually
mature Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima. ........................................... 6-45
Figure 6.11: Size-frequency distribution of squid eaten by Kogia breviceps and Kogia
sima belonging to group 1 and group 2. .............................................. 6-46
Figure 7.1: Bathymetry off Southern Africa.............................................................. 7-3

Figure 7.2: Major ocean currents off the South African subcontinent ...................... 7-5
Figure 7.3: Total number of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima strandings between
1880 and 1995 analysed by sex ............................................................. 7-27
1880 and 1995 analysed by reproductive status ................................... 7-27
1880 and 1995 analysed by the condition of the animal ....................... 7-28
1880 and 1995 analysed by the type of stranding event ....................... 7-28
Figure 7.7: Total numbers of stranded Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima along the
Southern African coastline between 1965 and 1995............................. 7-30
Figure 7.8: Total numbers of stranded Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima
per month. ........................................................................................... ..7-31
Figure 7.9: Seasonal occurrence of live strandings of Kogia breviceps and Kogia
sima between 1965 and 1995................................................................. 7-32
xiv
Figure 7.10: Seasonal geographic distribution of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima
strandings along the Southern Cape coastline between 1965 and 1995
.............................................................................................................. 7-33
Figure 7.11: Individual stranding events of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima along
the South African coastline from 1965 until 1995............................... 7-35
Figure 7.12: Stranding events of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima cow/calf pairs
along the South African coastline ........................................................ 7-36
Figure 7.13: Stranding events of immature and mature Kogia breviceps along the
South African coastline........................................................................ 7-37
Figure 7.14: Stranding events of immature and mature Kogia sima along the South
African coastline .................................................................................. 7-38
Figure 8.1: Geographical locations of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima samples
used in the genetic analysis……………………………………………8-15
Figure 8.2: Phylogenetic tree of unique Kogia cytochrome b sequences …………8-22
Figure 8.3: Minimum spanning network for cytochrome b haplotypes of Kogia
breviceps………………………………………………………………8-24
Figure 8.4: Minimum-spanning network for cytochrome b haplotypes of
Kogia sima……………………………………………………………..8-25
Figure 8.5: Phylogenetic tree of unique Kogia control region sequences…………8-27
Figure 9.1: Slow-fast continuum of life histories for mammals…………………...9-14

Figure 9.2: Model for mammalian life history strategies, after Charnov (1991)
and Harvey and Purvis (1999)…………………………………………9-16
Figure 9.3: Slow-fast continuum for female odontocetes…………………………9-18
Figure 9.4: Life history strategy for Kogia………………………………………...9-20
xv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Regarding the nature of the present study a number of people were involved in
providing all the necessary bits and pieces of information that were needed to get a
greater picture of the life history of Kogia. Firstly I would like to thank my supervisor,
Professor Ric Bernard, for his support and advice throughout this study. Furthermore,
I would like to thank Dr. Vic Cockcroft for his initial help, and Dr. Peter Best for
providing samples and giving advice whenever needed. I am grateful to Dr. Scott
Baker for his support and advise during the genetical analysis. My special thanks go
to Dr. Graham Ross, who’s previous work on Kogia was an inspiration and who’s
suggestions and support for the present study were invaluable. I also would like to
thank Dr. Dan Odell and Dr. Nelio Barros for anectotal as well as scientific
information on Kogia and for many chats on the subject. Herman Oosthuizen showed
me the secrets of age determination and I am especially indebted to Dr. Norbert
Klages, without who’s help and support I would have been at a loss with regards to
the art of squid beak identification. John Heppel provided me with a saw to prepare
the tooth sections and the staff of the Electron Microscopy Unit, Shirley Pinchuk and
Robin Cross, helped with preparations and examination of the sperm. Martina
Roeleveld- Compagno was so kind as to provide me with data on squid distribution
off the Southern Africa coastline, gathered over many years. Louise Watt at the
CSIRO in Stellenbosch provided me with oceanographical data and Rob Harris from
Geodatec helped in the analysis. Dr. Sarah Radloff, Professor Allen Rodrigo, Dr. Diane
Brunton and Jeremy Baxter all provided statistical advice and Professor Randall
Hepburn and Dr. Tom Hecht provided academic support at a crucial state.
My thanks also go to a number of people and institutions in Australia, who
provided me with additional material for the present study, namely John Bannister
from the Western Australian Museum, Perth, Lina Frigo from the Museum of
Victoria, Abbotsford, Catherine Kemper from the South Australian Museum,
Adelaide, John Wombey and Richard Schodde from the CSIRO Australia, Canberra,
Peter Arnold from the Museum of Tropical Queensland, Steve van Dyk from the
Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Paul Horner and Jared Archibald from the Northern
Territories Museum, Darwin, Sandy Ingleby from the Australian Museum Sydney,
and Karen Evans, University of Tasmania, Hobart. Additional samples from South
Africa were provided by Mike Meyer, Marine and Coastal Management, Cape Town.
Genetic samples from Peru were provided by Koen van Waerebeek, Peruvian Centre
for Cetacean Research (CEPEC), Pucusana, from Chile by Carlos Olavarria,
University of Auckland, New Zealand and José Luis Brito, Museo Municipal de
Ciencias Naturales, San Antonio, and from New Caledonia by Claire Garrigue,
Opération Cétacés, Nouméa. In New Zealand, Anton van Helden, Clinton Duffy and
Dr. Padraig Duignan provided data, samples and invaluable advice. Merel Dalebout,
Franz Pichler and Justine Murel provided help and advice with the genetic analysis,
Dr. Craig Millar made valuable comments on a draft, and special thanks go to Dr.
Shane Lavery for his wisdom on population genetics.
I am indebted to a number of people who contributed to the present work with
stimulating exchange of ideas and information, mainly via e-mail, the highway of
modern communication. These include, in no particular order, John Heyning, Robin
Baird, Jim Cummins, Bjørn Afzelius, Andy Read, Debbie Duffield, Richard O’Connor,
Toshyo Kasuya, Malcolm Clarke, Kimberlee Beckmen, Lisa Ballance, Bob Pitman,
David Schofield, Toni Booth, Rudi van der Aarde, Paul Harvey, Jay Barlow, Colin
xvi
McLeod, Marten Gründlingh, Steve Stearns, Johan Lutjeharms, Malcolm Smale, Koen
van Waerebeek, Clyde Roper and Howard Rhinehart,
Staff and friends from the Port Elizabeth Museum were helpful and supportive
throughout this study and my special thanks go to Gill Watson, Wendy Kant and
Dorothy Pitman.
Financial support was gratefully received from the National Research
Foundation (NRF) of South Africa and the Ernest Oppenheimer Memorial Trust
Fund. Additional funding was received from Rhodes University and Cetacean Society
International.
Thanks for the help during the final stages go to Stuart Parsons and Josh Wong.
Special thanks to Larvika Singh, the formatting queen, and Yvette Wharton for reading
numerous drafts and for her magic touch when it comes to computers.
My very special thanks go to my mother, without whose support and sacrifice I
would not have been able to carry this work out in the first place.
In many ways the completion of this work also presents the end of a journey.
What remains are the friends I met and made along the way. This is dedicated to you
who opened your hearts, believed in me, and gave me strength: Pete Illgner (and Liesl,
Jenny and Wally Illgner), Jeremy Baxter, Gillian MacGregor, Leigh Gurney, Andy
Bentley, Alexandra Johnson, Meredith Thornton, Wendy Kant, Gill Watson, Dot
Pitman, Leslee Parr, Debbie Duffield, Kendall MacKenzie and Larvika Singh. And I
would not have been able to complete this work without the continued help and support
from Greg Nell. Thanks to all you guys for the hugs and for keeping me sane!
Finally, although it should be first and foremost, I would like to thank Peter
Illgner for all his weird and wacky, but wonderfully creative ideas and inspirational
discussions as well as his unwavering support and faith, because “one can do anything,
anything at all provided one has a good teacher” (Peter O’Connor). Pete, you’re the best!
“The cure for anything is saltwater-sweat, tears or the sea”
Isak Dinesen (alias Karen Blixen)
xvii
“It is better to understand a little than to misunderstand a lot”

-
Anatole France
1.1 Aim of the present study

Both pygmy (Kogia breviceps) and dwarf (Kogia sima) sperm whales are amongst
the least studied odontocetes. As with many odontocete species that have not been the target
of commercial exploitation, data on their natural history are scarce. Although new and
innovative field studies are becoming more frequent, leading to an increase in knowledge of
the biology of many marine mammals, both Kogia species are elusive creatures and studies
in the wild are virtually impossible. However, basic data on the natural history of any
species are vital in order to understand their biology and ensure their continued survival.
Therefore studying stranded animals is often the only way of obtaining information on the
basic ecology of species that are otherwise inaccessible, and while such data are by no
means ideal, they remain invaluable in understanding and protecting the biodiversity of our
oceans.
Twenty-four species of small odontocetes are found off the South African coastline,
including eight ziphiids, 14 delphinids and the two Kogia species (Ross, 1984). South
Africa appears to have the second highest stranding rate worldwide for both Kogia species
combined and thus lends itself as an ideal study area. The following research thus aims to
investigate the natural history of both species, in particular age and growth, male and
female reproduction, diet, strandings and the population genetic structure. These data
combined allow an evaluation of the life history strategy employed by both species.
Although the present sample size was in some instances too small for some quantitative
analyses, it provided an opportunity to determine whether the life histories are as unusual as
other parts of their biology. However, it should be kept in mind that the results can only
indicate a first idea of Kogia biology and that much more extensive and detailed research is
needed to understand the biology of the two species fully. In order to put the present results
into perspective the emphasis is placed on comparing the results with the available
information on the natural histories of other, mainly pelagic, odontocetes.
While each of the chapters as outlined below has a detailed introduction and
literature review for the relevant topic, the present chapter provides a general introduction to
the biology of the genus Kogia and deals in particular with aspects of their biology not
covered in the subsequent chapters.
1- 2
1.2 General introduction

Leatherwood and Reeves (1983), Nagorsen (1985), and Caldwell and Caldwell
(1989) have published reviews on the biology of both Kogia species. Further summaries,
which included reference to a particular geographical location, were provided by
Chantrapornsyl et al. (1991), Baird et al. (1996) and Willis and Baird (1998).
A number of difficulties were encountered in creating this review. In general, the

scientific literature available on both species has often been published in journals, which are
not easily accessible internationally. Although every attempt has been made here to compile
a literature review as comprehensive as possible, there is inevitably a lack of some articles
due to these circumstances.
In addition, the fact that two distinct Kogia species were only described as late as
1966 means that there is a substantial amount of uncertainty as two which species are
discussed in publications prior to that date. This increases the difficulty of an accurate
review, but an attempt was made here to assign the publications to the correct species.
Most accounts of the two Kogia species are general, and assume information to be
true for both species. Although this is often the case, there are differences in biology and an
effort has been made to point those out here and to present information specific to either of
the two species whenever possible.
1.3 Name
It is unclear from where the genus name Kogia is derived. It has been suggested to
be a latinised form of the English word “codger”, which means a “miserly old fellow” or
could have been derived from Cogia Effendi, a Turk who observed whales in the
Mediterranean (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983; Rice, 1998). The species name breviceps
originates from the Latin for “short head” and sima is also Latin, meaning “flat- or stump-
nosed” (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983).
Rice (1998) proposes that the old species name K. simus should be changed to K.
sima as that would constitute grammatically correct Latin and this has been accepted by the
Society for Marine Mammalogy. It appears that an official name change by the
International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature is not necessary (P. Tubbs, pers.
com.), and most researchers are already using the new nomenclature. In accordance with
this, the new name K. sima is used throughout this thesis.
1- 3
The holotype of the pygmy sperm whale (K. breviceps) was described by the
French naturalist de Blainville in 1838 from a skull found at the Cape of Good Hope (Ross,
1979a). Only the skull was known until the skeleton of a specimen found in Australia was
described by Wall in 1951 (Handley, 1966). Together Gray, Krefft and Owen described the
external morphology in 1866 (Handley, 1966).
Owen (1866) describes the type specimen of K. sima from Madras, India and calls
it the “snub-nosed cachalot” Physeter (Euphysetes) simus. The specimen had been hunted
by local fishermen. He describes the external characteristics as well as skull measurements
and compares them with those made from Physeter breviceps (de Blainvilles’ type
specimen of K. breviceps) and Euphysetes (Physeter) grayii, another Kogia specimen
described by Macleay. However, current knowledge of the distinguishing characteristics
such as dorsal fin height as a percentage of total length and dentition indicate that it was
indeed a K. sima.
1.4 How many species?

Although apparently Gill recognised the differences between the two species in
1871 and proposed a separate species name for K. sima (Rice, 1998), the existence of two
distinct species was not confirmed until the works by Yamada (1954), Handley (1966), and
Ross (1979a). Rather up to seven different species were described over the years as listed
by Hector (1878) and Handley (1966):
Physeter breviceps, de Blainville (1838) new species

Kogia breviceps, Gray (1846) new genus for Physeter breviceps
Euphysetes grayii, Wall (1851) new genus and species
Euphysetes macleayi, Krefft (1865)
Kogia macleayii, Gray (1866) new species
Physeter (Euphysetes) simus, Owen (1866) new species
Kogia floweri, Gill (1871) new species
Callignathus, Gill (1871) new genus for Physeter (Euphysetes) simus
Euphysetes pottsii, Haast (1874) new species
Kogia goodei, True (1884) new species
Handley (1966) gives a brief summary of the different reasons behind the
description of so many species. It appears that the confusion can be put down to scarcity of
specimens for comparison and a general similarity between the two species such as
individual variation with age and sex, an existing overlap between some morphological
characteristics in the two species, and a subsequent confusion between juveniles of one
1- 4
species in relation to adults of the other species. However, a number of researchers were in
favour of two Kogia species such as Gill in 1871 and Beddard in 1902 (Handley, 1966;
Rice, 1998). But it was only when Ogawa in 1936 proposed two species and other Japanese
authors such as Kuroda (1938), Okada (1938) and Yamada (1954) adopted that
nomenclature that Handley followed and proposed his account of two definite species in
1966. He was able to examine a large sample size by Kogia standards, namely 42
specimens, and provided a list of the distinguishing morphological characteristics between
the two species. His morphological studies together with the previous work by Yamada
(1954) and work carried out subsequently by Ross (1979a; Ross, 1984) have all led to the
now universally accepted nomenclature of two species in the genus Kogia (Rice, 1998). No
geographical variation was found in Handley’s examination of the specimens (Handley,
1966) and no studies have been undertaken on that topic since.
The confusion regarding classification of different Kogia specimens into two
species prior to 1966 is well reflected in the literature. Allen’s account from 1941 states that
“..in spite of some half dozen names applied in the past to various individuals all are
currently regarded as pertaining to but a single species.”. He also remarks on differences in
dorsal fin size, but believes there is one species. Other accounts are also clearly confused as
to the number of species present (Duguy, 1966). Hale (1947; 1959; 1962; 1963) carried out
comparative morphological studies of the skeletons and skulls of the South Australian
specimens examined by him (comprising 13 animals and one mandible) and provides
external measurements for some of them. He remarks upon the differences in skeletal
characters (especially skull measurements) and the variation in dorsal fin size between the
individuals (Hale, 1947; 1962; 1963). However, he still maintains that on these grounds he
cannot distinguish two different species as had been suggested by Ogawa in 1936 (in:
Yamada, 1954), but rather thinks that one species of Kogia exists (Hale, 1962). Similarly,
Yamada (1954) describes differences in skull morphology between the two species in
addition to dental and vertebral formulae, but states that he does not think that the results
perfectly distinguish the two species.
Nagorsen (1985) lists a number of cases where the supplied measurements of the
animal described made it possible to identify it after Handley’s 1966 paper. For example,
Allen’s (1941) specimen from Virginia, Yamada’s animals (1954) and two animals
described by Hale (1959) are all K. sima (Aitken, 1971; Nagorsen, 1985). These
circumstances make a review of the literature difficult and have to be kept in mind when
examining publications prior to 1966. However, Willis and Baird (1998) give an overview
1- 5
of reports in the recent literature, which clarify the species status of some earlier accounts.
1.5 Phylogeny
Although the genus Kogia was formerly included in the family Physeteridae (the
only other member being the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus) or treated as the
subfamily Kogiidae, most recent publications now regard it as a separate family (Kogiidae)
within the superfamily Physeteroidea (Heyning, 1997; Rice, 1998). Recent advances in
molecular genetics have brought about rapid changes to the phylogenetic tree of Mammalia
in general (de Jong, 1998), and led to a controversy about the phylogeny of Cetacea in
particular. The origin of Cetacea is unclear due to the fact that many aspects of their
anatomy are adaptations to an aquatic lifestyle and thus do not allow conclusions to be
drawn about their evolutionary history. Furthermore, the lack of fossils makes the
estimation of the time of evolution difficult. However, the fossil and morphological
evidence available indicates that Mesonychidae, early artiodactyls (even-toed ungulates),
gave rise to the first cetaceans, or Archaeoceti, which in turn gave rise to the modern whales
(Shimamura et al., 1997). Recent molecular analyses support this and show that the Cetacea
are nested unambiguously within the artiodactyls as a sister group of the hippopotami
(Shimamura et al., 1997; de Jong, 1998).
But within the Cetacea the traditional view that the two suborder, the Mysticeti and
the Odontoceti, are monophyletic was challenged by a molecular analysis, which led to the
suggestion that the sperm whales (Physeteroidea) are in fact a sister group of the mysticetes
(Milinkovitch et al., 1993). This would indicate that Physeteroidea are more closely related
to Mysticeti than to the other Odontoceti, inferring paraphyly of the odontocetes and
concluding that on these grounds the cetacean phylogeny should be revised (Milinkovitch et
al., 1993); for a review of the controversy see Cerchio and Tucker (1998). Although
subsequent molecular (Arnason and Gullberg, 1994), morphological (Heyning, 1997), and
molecular and morphological studies combined (Messenger and McGuire, 1998) could not
replicate this result, some molecular evidence supports the view that the odontocetes are
paraphyletic and suggests that the sperm whale family could have branched off before the
divergence of the other cetacean families and has undergone a long separate evolution
(Douzery, 1993). It is apparent that future work is needed to reconcile the morphological
and molecular evidence, particularly as the relationship among the sperm whales is
unresolved (Cerchio and Tucker, 1998). However, the special status of the sperm whales
1- 6
among the Cetacea as shown by a unique karyotype and chromosome number (Arnason
and Benirschke, 1973) and the unique spermaceti organ (Schenkkan and Purves, 1973)
remains. K. breviceps and Physeter were found to have similar karyotypes with a
chromosome number of 42 and the absence of telocentric chromosomes (Arnason and
Benirschke, 1973). No data are available for K. sima.
1.5.1 Fossil record

The fossil record of Kogia seems sparse as with so many cetaceans and most fossils
are physically incomplete (Kellogg, 1929; Barnes, 1973; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989).
Anderson and Jones (1967) listed the Kogiinae as a separate subfamily from the early
Pliocene in North America and the late Pliocene in Japan (in: Caldwell and Caldwell,
1989). Kellogg (1929) proposed a new genus and species (Kogiopsis floridana) from the
late Miocene or early Pliocene based on the incomplete portion of a lower jaw, since he was
not sure whether the specimen was similar enough to be placed in the same genus. Barnes
(1973) describes a new genus and species (Praekogia cedrosensis) of an extinct pygmy
sperm whale from the early Pliocene. The characteristic shape and curvature of the teeth of
Kogia play a large part in identifying fossil specimens (Pilleri, 1986). Bianucci and Landini
(1999), upon describing a specimen of Kogia pusilla, believe that the fossil and
phylogenetic evidence shows that the separation of the two groups of Physeter and Kogia
may be relatively old. They suggest that the phylogenetic data indicate an origin of
Kogiidae older (at least Early Miocene) than that assumed from the paleontological data
(late Miocene). The lack of Kogiid records prior to the late Miocene may have been due to
the low frequency of these animals in ancient seas (Bianucci and Landini, 1999). Nagorsen
(1985) gives a brief synopsis on the fossil record of the genus Kogia.
1.6 Identification
1.6.1 External characteristics

Both pygmy and dwarf sperm whales are medium sized odontocetes, reaching
maximum lengths of less than 4m. They resemble the bigger sperm whale P.
macrocephalus, in their external appearance, and their blunt, squarish heads are
proportionately the smallest among the cetaceans (Handley, 1966; Carvan III, 1988) (Figure
1.1 and 1.2). They have a single blowhole, slightly offset to the left, which is characteristic
1- 7
for the Physeteriids (Price et al., 1984). The underslung, shark-like mouth is set well back
from the tip of the snout and makes them easily distinguishable from other small
odontocetes (Handley, 1966; Nagorsen, 1985) (Figure 1.1 and 1.2). In fact, both species
have a strong resemblance to a shark (Gaskin, 1972; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983) and
stranded animals have been repeatedly mistaken for sharks (present study; Leatherwood
and Reeves, 1983; Credle, 1988; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; Shirley Pacheco, pers.
com.). Fishermen from the porpoise fishery off North Carolina, having seen the animal in
the water, gave reports about a shark, which does not have a sharks tail and comes to the
surface to breathe (Enders, 1942), most likely referring to a Kogia specimen.
Although there are common characteristics with the sperm whale, either Kogia
species are often described as “porpoise-like” in shape, which makes them easily
distinguishable from their larger cousin (Manville and Shanahan, 1961; Nagorsen, 1985;
Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989).
Both pygmy and dwarf sperm whales may appear wrinkled, a feature reminiscent
of the sperm whales (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983). There is no diagnostic difference in
colour pattern between the two species (Ross, 1979a). Dorsally both species are dark grey
and ventrally white (Yamada, 1954) (Figure 1.1. and 1.2), although Yamada (1954)
remarks that it appears that K. sima has this dark grey colouration, while K. breviceps has a
more purplish brown colour. Unfortunately, this suggested colour difference between the
two species has not been examined further, probably due to the fact that mainly stranded
specimens, which discolour quickly, have been available for examination. Caldwell and
Caldwell (1989) describe the colour pattern of both species as “ bluish steel grey on the
back, shading to a lighter grey on the sides and to a dull white or pinkish on the belly”. Hale
(1962) remarks on the considerable variation in colouration of the animals examined by
him, ranging from blue to brownish-grey, dark grey to light bluish-grey.
A peculiar feature of both Kogia species is the “false-gill” marking, which is a
white crescent-shaped marking behind the ear, resembling the shape of a fish gill or
operculum. Hubbs (1951) is amongst the first to describe the “false-gill” marking. Yamada
(1954) further explores and describes this marking, but suggests that the Japanese
specimens differ in these markings from those from U.S. Pacific and Atlantic coasts. Hale
(1962; 1963) cannot identify a “false-gill” marking in any of the specimens stranded in
South Australia, baring one female. Raun et al. (1970) state that in an adult specimen from
Texas the false gill marking appears rather in a reversed “L” shape than bracket-shaped.
The teeth of both Kogia species are thin and pointed and curved backwards into the
1- 8
mouth, which leaves them reminiscent of those of a python (Handley, 1966). The teeth of
K. breviceps are proportionately larger and longer, but those of K. sima are more sharply
pointed (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). They have repeatedly been described as lacking
enamel (Handley, 1966; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; Willis and Baird, 1998), although
Flower and Lydekker (1891) state the opposite. This issue is discussed in more detail in
Chapter 3. Some researchers suggest that the number of teeth may be the best criterion to
distinguish the two species (Robineau and Rancurel, 1981). The sharp and curved teeth in
conjunction with the underslung jaw may be the reason why the animal is also known as the
“rat porpoise” in the Lesser Antilles (Caldwell et al., 1973).
The body of the two Kogia species is very robust, “torpedo-shaped” and tapers
rapidly to the tail (Willis and Baird, 1998) (Figure 1.1 and 1.2). The pectoral fins are
moderate in size, convex on the upper and lower margins and taper evenly to a rounded
apex (Ross, 1979a) (Figure 1.1. and 1.2). The tailstock is elongated and laterally
compressed and the flukes are broad, notched in the middle, concave along the rear margin
and tapered laterally (Ross, 1979a; Baird et al., 1996). Detailed body measurements for
both Kogia species are given by Ross (1979a).
No sexual size dimorphism has been reported for either Kogia species
(Leatherwood et al., 1982) and it is generally believed that the sexes are similar in size
(Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983; Credle, 1988). This is examined further in Chapters 3 and
4.
K. breviceps
K. breviceps has a small, falcate dorsal fin, which is lower and located more
posteriorly on the back than that of K. sima (Handley, 1966; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989)
(Figure 1.1). The size of the dorsal fin is distinctly different between the two Kogia species,
being less than 5% of the total body length in K. breviceps (Ross, 1979a). This feature
appears to be the most reliable characteristic to identify a specimen down to species level
and has often been used to identify stranded animals from photographs alone (Robineau and
Rancurel, 1981; Sylvestre, 1988a). Few authors do not find it a suitable character to
distinguish the two species (Sylvestre, 1988b).
In addition, the distance between the tip of the snout and the anterior insertion of the
dorsal fin is over 50% of the total body length in K. breviceps (Ross, 1979a). There is,
however, some overlap in this character between the two species and it should thus be used
1- 9
with caution for species identification (Ross, 1979a).

K. breviceps has a longer snout than K. sima as measured by the distance between
the tip of the snout and the blowhole (Ross, 1979a). In K. breviceps it is usually more than
10% of the total body length (Ross, 1984). This is a good character for species identification
as there is no overlap with K. sima (Ross, 1979a).
There are no maxillary teeth present in K. breviceps and the number of
mandibular teeth ranges from 10 to16 pairs (Handley, 1966; Ross, 1979a; Baird et al.,
1996).
The longest specimen recorded in the literature was a 4.25m female from the south-
eastern United States (Caldwell et al., 1971). However, Ross (1979a) suggests that that may
have been an overestimate and thus incorrect. The longest specimen he recorded from
South Africa was 3.28m in length (Ross, 1979a). Eliason and Houck (1986) reported an
animal of 3.82m from the records of the Smithonian Institution. Credle (1988) reports a
4.11m long male from Florida.
Figure 1.1: External features of an adult female Kogia breviceps (from Ross, 1984).
K. sima
Few authors remark on the throat grooves found in K. sima. Allen (1941) reports up
to five throat grooves in a foetus and an adult male and female. Caldwell and Caldwell
(1989) also remark that K. sima may have several short longitudinal grooves on the throat,
and Pinedo (1987) reports two throat grooves in a K. sima foetus. Leatherwood and Reeves
(1983) state that they may only occasionally be present in K. sima and later reports do not
mention this fact any further. Baird et al. (1996), however, suggest this characteristic as a
distinguishing feature between the two species as throat grooves are absent in K. breviceps.
The dorsal fin is dolphin-like in K. sima and located near the midpoint of the back
(Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989) (Figure 1.2). Its height is more than 5% of the total body
1- 10
length and has a slightly longer fin base than that of K. breviceps (Ross, 1979a). The
distance between the tip of the snout and the anterior insertion of the dorsal fin is under
50% of the total body length in K. sima (Ross, 1979a).
The distance between the tip of the snout and the blowhole is less than 10% of the
total body length in K. sima (Ross, 1979a).
K. sima has eight to 12 pairs of mandibular teeth, rarely 13 pairs, and 0-3 pairs of
maxillary teeth (Handley, 1966; Ross, 1979a; Baird et al., 1996; Willis and Baird, 1998).
The teeth of K. sima are shorter and proportionately more slender than those of K. breviceps
(Ross, 1979a).
The longest K. sima reported from South Africa measured 2.64m (Ross, 1979a),
which is in agreement with Handley’s data of 2.7m as a maximum length for this species
(Handley, 1966).
Figure 1.2: External features of an adult Kogia sima (from Ross, 1984).
1.6.2 Morphology
There have been a number of good reviews of the skeletal structure of the two
Kogia species, in particular of the skull morphology (Yamada, 1954; Handley, 1966; Ross,
1979a; Nagorsen, 1985). The most distinctive cranial characters of the two Kogia species
are the shape of the dorsal sagittal septum near the vertex and the dorsal cranial fossae
(Handley, 1966). The rostrum of the two Kogia species is proportionally the shortest among
extant cetacean species, the skull is markedly asymmetrical, has a pronounced supracranial
basin and saggital septum and has an enlarged left naris. Heyning (1997) remarks on the
complete lack of nasal bones in the genus Kogia, while Physeter still possesses one nasal
bone. In addition, there is no independent jugal, and the mandibles are fragile and are
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described as “paper-thin” (Handley, 1966; Nagorsen, 1985). Allen (1941) also remarks on
the fact that the mandibles of a specimen examined by him are paper-thin and stranded
animals are often washed up with broken mandibles (Peter Best, pers. com.), which led to
speculations whether this could be a result of intra-sexual fighting (see Chapter 4).
However, the lack of tooth scars plus the fact that the mandibles are fragile may suggest that
they are broken when the animal is dragged over reefs and rocks by the surf.
Handley (1966) describes a number of characters that distinguish K. breviceps from
K. sima, the majority of which refer to features of the cranium and mandible. However,
while Handley (1966) uses the position of the foramen magnum to separate the two species,
Ross (1979a) is unable to use this character as a distinguishing feature between the two
species. Differences in dentition between the two Kogia species have often been used as a
distinguishing characteristic. Ross (1979a) states that the number of mandibular teeth is
distinctive in the two Kogia species, ranging from 12-16 in K. breviceps and 7-12 in K.
sima. No maxillary teeth were found in K. breviceps, but between zero and six were present
in K. sima. In contrast, Hückstädt and Antezana (2001) report on a 277cm long female K.
breviceps, which had a pair of tiny teeth in the upper mandible, a character usually only
observed in K. sima. This led them to the conclusion that a tooth count is not a reliable
diagnostic feature for distinguishing the two Kogia species.
Extensive morphological studies have been carried out on the nasal anatomy of the
Physeteriids, including the two Kogia species (Schenkkan and Purves, 1973; Clarke, 2003).
Both Physeter and the two Kogia species are unique among the odontocetes in that the
nasal passages remain as separate tubes to just deep of the blowhole, which is considered a
primitive character (Heyning and Mead, 1990). Another feature unique to these two genera
is that they posses a spermaceti organ, which is not the same as the melon in odontocetes
(Heyning and Mead, 1990). There have been many speculations about the function of the
spermaceti organ in both Physeter (Clarke, 1970) and the kogiids (Karol et al., 1978;
Carvan III, 1988). While it is repeatedly speculated that the spermaceti organ functions as
an acoustical lens in the genus Kogia (Karol et al., 1978; Carvan III, 1988), it may play a
role in the absorption of nitrogen in the sperm whale (Schenkkan and Purves, 1973) and is
widely accepted to also play a functional role in buoyancy control during diving in Physeter
(Clarke, 1970). However, there is some critique of the latter (Ridgway, 1971; Schenkkan
and Purves, 1973) and it has been ruled out as a buoyancy control mechanism in the two
Kogia species (Schenkkan and Purves, 1973; Clarke, 2003). Although the similarities in the
anatomical structure and the exclusive presence of the spermaceti organ, the cushion
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structure and a structure known as the “museau de singe” in both genera have been used to
link the two genera into one family, the structure of the forehead in the two Kogia species is
actually more complex and differently arranged than that of Physeter (Karol et al., 1978;
Carvan III, 1988; Clarke, 2003), supporting the separation into different families (Rice,
1998) (see above).
Another point of focus in the study of the anatomical structures in the head of the
two Kogia species have been the sound producing and propagation tissues (Carvan III,
1988; Clarke, 2003), and it has been suggested that the “museau de singe” or “monkey’s
muzzle” has the appearance of a sound producer, using movement of air rather than water
for sound production (Karol et al., 1978; Heyning and Mead, 1990; Clarke, 2003) (see
below).
The postcranial skeleton also reveals some interesting features, including all
cervical vertebrae being fused into a single unit, the costal cartilages being unossified, the
sternum being reduced to three elements and a low and porpoise-like scapula (Handley,
1966).
Detailed anatomical studies of the external characteristics, the skeletal muscles, and
peripheral nerves are described by Schulte and Smith (1918). Their studies were based on a
single male foetus of K. breviceps, which was 109.7cm long and thus near term. The same
animal was the basis for another anatomical study on the respiratory tract, foregut and
thoracic viscera, including the heart, lungs, pharynx and ear (Kernan and Schulte, 1918). A
detailed anatomical description of the stomach of K. breviceps is presented by Rice and
Wolman (1990).
Hale (1947) appears to be the only author who describes the presence of rostral
hairs in the form of six bristles arranged in a diagonal along the snout in a foetal Kogia
specimen, a characteristic that is commonly described for foetal and newly born
odontocetes.
Further anatomical differences between the two Kogia species are described by
Yamada (1954), Handley (1966) and Ross (1979a).
K. breviceps
Detailed descriptions of the skull and/or skeleton are provided by Yamada (1954)
and Ross (1979a). The latter also provides a regression equation to predict total body length
from condylobasal length for this species.
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K. sima
A comprehensive summary of the skull morphology of K. sima is given by

Nagorsen (1985). There appear to be quite a few inconsistencies between different
skeletons of the same species as far as the number of vertebrae and ribs is concerned; this
and other discrepancies are summarised by Nagorsen (1985). Further detailed descriptions
of the skull and/or skeleton are provided by Yamada (1954), Ross (1979a) and Gallagher
and van Bree (1980). Ross (1979a) concluded that K. sima has a shorter snout than K.
breviceps. Regression equations to predict total body length from condylobasal length and
body weight from total body length are provided by Ross (1979a).
1.7 Biology
The most comprehensive studies on the general biology of the genus Kogia were
carried out by Ross in 1979 and 1984. These studies still provide the baseline data on the
natural history of the two species to this date.
1.7.1 Reproduction
Very little is known about the reproductive biology of the two species and most
estimates of reproductive parameters are based on a small number of individuals examined
(Ross, 1979a; Baird et al., 1996; Willis and Baird, 1998). A detailed description of the
gonads is found in Ross (1979a). However, this topic is examined in detail in Chapters 4
(Male reproduction) and 5 (Female reproduction).
K. breviceps
Ross estimates the length at birth to be 120cm (Ross, 1979a). Attainment of sexual
maturity in females occurrs between 270 and 280cm in body length, and between 270 and
300cm in males (Ross, 1979a). Neither the length of gestation nor the lactation period could
be estimated for this species by Ross, although he speculates that gestation may last either
seven or 11 months (Ross, 1979a). However, mating and calving are thought to extend over
a period of seven months from the Austral autumn through to spring (Ross, 1979a). A
reasonable proportion of females are simultaneously pregnant and lactating and must
therefore conceive in successive breeding seasons (Ross, 1979a). Throughout the literature
there have been reports of females being simultaneously pregnant and lactating, suggesting
1- 14
annual reproduction (Ross, 1979a; Odell et al., 1984; Credle, 1988; Baird et al., 1996). The
possibility of post-partum reproduction in K. breviceps was first mentioned by Dawson
(1985) based on an account of a stranded female, which was lactating, with a three month
old calf and a foetus estimated to be about five weeks old. The sex ratios of the foetuses and
calves from South Africa are surprisingly disproportionate and skewed towards males
(Ross, 1979a). However, the sex ratio for adult and sub-adult animals is 1:1 (Ross, 1979a).
K. sima
Length at birth is estimated to be 100cm by Ross (1979a), which is the same

estimate Pinedo (1987) arrived at. Attainment of sexual maturity is thought to occur
between 210 and 220cm in both sexes (Ross, 1979a). Although Ross (1979a) could not
estimate the length of gestation, records of the size of foetal and juvenile animals from the
Southern Hemisphere in comparison to month indicate a mating season in summer and
birth in early summer, with a gestation period of about 9.5 months (Pinedo, 1987). Ross
(1979a) suggests an extended calving season of five months. The sex ratio of the stranded
animals is not considered to be significantly different from parity (Ross, 1979a).
1.7.2 Age determination

A number of researchers have attempted age determination techniques in Kogia,
some more successful than others, and these results are discussed further in Chapter 3. As
with most odontocetes there is no calibration available to verify the deposition rate of
growth layers in the teeth of either Kogia species (Baird et al., 1996). No information is
available on the longevity of either species (Baird et al., 1996; Willis and Baird, 1998).
K. breviceps
Ross (1979a) presents the results of age determination for 15 animals from South
Africa, although only six teeth were rated sufficiently legible to estimate the age.
K. sima
Ross (1979a) states that the teeth of K. sima are similar in structure to those of K.
breviceps, but growth layers in the dentine are not very distinct and pose problems for the
estimation of age in this species.
1- 15
1.7.3 Diet
In contrast to other aspects of their biology the diet of the two Kogia species has
been studied in some detail in different geographical areas (Fitch and Brownell, 1968; Ross,
1979a; Martins et al., 1985; Candela, 1987; Pinedo, 1987; Klages et al., 1989; Sekiguchi et
al., 1992; Clarke, 1996b; Wang et al., 2002). Stomach content analyses indicate that both
species feed mainly on cephalopods, but supplement their basic diet with fish and
crustaceans (Ross, 1979a; 1984; Klages et al., 1989). With a few exceptions, the same
species of cephalopods are found in the stomachs of either Kogia species (Ross, 1979a).
Small numbers of salps and deepwater shrimp are also reported from the stomachs of the
two species (Candela, 1987). The foraging ranges of the two species off the south-eastern
United States broadly overlap, concentrating on the epi- and mesopelagic zones of the
deeper shelf and slope (Candela, 1987). A more detailed review and analysis of data on the
stomach contents of both Kogia species is provided in Chapter 6.
K. breviceps
The diet of K. breviceps off the coast of Taiwan suggests that the species lives
seaward of the continental shelf and dives deeper than K. sima (Wang et al., 2002).
Similarly, the diet of K. breviceps off South Africa indicates that adult animals forage over
the shelf edge and slope, with juvenile and immature animals feeding closer inshore (Ross,
1979b; Klages et al., 1989). Off the south-eastern United States K. breviceps feeds to a
greater extent on larger and deeper ranging squid, in contrast to K. sima, which take smaller
squid and feed at lesser depths (Candela, 1987).
K. sima
Stomach content analyses off South Africa suggest that juvenile and immature K.
sima forage closer inshore than adults, probably over the outer part of the shelf and upper
part of the slope (Ross, 1979b). In contrast, adult animals are found over deeper water. K.
sima is thought to feed further inshore than K. breviceps off both the coasts of South Africa
(Klages et al., 1989) and Taiwan (Wang et al., 2002).
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1.8 Distribution and abundance
1.8.1 Distribution
Although they are amongst the most commonly stranded cetaceans in some parts of
the world, both species are considered to be rare, mainly because of their offshore
distribution (see Section 1.7.2 Habitat). Sightings at sea are still rare and there are no
reliable criteria to distinguish sightings of K. breviceps and K. sima (Leatherwood and
Reeves, 1983). Thus knowledge on the distribution of either species is almost exclusively
based on stranding records, which often cannot be distinguished to species level
(Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983). It has been repeatedly suggested that gaps in the
distribution of either Kogia species may be due to a lack of observer effort rather than to a
lack of strandings (Ross, 1979a; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). The frequency of reports on
either Kogia species is increasing, which may be due to an increased awareness by both the
public and scientists alike. There appears to be no evidence that their populations have
declined over time, like those of species of commercial importance (Handley, 1966).
Both species are found world-wide in tropical and warm-temperate seas
(Carwardine, 1995; Baird et al., 1996; Willis and Baird, 1998) (Figures 1.3 and 1.4). In
addition, a number of detailed accounts list the waters from which the two Kogia species
have been reported (Baird et al., 1996; Willis and Baird, 1998).
Allen (1941) gives a brief overview of the geographical distribution of strandings
worldwide. He reports that most specimens of Kogia have come from the Indian and
Pacific Ocean, particularly from Australian and New Zealand waters. He then goes on to
give a more detailed summary of strandings along the Atlantic coast. However, Gunter et
al. (1955) are among the first to note the distribution pattern of Kogia strandings along the
western seaboards of the world’s oceans.
There are a number of reviews of the distribution of animals of either Kogia species
in a particular region. Muñoz-Hincapié et al. (1998) give a review of strandings of both
Kogia species and sightings in South American waters. A total of 21 records of K.
breviceps, 23 of K. sima and five of Kogia spp. are reviewed in order to analyse the
zoogeography of the species (Muñoz-Hincapié et al., 1998). No records exist for
Venezuela, Trinidad and Tobago, Guyana, Suriname, French Guiana, and the northern part
of Brazil, which may be a reflection of both the Orinoco and the Amazon discharging fresh
water and sediments to these regions (Muñoz-Hincapié et al., 1998). Such large river
outlets may significantly alter the marine environment in such a way that it does not provide
1- 17
a suitable habitat for species of Kogia (Muñoz-Hincapié et al., 1998). Apart from these
regions both Kogia species are found along the coast of all other coastal countries of the
Caribbean, Atlantic and Pacific (Muñoz-Hincapié et al., 1998). Most records are reported
from north of the Tropic of Capricorn (23.5ºS) and differences in the distribution range
observed between the east and the west coast are ascribed to the prevailing currents and
water masses (Muñoz-Hincapié et al., 1998). A review of the two Kogia species in the
Caribbean is provided by Cardona-Maldonado and Mignucci-Giannoni (1999), listing nine
strandings of K. breviceps and four of K. simus for Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands
between 1976 and 1998. It is not known whether the populations of either Kogia species are
continuous or discontinuous across the world (Gaskin, 1972; Leatherwood and Reeves,
1983; Klinowska, 1991).
In what is probably the only literary reference to the genus Kogia and one of the
earliest accounts on their distribution, “The cruise of the cachalot” by Frank T. Bullen, a
group of kogiids was apparently observed and hunted off the Aldabra Islands, north of
Madagascar (Palmer, 1948).
K. breviceps
K. breviceps appears to be a cosmopolitan species, recorded from nearly all

temperate, subtropical and tropical waters (Klinowska, 1991). It appears to most frequently
strand along the south-eastern coast of the United States, the southern African coastline, the
coast of New Zealand and the south-eastern coast of Australia. Scheffer and Slipp (1948)
report that K. breviceps is widely distributed in the temperate seas of the world. Gaskin
(1972) suggests that the species is fairly common around New Zealand in both the Tasman
Sea and along the South Pacific coast. Baird et al. (1996) summarize the distribution of the
species: it has been reported in the western Pacific from Japan in the north to New Zealand
and Australia in the South and in the eastern Pacific from Washington State in the north to
Peru and Chile in the south. In the western Atlantic specimens have been reported from
Canada in the north to Argentina in the south and in the eastern Atlantic from Ireland in the
north to South Africa in the south (Baird et al., 1996). Records from the Indian Ocean are
mainly from South Africa and India (Ross, 1979a; Chantrapornsyl et al., 1991). For a map
of the species distribution see Figure 1.3.
1- 18
Figure 1.3: Worldwide distribution of Kogia breviceps (from Carwardine, 1995).
K. sima
K. sima appears to prefer slightly warmer waters than K. breviceps (Caldwell and
Caldwell, 1989). Nagorsen (1985) gives a detailed review of the distribution of K. sima
based on stranding data, as do Willis and Baird (1998). In the western Pacific records range
from Japan in the north to New Zealand and Tasmania in the south, while in the eastern
Pacific the records range from Canada in the north to central Chile (Willis and Baird, 1998).
In the western Atlantic K. sima has been reported from Virginia (USA) in the north to
southern Brazil and in the eastern Atlantic records range from the Mediterranean, off Italy,
to South Africa (Willis and Baird, 1998). In the Indian Ocean specimens have been reported
from Oman, Sri Lanka, India, Thailand, Indonesia, western Australia and South Africa
(Ross, 1979a; Chantrapornsyl et al., 1991; Willis and Baird, 1998). For a distribution map
of the species see Figure 1.4.
1- 19
Figure 1.4: Worldwide distribution of Kogia sima (from Carwardine, 1995).
1.8.2 Habitat
Although data are rare, some authors have made deductions about the habitat of
either Kogia species from the shape of their anterior-ventrally flattened snout and their
small underslung jaw and suggest that the animals feed at or near the bottom at least some
of the time (Nagorsen, 1985; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). Based on stomach content
analyses Ross (1979a) suggests that K. breviceps lives further offshore than K. sima.
However, a subsequent analysis by age group indicates that juvenile and immature animals,
particularly of K. sima, live closer inshore than do adults (Ross, 1984). He suggests that the
younger animals live over the outer part of the continental shelf and upper part of the slope,
while adults are found over deeper water. In addition, the continental shelf or slope off
Southern Africa appears to be important as a ‘nursery’ area for immature animals of either
Kogia species (Ross, 1984).
Based on sighting data, Baumgartner (2000) identifies the distribution of the two
species in the Gulf of Mexico as restricted to the upper continental slope. There is no
information on the ecological relationships of the two species, but they have never been
seen together (Klinowska, 1991).
1- 20
K. breviceps
Klages et al. (1989) conclude that both Kogia species inhabit waters over the
continental slope on the basis of stomach content analysis, but suggest that K. breviceps is
found more offshore than K. sima. Brabyn (1991) suggests that Mahia Peninsula off the east
coast of the North Island of New Zealand is a calving area for K. breviceps due to the high
stranding rate of mother/calf pairs in the area.
K. sima
Stomach content analyses of specimens from South Africa suggest that K. sima
occurs further inshore than K. breviceps (Klages et al., 1989). During a survey in the
Eastern Tropical Pacific K. sima is reported throughout the survey area, but most frequently
near the coast (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993).
1.8.3 Abundance estimates

Authors of the early works on Kogia considered the animals so rare that a
worldwide record of the reported specimens was kept. By 1911 only a dozen specimens of
Kogia had been reported, by 1917 only 21 and by 1937 (which is a century after its first
discovery) about 50 specimens were known (Scheffer and Slipp, 1948; Handley, 1966).
Ross in his account from 1979 states that in the 140 years since Blainvilles’ description of
K. breviceps only approximately 150 specimens had been reported.
So “rare” and curious was the occurrence of a Kogia specimen anywhere that for a
long time, the scientific literature about the two species concentrated on the findings of
either one or two animals stranded somewhere in the world: (Pillay, 1926; Harmer, 1927;
Hale, 1947; Scheffer and Slipp, 1948; Boschma, 1951; Hubbs, 1951; Gunter et al., 1955;
Harrison and Jamuh, 1958; Hale, 1959; Caldwell et al., 1960; Hale, 1962; 1963; Raun et
al., 1970; Roest, 1970; Duguy, 1972; Kami and Lujan, 1976; Gallagher and van Bree,
1980; Maigret and Robineau, 1981; Omura and Takahashi, 1981; de Silva, 1987; Baccetti
et al., 1991; Nelson et al., 1991; Debrot and Barros, 1992).
However, the size of any cetacean population is not easily determined, especially
for pelagic stocks (Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993). In addition, a species abundant in one
area may be in peril in another depending on regional conditions such as habitat
degradation, patterns of exploitation, and fisheries interactions that might influence food
1- 21
abundance, health and survival (Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993). Abundance estimates for
either Kogia species have been attempted in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) (Wade and
Gerrodette, 1993). However, sightings of either species of Kogia are difficult unless the sea
is calm (between sea state 0-2 on the Beaufort scale) (Figure 1.5). In addition, small schools
of animals are more likely to be missed than large ones. Since both Kogia species occur
either singly or in small groups and are assumed to be deep and long divers, which may not
be at the surface when the survey ship passes by, such estimates may not be representative
(Wade and Gerrodette, 1993). In addition, ship avoidance behaviour, which was
demonstrated for either Kogia species in the Gulf of Mexico (Würsig et al., 1998), may bias
the abundance estimates in a negative way (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993). Furthermore, the
coast and shelf areas (which are preferred habitats for both Kogia species) were not
systematically surveyed in these studies and may thus have been under-represented, further
producing a negative bias (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993). These abundance estimates of
Kogia in the eastern tropical Pacific revealed 84 K. sima sightings and four K. breviceps
sightings, resulting in a total estimate of 11200 animals for K. sima; no abundance estimate
was given for K. breviceps (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993). All K. breviceps sightings were
north of 24º N, while the K. sima sightings all occurred south of 24º N (Wade and
Gerrodette, 1993).
1- 22
Figure 1.5: Kogia at sea off Southern Africa (Photo by V. Cockcroft, courtesy of the
PE museum, Port Elizabeth, South Africa).
1.8.4 Migration
Little is known about the seasonal distribution or movements of either species of
Kogia. Examining the whaling catches off Japan, Yamada (1954) speculates that there may
be a seasonal migration, and seasonal differences in stranding events for certain areas led a
number of authors to believe in possible seasonal migrations (Allen, 1941; Gunter et al.,
1955). However, as strandings off South Africa and the south-eastern United States occur
throughout the year, there is no indication for seasonal movements in these regions (Ross,
1979a; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). Odell (1985; pers.
com.) suggests that the stranding seasonality in Florida is linked to the inshore-offshore
movement of the Gulf Stream. Individual animals may follow warm water plumes shooting
off from the stream and travelling towards the coast. They may get confused in the more
complex inshore waters and subsequently strand as strandings appear to occur more
frequently when the Gulf Stream is positioned further offshore. A few locations have been
identified where Kogia appear to be local, year-round residents, like the Gulf of California,
Mexico, which appears to be a permanent habitat for K. sima (Aurioles-G. et al., 1993).
1- 23
K. breviceps
Sylvestre (1988a) suggests a seasonal movement of K. breviceps off the west coast
of New Caledonia based on the fact that strandings only occur between June and
December. In the North Pacific the majority of records for K. breviceps are from the
autumn and winter (Eliason and Houck, 1986). Ross (1979a) suggests that the species is
non-migratory off South Africa, although the animals may move offshore during summer.
K. sima
Ross (1979a) states that there is little evidence to suggest that K. sima migrates
onshore or along the shore of South Africa at any season.
1.9 Behaviour
1.9.1 Surface behaviour

Little has been published about the behaviour of the two Kogia species (Breese and
Tershy, 1993), although one of the earliest accounts on their behaviour from “The cruise of
the cachalot” by Frank T. Bullen apparently describes them as “lively” (Palmer, 1948).
Subsequently, Kogia have been described as slow moving, lethargic and occurring solitarily
rather than in social groups (Allen, 1941), while Hale (1962) calls them “sluggish”. Both
species spend considerable time lying motionless at the surface, with only the back of the
head exposed and the tail hanging down well below the surface of the water, with the dorsal
fin submerged (Price et al., 1984; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). This behaviour has also
been termed “logging” (Carwardine, 1995). Yamada (1954) states that the Japanese name
“Uki-Kujira”, meaning “floating whale”, was used by the ancient whalers in the province of
Awa. There are also some accounts that K. breviceps is easy to approach, basically lying
motionless on the surface until touched (Katona et al., 1983 in: Caldwell and Caldwell,
1989). In contrast, whalers in the Lesser Antilles describe the animals as elusive and wary
and being difficult to approach and catch (Reeves, 1988). More recent reports portray the
two species to be rather shy, avoiding boats (Würsig et al., 1998) and displaying a more
porpoise-like behaviour of jumping and swimming vigorously (David Schofield, pers.
com.; Bob Pitman, pers. com.). After diving the individuals rise slowly to the surface,
produce an inconspicuous blow and dive without showing the flukes by sinking vertically
beneath the surface (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983; Baird et al., 1996; Willis and Baird,
1- 24
1998).
Both Kogia species are very difficult to observe in their natural habitat as they are
rather ‘cryptic’ (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993; Ballance and Pitman, 1998) and avoid vessels
(Würsig et al., 1998). Most reliable sightings have occurred at calm seas and excellent
visibility (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983). During surveys in the northern Gulf of Mexico
the two Kogia species showed the greatest percentage of avoidance reaction of all cetaceans
observed by orienting away; none approached the ship or started bow riding (Davis et al.,
1995; Würsig et al., 1998). Furthermore, in 40% of the sightings the majority of Kogia
changed their behaviour from resting to diving in response to a survey airplane (Davis et al.,
1995; Würsig et al., 1998). These data indicate that the two Kogia species are probably
often undercounted during surveys (Davis et al., 1995). In general, cetaceans with greater
activity like leaping and splashing and those with a positive reaction to vessels have a
greater probability of detection than a school that is rafting at the surface, creating little
disturbance, and even avoiding the vessel (Würsig et al., 1998). Due to this behaviour it is
unknown how many animals are unseen or unidentified even during surveys.
K. breviceps
K. breviceps floats higher in the water with more of its back and head exposed than
K. sima (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983). The species has been described as rising slowly
to the surface to breathe, producing an inconspicuous blow (Leatherwood and Reeves,
1983). In addition, K. breviceps more or less “sinks” below the surface when starting to
dive (rather like a submarine), rather than rolling forward like other small odontocetes.
K. sima
Scott and Cordaro (1987) report on the behaviour of two K. sima, a presumed
mother/calf pair, in the eastern tropical Pacific. The pair was accidentally encircled in a tuna
purse-seine net together with a mixed school of spotted and spinner dolphins, although they
did not appear to be associated with the group. The cow was observed to release a cloud of
reddish-brown faeces into the net about six to eight times and hide herself and the calf
inside it whenever a dolphin was approaching the pair (Scott and Gordaro, 1987). The cloud
covered an area of approximately 100 m2. Furthermore, some aggressive behaviour was
observed in the form of the mother ramming either the purse-seiner or the manned vessel
aiding in the release of the dolphins (Scott and Gordaro, 1987). The authors conclude that
the aggressive behaviour displayed in this instance is similar to that observed in other
1- 25
physeterids, that the release of faeces occurs in response to threatening situations, and that it
may be used for concealment (Scott and Cordaro, 1987).
1.9.2 Diving behaviour

One of the few dive times for wild Kogia to date have been reported by Breese and
Tershy (1993) for a K. sima in the Gulf of California. The dive times ranged from 15 to 43
minutes. The animal rafted between dives, much like a sperm whale (Breese and Tershy,
1993). Willis and Baird (1998) provide some unpublished data for 59 dive intervals of K.
sima and unidentified specimens of Kogia in the Gulf of California. The median dive time
was 8.6 minutes and the median surface time was 1.2 minutes, but dives of up to 25 minutes
and surface intervals of three minutes were common. Maximum dive times of up to 53
minutes were observed, but may have resulted from missed surfacings of the animal
involved (Willis and Baird, 1998). Barlow and Sexton (1996) report the most frequent dive
times for Kogia spp. in the Gulf of California to be between two and four minutes. They
classify both species as “long-diving whales” and model the duration of long dives as 10.9
minutes on average and the duration of surfacing series as 78 seconds on average, based on
59 dive cycles for K. sima.
1.9.3 Inking
Animals of either Kogia species have been observed to emit clouds of reddish-
brown faeces, sometimes during excretion (Price et al., 1984), which brought the species its
Japanese name “Tsunabi”, roughly translated as “firecracker-whale” (Yamada, 1954).
Apparently whales were often observed by Japanese whalers to be basking at the surface, so
that they were easily harpooned (Yamada, 1954). Frightened by the sudden attack, they
would start to dive, while leaving an emission of reddish-brown faeces behind, which was
easily mistaken for bleeding. Sometimes the animals were called the “skunk of the sea” for
this habit (Yamada, 1954). This observation is often made when the animal appears startled
and thus it has been speculated that it may be some form of camouflage mechanism, acting
either as a visual or olfactory decoy, similar to that found in the octopus (Caldwell and
Caldwell, 1989). Apparently, a similar reaction can be observed in the sperm whale, P.
macrocephalus, but reports of that are rare (Yamada, 1954; Bob Pitman, pers. com.).
Caldwell and Caldwell (1989) describe how the lower intestine of both species has
1- 26
a sac-like expansion, which is filled with a dark reddish-brown liquid. They comment that it
is a very sticky and messy substance, which appears to stain clothing readily and has a
consistency of chocolate syrup. In contrast, the examination of a South African specimen
revealed it to be more like sand granules, which dissolve in water (pers. obs.). Caldwell and
Caldwell (1989) estimate that in a large K. breviceps there may be up to 12 litres of this
fluid present and initial laboratory tests of two samples reveal that the liquid contains large
amounts of carbon (61.5% and 43.2%). Interestingly, the substance was found in a K.
breviceps foetus from the coast of Oregon, which was near term, and has also been reported
for a newborn male K. breviceps, which had not been nursed, but force-fed on milk formula
for a day (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). These findings suggest that the animals synthesize
the substance themselves rather than extract it from their prey of cephalopods.
When stranded this liquid may exude from the anus (Caldwell et al., 1971) and may
lead to reports from observers that the animal is bleeding (Manville and Shanahan, 1961).
In Sri Lanka the species are called lie mulla, which literally translates into “blood dolphin”
(Leatherwood, 1985).
1.9.4 Sound production

The nasal apparatus in both Physeter and the two Kogia species appears more
complicated than in most other cetaceans (Backhouse, 1972; Karol et al., 1978), which
suggests that it is probably used for sound production. A large melon composed of fatty
tissue in front of a fat-filled spermaceti organ described for the two Kogia species is
suggested to play a similar role to the melon found in other odontocetes and thus aid in
echolocation (Karol et al., 1978). At the rear of the spermaceti organ the “museau de singe”
is located, which is thought to be a sound generator (Karol et al., 1978). The results of the
lipid analysis from these two organs together with anatomical and acoustical considerations
suggest that the combined melon/spermaceti organ system functions to generate and focus
echolocative sound (Karol et al., 1978). While most authors believe that this is the source of
sound production in the two species of Kogia (Caldwell et al., 1966; Karol et al., 1978;
Carvan III, 1988; Clarke, 2003), it has also been suggested that the echolocation pulses are
produced by the epiglottic spout of the larynx (Schenkkan and Purves, 1973).
Caldwell and Caldwell (1987) report that K. breviceps is capable of producing
pulsed sounds, which might serve in echolocation. In addition, Caldwell et al. (1966) report
on four isolated K. breviceps, which produced echolocation-type clicks with a high degree
1- 27
of directionality. Recordings in air by Caldwell et al. (1966) and underwater by Caldwell

and Caldwell (1987) from stranded animals showed low-amplitude echolocation-like clicks
of varying repetition rates with peak frequencies below 13kHz. The fact that no recordings
were made even when the animal was facing the hydrophone led Caldwell and Caldwell
(1989) to suggest that the directionality of the emitted sounds must be greater than that
found in T. truncatus. No sounds were recorded from K. sima to date and K. breviceps is
said to vocalise infrequently (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). Thomas et al. (1990) describe
an attempt to record sounds of a wild K. breviceps by following it for about 30 minutes with
a towed array of hydrophones without any success. In addition, they report recordings from
a stranded K. breviceps female, which produced a low-frequency, low amplitude sound of
short duration, but no echolocation-clicks. It rather emitted a short sweep or cry, starting at a
frequency of around 1.36kHz and ending with a frequency of 1.48kHz. These sounds may
have been distress calls and occurred either singly or in pairs (Thomas et al., 1990). Only
ultrasonic click trains, most of them inaudible, are reported from a 179cm long male K.
breviceps stranded in Monterey Bay, U.S.A. in August 1989 (Marten, 2000). The click
trains ranged from 20kHz to over 200kHz, peaking at 125kHz (Marten, 2000). No other
sounds were recorded for this specimen (Marten, 2000). Click duration varied and was on
average 600µsec (Marten, 2000). Most of the click trains had a rising repetition rate,
starting at 20kHz and rising like a “closure click train” observed in delphinids like killer
whales Orcinus orca and bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus (Marten, 2000). Sound
recordings of “Inky”, a K. breviceps calf rehabilitated at the Baltimore Aquarium (see
below) yielded sounds of 185kHz, the highest peak frequency from a whale at the time
(Carder et al., 1995; David Schofield, pers. com.).
Attempts to record the vocalisations of either Kogia species in the wild have not
been very successful to date and clicks around 30-35kHz were recorded in close proximity
to Kogia only once (Jay Barlow, pers. com.). This may suggest that acoustic census
methods, which are very useful to support poor sightings data in other species, such as
sperm whales P. macrocephalus and some delphinids (Oswald et al., 2003), may not be
very promising for either Kogia species. Sound recordings carried out during a survey in the
north-central and western Gulf of Mexico yielded only one recording that was positively
identified as belonging to a Kogia, although it was unknown to which species (Davis et al.,
1995). The frequency of the recording was not specified, but the analysis frequency range
was 0-20kHz (Davis et al., 1995). While limited knowledge exists about the vocalisations
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of either Kogia species, it is known that their vocalisations differ from those of sperm
whales P. macrocephalus by being of a higher frequency and shorter duration (Norris, pers.
obs. in: Davis et al., 1995).
1.9.5 Group size

The fact that two distinct species were only recognised as late as 1966 (Handley,
1966) makes many of the accounts published prior to this date unclear as to which species
is the one concerned (Palmer, 1948). Yamada (1954) reports on a sighting of six or seven
animals of what appear to be K. breviceps and two to three K. sima. Vidal et al. (1987)
comment on a “loosely-formed” group of three K. breviceps.
Stranding data from Florida and South Africa suggest that there are different types
of groups in both species, namely solitary adult animals of both sexes, cow/calf pairs and
small groups of immature animals (Ross, 1979a; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983; Credle,
1988). However, the most common groups, judging from data from stranded animals, seem
to be solitary animals or cow/calf pairs (Ross, 1979a; 1984; Credle, 1988) (see also Chapter
7).
K. breviceps
Sighting data from the Eastern Tropical Pacific with identification to species level
suggest that K. breviceps occurs solitarily (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993; Ballance et al.,
1996a), while sighting data from the Gulf of Mexico indicate that K. breviceps occurs in
groups of one to two animals, with a mean group size of 1.2 (Davis et al., 1995).
The highest number of animals stranded at the same time is three adult-sized
animals (one male and two females) for K. breviceps (Credle, 1988; Caldwell and Caldwell,
1989).
K. sima
Although it is frequently stated that K. sima occurs in groups of up to 10 animals

(Handley, 1966; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983; Nagorsen, 1985; Carwardine, 1995;
Willis and Baird, 1998), real evidence for this is rare. Recent observations in the Bahamas
did indeed show that K. sima occurs in small groups of up to 10 animals and shows as yet
unrecorded behaviour such as bow-riding, breaching and jumping (Colin MacCleod,
unpubl. data). Most authors provide group size estimates of one to four animals for the
1- 29
species (Ross, 1979a; 1984; Willis and Baird, 1998), while most sighting data indicate
slightly larger group sizes. Group sizes range from one to five animals in the ETP and
western tropical Indian Ocean (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993; Ballance et al., 1996a), to one
to seven in the Gulf of Mexico (Davis et al., 1995). However, the mean group size in the
ETP is 1.7 (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993), 1.6 in western tropical Indian Ocean (Ballance et
al., 1996b), and 2.1 in the Gulf of Mexico (Davis et al., 1995).
The highest number reported of animals stranded at the same time is four immature
animals (one male and three females) for K. sima (Ross, 1979a).
1.10 Predators
Although Leatherwood and Reeves (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983) state that no
predators are known for K. breviceps, there has been one report of a shark bite thought to
originate from a great white shark Carcharodon carcharias on a K. breviceps in northern
Californian waters (Long, 1991). In addition, remains of both K. breviceps and K. sima
were found in the stomachs of great white sharks (Heithaus, 2001). As the ranges of white
sharks and the two Kogia species overlap in the coastal areas of eastern and western North
America, south-eastern and western South America, north-western Europe, north-western
and southern Africa, southern Australia and New Zealand and north-eastern Asia and
Japan, other incidences of shark attacks may be observed in these areas in the future (Long,
1991). A number of dead stranded animals are also reported with shark bites, however, in
these cases it is unclear whether the bites have occurred prior to or after the death of the
animal. McAlpine and Murison (1997) also report possible signs of a healed wound
inflicted by a shark. Furthermore, they suggest that indirect indications of shark attacks on
animals of either Kogia species may be more common than indicated by the available
literature, based on reports of infections with the cestode Phyllobothrium delphini (Caldwell
and Caldwell, 1989; McAlpine and Murison, 1997), which is thought to mature in
elasmobranchs. Remains of a Kogia specimen have also been found in the stomach of a
shark (species unknown) caught off Cuba (Caldwell et al., 1973).
Jefferson et al. (1991) in reviewing killer whale interactions with other marine
mammals, report that K. breviceps remains have been found in the stomach of killer whales,
but animals have not been observed being attacked and may therefore have been already
dead. However, ecological interactions between killer whales and their prey as well as a
number of shark species and their marine mammal prey have not been studied
1- 30
systematically and in fact either predator may have a greater impact on Kogia populations
than previously thought (Jefferson et al., 1991) (see Chapter 9).
1.11 Additional studies

Although specimens of either Kogia species may be quite shy and remote, the fact
that they strand frequently in the south-eastern United States and are often taken into
rehabilitation makes them available for a number of studies, which are usually not carried
out on other cetacean species. Cronin (1998), for example, carried out studies on
videophotoretinoscopy in both the bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus and K. breviceps and
found that the latter had a near perfect eye-sight (emmetropic) in water, but was myopic (or
near-sighted) in air.
Carballeira et al. (1987a) used the pygmy sperm whale to carry out a study on the
adrenal gland morphology, hormonal content and biosynthesis of corticosteroids as well as
the mitochondrial steroid enzyme activity of the adrenal gland (1987b).
1.12 Parasites and diseases
1.12.1 Parasites
Parasitism appears to be prevalent in both Kogia species. In particular, large
amounts of nematodes can be found in the stomach region and encysted tapeworms in the
blubber (Zam et al., 1971; Pinedo, 1987; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; McAlpine and
Murison, 1997). At times the parasite load seems extreme and some authors have wondered
whether a stranded whale was not spending more time and energy feeding the parasites than
itself (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). While Raga (1994) gives an overview of all the
parasites reported for K. breviceps in European waters and Nagorsen (1985) summarizes
the species of internal parasites found in the two Kogia species, there have been no
quantitative studies on parasitism in the genus Kogia. A number of parasites not commonly
found in other marine mammals have been reported for either Kogia species (Pendergraph,
1971). Allen (1941) reports a calf with a goose-barnacle (Penella sp.) attached to the skin
and blubber and trailing behind and another K. breviceps with a goose-barnacle attached
was reported by McAlpine (1997). Raun (1970) found the skin of a stranded K. breviceps
pocked with irregular holes 25-100mm in diameter and between 12 and 50 mm deep, but
otherwise did not see any evidence of any external parasites. Dawson (1985) states that
1- 31
many of the K. breviceps specimens stranded along the New Zealand coast were found to
be seriously ill from disease and parasite infestations. Baker (1983) also notes that most
animals stranded in Australia and New Zealand are extensively diseased.
1.12.2 Diseases
Bossart et al. (1985) found both macroscopical and microscopical changes in the
hearts of stranded adult specimens of either Kogia species, which were consistent with heart
failure. This condition was considered to be a major factor in the stranding of those animals.
All adult animals stranded along the south-eastern United States showed cardiomyopathy,
leading Credle (1988) to conclude that it is probably a primary factor responsible for
mortality in the two species, either at sea or on the beach.
1.13 Captivity
Few stranded specimes of either Kogia species survive for long in captivity (Bossart
et al., 1985). Out of 33 animals kept in captivity most died within five days (Sylvestre,
1983). The longest time a stranded specimen of either Kogia species survived in captivity
was 79 days reported for a male and a female K. breviceps kept at Ocean World Florida in
1966 (Sylvestre, 1983).
One stranded K. breviceps, a young male, was rehabilitated at the Long Marine Lab
in Santa Cruz for five weeks. He produced high frequency clicks at a slow rate all the time,
which were recorded by hydrophone and the click rate increased when the animal was
startled (Dave Casper, pers. com.). The young animal was emaciated and cold. Once the
tank was heated up to 72°F (22.3°C) he started shedding heat from his flippers (Dave
Casper, pers. com.). Only when the water temperature had reached 76°F (24.5°C) could a
blood sample be obtained and warming the water allowed the animal to start gaining
weight. He was transferred to Marine World Africa after five weeks, where the heat was
turned off as the animal gradually gained weight and started swimming around the pool
(Dave Casper, pers. com.). Unfortunately the antibiotics given to him were stopped and he
died of a pleural abscess (Dave Casper, pers. com.).
To date probably the longest surviving pygmy sperm whale in captivity and the
only one that has been released successfully into the wild is “Inky” (Figure 1.6). “Inky” was
a young female, that stranded on the 25/11/1993 in Egg Harbour in southern New Jersey
1- 32
(Bob Schoelkopf, pers. com.). She was 182.9cm long and weighed 79.4kg at the time of her
stranding (Bob Schoelkopf, pers. com.). She showed the behaviour typical for Kogia of
emitting reddish-brown faeces into the water, which resulted in her name. Her teeth were
erupting and she was therefore thought to be of weaning age (Schofield, 1996). Apparently
a wind surfer had supported her on the beach until she was transported to the Animal
Stranding Centre in Atlantic City, New Jersey (David Schofield, pers. com.), where she was
stabilized throughout the night. The following day she was airlifted by helicopter to the
National Aquarium in Baltimore. There she was measured and weighed again and reported
to measure 182.9cm and weigh 93.9kg (David Schofield, pers. com.). The discrepancy in
these data from one day to the next can only be explained by the difficulties encountered in
weighing a live animal.
Inky was found to be regurgitating her food initially, until a series of endoscopic
examinations yielded small pieces of plastic from her stomach (Schofield, 1996). There
have been a number of incidences when plastic was found in the stomachs of specimens of
either species of Kogia (see below). Inky was found to only consume what was thought to
be half of her nutritional requirement initially, but after the plastic pieces were removed
from her stomach her behaviour made a dramatic positive change (Schofield, 1996).
Inky was kept in Baltimore for almost six months until the 5/5/1994, when she was
flown to Florida to be released (Schofield, 1996). She grew 35.6cm and gained 56.8kg
during her time in Baltimore (Schofield, 1996).
Inky was released on the 30/5/1994, equipped with a time-depth recorder (TDR)
attached to her dorsal fin (David Schofield, pers. com.). This was the first time a TDR was
ever attached to an animal of either Kogia species and it might have led to a lot more
information and insight to the life of theses elusive animals. She was tracked for four days
for 100 miles north along the western edge of the Gulf Stream (David Schofield, pers.
com.). Her dive times seemed to increase to 15 minutes during the evening hours, which
might suggest night time feeding. Unfortunately no data were obtained about the diving
depth as the TDR seemed to have come off and could not be retrieved subsequently (David
Schofield, pers. com.).
1- 33
Figure 1.6: “Inky” feeding on squid (Photo by David Schofield, National Aquarium,
Baltimore, USA).
Jenness and Odell (1978) give data on the milk composition for a lactating K.
breviceps female that stranded with a calf in apparent good body condition. The sample had
a pH of 6.2 and contained more water, lactose and whey protein and less fat and calcium
compared to other cetaceans, including the sperm whale P. macrocephalus, which is also
teuthophagous (Jenness and Odell, 1978). However, individual specimens vary greatly,
which may also be due to the changes in composition occurring during the lactation period.
Gorzelany et al. (1995) provide a formula that was successfully administered to a K.
breviceps calf in captivity; Price et al. (1984) also provide a formula, but the calf died
within five days.
1.14 Human consumption

Some researchers remark that the meat of Kogia is good to eat. “Reports ranged
from disgust to enthusiasm” by members of Scripps Institution, although the Kogia meat
was stronger in flavour and less delectable than an Andrew’s beaked whale Mesoplodon
bowdoini that they had tried some time earlier (Hubbs, 1951). Hale (1962) remarks that the
meat makes “an excellent hot meal and provided some of the most tender steak”, although it
1- 34
was “not so palatable when cold”. Yamada (1954) reports that around ten Kogia used to be
caught in the Japanese whaling port of Taiji annually. However, animals were only caught
during the summer season and Yamada speculates that this may be due to their migratory
nature. In contrast, Handley (1966) states that the flesh is edible, but not the aim of a major
commercial operation.
Recent incidents of accidental capture of specimens of either Kogia species in
gillnets and other fisheries are reported to have resulted in consumption in at least some
areas (Klinowska, 1991; Muñoz-Hincapié et al., 1998). Both K. breviceps and K. sima are
hunted in the Philippines (Leatherwood et al., 1992), where they are either used for human
consumption or as bait to catch sharks (Anonymous, 1996).
K. breviceps
Although Dawson (1985) states that a few specimens of K. breviceps are taken
every year by Japanese whalers, no such indication was found in the literature. Furthermore,
the International Fund for Animal Welfare (IFAW) database on whale meat identified from
the markets of Japan and Korea contains only one K. breviceps specimen (Merel Dalebout,
pers. com.), which indicates that these species do not seem to be targeted. In Peru the
remains of a subadult K. breviceps were discovered in a rubbish dump amongst carcasses of
cetaceans frequently caught and sold for human consumption (van Waerebeek et al., 1987).
K. sima
Kami and Lujan (1976) report on a stranded K. sima in Guam, which was
apparently eaten by local people. Muñoz-Hincapié et al. (1998) also report that a dwarf
sperm whale was captured by fishermen off Brazil and consumed.
1.15 Threats
1.15.1 Interactions with fisheries

Probably one of the first references to Kogia being hunted appears in “The cruise of
the cachalot” by Frank T. Bullen, in which the author refers to a group of five animals being
taken, averaging apparently wrongly seven barrels of oil each (Palmer, 1948). However, it
appears that there have been no major threats to either species of Kogia, although they have
been reported to be hunted off St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles (Caldwell et al., 1973), the
1- 35
Phillipines (Leatherwood et al., 1992), and have been seen occasionally in the fish markets
in Sri Lanka (Leatherwood, 1985). Chantrapornsyl et al. (1991) report that a number of
calves and sub-adults are by-caught in the Sri Lankan gillnet fishery. They are also possibly
taken accidentally in other fisheries (Klinowska, 1991) and there is a recent report of both
Kogia species being by-caught in fishing gear in Taiwan (Wang et al., 2002). In most other
nations in South-east Asia from which the species are reported the only threats identified
are possible encroachment on habitat by fisheries and plastic bag ingestion (Anonymous,
1996).
K. breviceps
A few specimens appear from time to time in the local small cetacean fisheries off
southern Japan and Indonesia (Klinowska, 1991).
One specimen of K. breviceps was taken by a spear fisherman in Kahului Harbour,
Maui, Hawaii, in 1942 (Edmondson, 1947). In April 1947, while fishing near Lahaina,
Maui, Hawaii with a hand line baited with aku meat, a fisherman caught a seven foot, 300
pound K. breviceps (Edmondson, 1947).
A female K. breviceps calf measuring 173cm, was accidentally taken by a driftnet
in the high seas of the North Pacific (Omura et al., 1984). Apparently several other, larger
animals of the same species were taken at the same time, but no record of the age, sex or
size of these was kept (Omura et al., 1984).
K. sima
A few specimens appear from time to time in the small cetacean fisheries off
southern Japan, Indonesia, and St. Vincent in the Lesser Antilles (Caldwell et al., 1973;
Klinowska, 1991). In addition, K. sima get caught in drift gillnet fishery off California,
which operates between 37-370km offshore (Barlow and Cameron, 2003).
1.15.2 Plastic ingestion

Both species of Kogia are frequently reported to ingest plastic in the wild (Ross,
1979a; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; Tarpley and Marwitz, 1993; Willis and Baird, 1998;
David Schofield, pers. com.). It seems to be a common occurrence in these teuthophagous
species, which might confuse pieces of plastic with squid (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989;
Tarpley and Marwitz, 1993). Whether or not this behaviour can lead to certain death has not
1- 36
yet been established, but one would assume that it may prevent digestion and lead to
starvation.
1.15.3 Pollution
Few studies have analysed the pollutant load in either Kogia species. A detailed
study on the organochlorines in both K. breviceps as well as bottlenose dolphins T.
truncatus from south-eastern Florida was carried out by King (1987) in order to test
whether there are intraspecific differences in concentration in relation to body length and
sex and interspecific differences in relation to distribution and diet. The results indicate
significantly higher concentrations of chlorinated pesticides and PCB’s for males than for
females and there is no significant correlation with body length (King, 1987). Furthermore,
bottlenose dolphins show higher overall concentrations of organochlorines than K.
breviceps as anticipated by the differences in distribution and diet between the two species
(King, 1987). While T. truncatus off Florida is believed to have a more inshore distribution
with a predominantly piscivorous diet, K. breviceps is a pelagic species and mainly
teuthophagous. However, comparison with a 1976 study on DDT levels in K. breviceps
from the same area shows that the levels are not considerably different almost ten years
later (King, 1987). Overall, both species are within the low range of global contamination
for DDT’s and while K. breviceps is within the low range for PCB levels, T. truncatus is in
the high range, particularly the males (King, 1987). Two K. breviceps specimens stranded
in New Caledonia show high levels of cadmium and iron in the liver, which were thought to
be associated to the diet of fish and cephalopods (Bustamante et al., 2003). Iron is the only
metal having a higher concentration in K. breviceps than in the pilot whales examined at the
same time (Bustamante et al., 2003).
1.16 Conservation status

Both the pygmy and the dwarf sperm whale are currently listed under Appendix II
of the Convention for the International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) (date: 28
May 2003). This means that the two species are currently not necessarily threatened with
extinction, but may become so unless trade is closely controlled. The International Union
for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) assigned the status “insufficiently known” to both
Kogia species in its 1991 “Red Book” (Klinowska, 1991). Although not currently listed on
1- 37
the threatened species list of the IUCN, the status of both species remains “data deficient”.
The main reason for this is that the abundance and status for both species are unknown,
although neither appears to be subject to any significant known threats (Klinowska, 1991).
The Red Data book points out that hardly any basic information on either species’ biology
is available and that there is a need for more data to be gathered on its abundance, biology
and behaviour (Klinowska, 1991).
1.17 This study

At the end of Handley’s classic account of the two Kogia species is a short dialogue
under the “Comments” section (Handley, 1966). An excerpt from this reads as follows:
Question: Should there not be some ecological and behavioural differences between
these two species?
Dr. Handley: That seems very likely, but it is not known to me.
Although subsequent studies by Ross have managed to shed a substantial amount of

light on this issue, one of the major aims of the present study is not just to examine the life
histories of both species in more detail, but also to investigate differences found between
these two confusingly alike species. Due to the limited knowledge on the natural history of
the two Kogia species, researchers have often suggested that the biology of Kogia is similar
to that of Physeter because of their status as sister taxa (LeDuc et al., 1999). The present
work will help to indicate that such an assumption is not valid, as it appears that the
environment in which these animals live has a bigger influence on the shaping of their life
histories than their genetic make-up. Not only are Physeter and the two Kogia species very
different from each other in their biologies, but similarly K. breviceps and K. sima are quite
different in their ecologies and life history strategies as well as will be shown in the present
work.
1.18 Thesis structure

Due to the diverse nature of the present research, each of the following working
chapters (with the exception of Chapter 2) is presented as a study in itself and thus has its
individual Introduction and Materials and Methods sections. In addition, the results are
presented and discussed individually for each chapter as well. An overall summary and
1- 38
discussion of the combined results is presented in the last chapter.

The following is an outline of the structure of the present thesis:
Chapter 2 gives information on the sample and study area.

Chapter 3 examines the age and growth of the two Kogia species.
Chapters 4 and 5 concentrate on the reproductive biology of males and females,
respectively.
Chapter 6 examines the diet of the two Kogia species.
Chapter 7 presents information on the stranding patterns of both species along the Southern
African coastline.
Chapter 8 examines the population structure of the two Kogia species off South Africa in
relation to others in the Southern Hemisphere.
Chapter 9 summarizes the main results and presents conclusions about the life history
strategies of the two Kogia species.
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Provincial Museums (natural History) 11(14): 259-327.
Ross, G. J. B. 1979b. The smaller cetaceans of the southern-east coast of Southern Africa.
Ph.D., Zoology Department, University of Port Elizabeth, Port Elizabeth. 415 pp.
Ross, G. J. B. 1984. The smaller cetaceans of the south east coast of Southern Africa.
Annals of the Cape Provincial Museums (natural History) 15(2): 173-410.
Scheffer, V. B. and Slipp, J. W. 1948. The whales and dolphins of Washington State and a
key to the cetaceans of the West coast of North America. American Midland
Naturalist 39 (2): 257-337.
Schenkkan, E. J. and Purves, P. E. 1973. The comparative anatomy of the nasal tract and
the function of the spermaceti organ in the Physeteridae (Mammalia, Odontoceti).
Bijdragen tot de Dierkunde 43(1): 93-112.
Schofield, T. D. 1996. Conditioning techniques utilized during the rehabilitation of two
stranded cetaceans. Draft manuscript.
Schulte, H. v. W. and De Forest Smith, M. 1918. The external characters, skeletal muscles
and peripheral nerves of Kogia breviceps (Blainville). Bulletin of the American
Museum of Natural History 38: 7-72.
Scott, M. D. and Cordaro, J. G. 1987. Behavioral observations of the dwarf sperm whale,
Kogia simus. Marine Mammal Science 3(4): 353-354.
Sekiguchi, K., Klages, N. T. W. and Best, P. B. 1992. Comparative analysis of the diets of
smaller odontocete cetaceans along the coast of Southern Africa. In: Payne, A. I. L.,
Brink, K. H., Mann, K. H., Hilborn, R. (eds) Benguela Trophic Functioning-South
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Shimamura, M., Yasue, H., Ohshima, K., Abe, H., Kato, H., Kishiro, T., Goto, M.,
Munechika, I. and Okada, N. 1997. Molecular evidence from retroposons that
whales form a clade within even-toed ungulates. Nature 388: 666-669.
Sylvestre, J. P. 1983. Review of Kogia specimens (Physeteridae, Kogiinae) kept alive in
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1- 49
Sylvestre, J. P. 1988a. On a specimen of pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps (Blainville,

1838) from New-Caledonia. Aquatic Mammals 14(2): 76-77.
Sylvestre, J. P. 1988b. Note on three dwarf sperm whales Kogia simus (Owen, 1866) and
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Tarpley, R. J. and Marwitz, S. 1993. Plastic debris ingestion by cetaceans along the Texas
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Thomas, J. A., Moore, P. W. B., Nachtigall, P. E. and Gilmartin, W. G. 1990. A new sound
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van Waerebeek, K., Reyes, J. C. and Luscombe, B. A. 1987. A second record of the pygmy
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the Peruvian coast. Zeitschrift für Säugetierkunde 52: 192-194.
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Wade, P. R. and Gerrodette, T. 1993. Estimates of cetacean abundance and distribution in
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special reference to Canada. The Canadian Field-Naturalist 112: 114-125.
Würsig, B., Lynn, S. K., Jefferson, T. A. and Mullin, K. D. 1998. Behaviour of cetaceans in
the northern Gulf of Mexico relative to survey ships and aircraft. Aquatic Mammals
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Yamada, M. 1954. Some remarks on the pygmy sperm whale Kogia. Scientific Report of
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Zam, S. G., Caldwell, D. K. and Caldwell, M. C. 1971. Some endoparasites from small
odontocete cetaceans collected in Florida and Georgia. Cetology 2: 1-11.
1- 50
2.1 Introduction
The present study is based on samples obtained from animals, which stranded
over a period of 115 years over an approximately 3000 km long stretch of coastline.
Although definite numbers are unavailable, a comparison with published data from
Florida (Credle, 1988) suggests that South Africa has the second highest stranding rate
for both Kogia species worlwide after Florida. This presents a great opportunity to study
these little known species in more detail.
2.2 Sample
For the present study records and samples of pygmy (Kogia breviceps) and dwarf
(K. sima) sperm whales stranded along the Southern African coastline between 1880 and
1999 were examined. Basic information on every stranding record used in the present
study is listed in Appendix A by species in reverse chronological order. Each stranding
event has a Port Elizabeth Museum (PEM; now Bayworld) or South African Museum
(SAM) number and information on the date (day/month/year), sex, length, latitude and
longitude of the stranding site, the location and the type of event and condition of the
animal assigned to it. In some instances the reproductive status is also noted (e.g.
pregnant, lactating). The total length of the animal is given in centimetres and measured
from the tip of the snout to the notch of the flukes (Norris, 1961). The latitude and
longitude is given in degrees and minutes and coordinates have been taken from a
gazetteer for those localities where only a name was provided (Anonymous, 1992). The
type of event was also noted i.e. single, cow/calf, or multiple (double/triple).
Material for age determination, assessment of reproductive status in males and
females, stomach content analysis as well as analysis of stranding patterns (see Chapters
3 to 7) was provided by the Port Elizabeth Museum, Port Elizabeth, South Africa, as
well as the South African Museum, Cape Town, South Africa. Since the material was
sampled over a considerable time span by a variety of sources the data sets are not
always complete for each individual (see Appendix B), which explains discrepancies in
sample sizes between tables and figures.
The availability of organ samples for a specimen, as indicated in Appendix B,
does not necessarily mean that the whole organ was available as, in some cases, only a
2-2
sub-sample was preserved. Also organ measurements, such as testes weights and
lengths, may have been indicated on the data sheets in some instances, but no tissue
sample was available for histological examination. All the organ and tissue samples used
in this study had been fixed and stored in 10% buffered formalin, while teeth and bones
were stored dry.
In order to increase the sample size, material examined previously on the same
population by Ross (Ross, 1979; 1984) was included in the present study. For this
purpose, the original data sheets located at the Port Elizabeth Museum as well as the
publications were consulted. This explains occasional differences in the data presented
here and the ones published previously.
Additional material and information was obtained for 28 K. breviceps and one K.
sima stranded along the Australian coastline (see Appendix C). For the majority of these
animals, however, only teeth could be obtained for age determination and genetic
analysis of population dynamics and thus the resulting data could only be included in
Chapters 3 and 8.
For the population genetic analysis (see Chapter 8) an attempt was made to
obtain samples from the entire Southern Hemisphere in order to compare the South
African populations with those from other geographical locations. For this purpose the
South African as well as the Australian samples were analysed. In addition, samples
were obtained from New Zealand, Chile, Peru and New Caledonia (see Appendix C).
2.3 Sample bias
The size-frequency analysis for K. breviceps (Figure 2.1) showed a bimodal

distribution, which indicates that this sample was biased towards males of a total length
between 200 and 220cm and females between 280 and 320cm. An analysis of the
reproductive organs showed that males are still immature at that length, while females
are mature (see Chapters 4 and 5). Therefore the sample for K. breviceps is probably not
representative of the whole population.
In contrast, the size-frequency distribution for K. sima indicated that the sample
was normally distributed (Figure 2.2). Most males that stranded were between 200-
220cm in body length, while females were slightly larger (between 220-240cm). As
reported in Chapters 4 and 5, both male and female K. sima are mature at that stage.
2-3
20
18 -
16 -
rJ)
14 -
"'a
a
·se<:l 12 -
"d
(!)
"d
:::
e<:l
\-;
...... 10 -
rJ)
4-<
0
\-;
(!)
8 -
"S
Z 6 -
4 -
c::J Females: n=40
~ Males: n=36
2 -
. . Total: n=90
Unknown
0 I
I I
r
I
I
I
sex: n=14
120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Length (em)
Figure 2.1: Size-frequency of Kogia breviceps strandings.
2-4
20
18 -
16 -
rJ)
14 -
"'a
a
·se<:l 12 -
"d
(!)
"d
:::
e<:l
\-;
...... 10 -
rJ)
4-<
0
\-;
(!)
8 -
"8
Z 6 -
4 -
c::J Females: n=37
~ Males: n=33
2 -
. . Total: n=73
Unknown
0 ~ I I I I I I
sex: n=3
100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340 360 380 400
Length (em)
Figure 2.2: Size-frequency of Kogia sima strandings.
2-5
Neonates also stranded, but in low numbers (Figure 2.2).

It is interesting to compare these data with the ones available from Credle (1988)
for the south-eastern United States. Plotting the size-frequency distribution for her
sample of stranded K. breviceps the females were slightly larger, showing a peak
between 280-320cm of body length. In contrast, the males were much larger than in the
present sample, showing a peak between 310-330cm.
The size-frequencies of K. sima in Credles’ sample indicated that both males and
females of this species showed a similar size-frequency distribution as in the present
sample, with peaks at 230cm for the females and at 190-230cm for the males,
respectively (Credle, 1988). Thus the males of this species are slightly smaller in the
present sample than those that stranded along the south-eastern United States.
One concern with the analysis of cetacean strandings is the bias that invariably
accompanies such studies. This bias is due to the fact that studies on stranded whales and
dolphins often include animals, which were recovered over a long period of time as well
as a wide geographic area. In addition, animals may either have died at sea and
subsequently stranded or stranded first and then died as a result. In most cases the cause
of death is unclear and stranded animals may not reflect the “normal” biology of a
species. In addition, it means that such studies are of a deductive nature rather than
dealing with directly observed results. This scenario is also prevalent in the present
study, and although most of the specimens may have succumbed to disease, predation or
aggression, a large number of Kogia carcasses probably never wash ashore due to the
offshore habitat of these species (see Chapters 1, 6 and 7). Thus the sample analysed
here can possibly not be assumed to be a true representation of the Kogia populations off
Southern Africa. This is rather unlucky and in many ways unsatisfactory, but due to the
cryptic behaviour and lack of field data on the two species of Kogia (see Chapter 1) there
is little likelihood of obtaining better data at present. As it is unlikely that similar data as
gathered here will be obtained from free-ranging animals in the near future, the results of
the present study present a first insight into the biology of K. breviceps and K. sima off
Southern Africa and hence justify the acceptance of a certain, although unknown, bias in
the sample set.
2-6
2.4 Study area
For the present study samples and data from strandings of the two Kogia species
along the entire South African coastline as well as a part of the Namibian coast were
analysed. The location of the strandings extend from Dunrissa Bay in Namibia on the
western Southern African coastline (21°15’S and 13°14’E) to Central Beach, Durban, on
the east coast of South Africa, approximately 500km south of the border with
Mozambique (29°50’S and 31°02’E) (Figure 2.3, Appendix A).
The oceanography of this region is determined by two major current systems
found off the subcontinent: the cold, northward flowing Benguela current on the west
coast and the warm, southward flowing Agulhas current on the east coast (Figure 2.3).
Both currents meet at Cape Agulhas on the southern Cape coast.
The topography of the region is also shown in Figure 2.3. The continental shelf
along the west coast is relatively wide, with a distance of 180km off the Orange River
(28°35’S, 16°25’E), but narrows to about 40km off the Cape Peninsula. South of the
Cape the shelf widens rapidly to form the Agulhas Bank, which stretches to about East
London at the Eastern Cape coast. The topology of the Agulhas Bank is characterised by
rocky capes and shallow sandy bays, which are usually below 50m in depth (Findlay,
1989). Then the shelf narrows again drastically to less than 10km in width. This provides
little resistance to the fast flowing Agulhas current (Gründlingh, 1983). The
oceanographic conditions of the study area are described in more detail in Chapter 7.
2-7
Figure 2.3: Map of Southern Africa showing the major ocean currents off the
coastline and the topography of the continental shelf (map by the Department of
Geography, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa).
2.5 Bibliography
Anonymous 1992. Gazetteer of South Africa, Vol. 1-4. Defense Mapping Agency,
Washington, DC. 2374 pp.
University of Miami, Miami, Florida, USA. 86pp.
Findlay, K. P. 1989. The distribution of cetaceans off the coast of South Africa and South
West Africa/ Namibia. M.Sc. Thesis. Faculty of Science, University of Pretoria,
Pretoria. 128pp.
Gründlingh, M. L. 1983. On the course of the Agulhas Current. South African
Geographical Journal 65(1): 49-57.
2-8
Norris, K. S. 1961. Standardized methods for measuring and recording data on the smaller
cetaceans. Journal of Mammalogy 42: 471-476.
Ross, G. J. B. 1979. Records of pygmy and dwarf sperm whales, genus Kogia, from
2-9
Chapter 3: Age and Growth
Chapter 3 Age and Growth
3.1 Theoretical background

Being able to determine the age of an animal is a fundamental requirement in
many areas of ecological and physiological research (Langvatn, 1995) and data on age
and growth in relation to reproductive parameters present vital information about the
potential survival of a given species (Hohn et al., 1996). The use of age determination of
marine mammals, based on the layered structures in their teeth, has become a standard
procedure in stock assessment and management decisions (Scheffer and Myrick, 1980)
as age-specific estimates for fecundity or mortality are used to project population growth
(Hohn, 2002). In addition, changes in parameters such as age at sexual maturity can be
interpreted as reflecting changes in the population abundance or resource availability
(Hohn, 2002). Age determination enables general conclusions to be drawn on the life
span of the animals, the growth curves of males and females, and the ages at sexual and
physical maturity (Mikhalev, 1982). In addition, reproductive parameters are important
for an understanding of the basic life history of a species as well as to demonstrate
continued survival or possible threats. Studies on the age and growth and related life
history parameters in odontocetes have mainly concentrated on small cetaceans
incidentally caught in fishing gear (Perrin et al., 1977; Myrick et al., 1986; Read and
Gaskin, 1990; Slooten, 1991; Read and Hohn, 1995; Hohn et al., 1996; Read and Tolley,
1997; Ferrero and Walker, 1999), animals from directed fisheries (Sergeant, 1962;
Kasuya, 1972; Kasuya et al., 1974; Kasuya, 1978; Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Bloch et
al., 1993; Kasuya et al., 1997), incidental catches in shark nets (Kasuya and Brownell,
1979; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990), and dead specimens from epizootics (Calzada et al.,
1994; Calzada et al., 1996). Few studies have concentrated on stranded specimens (Ross,
1984; Mendolia, 1989; Slooten, 1991; Di-Méglio et al., 1996).
In order to determine basic life history parameters such as age at sexual maturity
and reproductive rate it is essential to determine the age of individuals with known
reproductive status. The present chapter deals with the aspects of age and growth of both
Kogia breviceps and K. sima, while Chapters 4 and 5 present results on the reproductive
biology of male and female Kogia, respectively.
3- 2
3.1.1 Teeth, dentition and mode of feeding

Teeth are amongst the most rigid and lasting structures in an organisms’ body,
but are still dynamic enough to reflect cyclic and metabolic events in the life of an
individual (Langvatn, 1995). In addition, they are readily available from dead animals
and easy to preserve and store for later processing and analysis (Langvatn, 1995) (see
Chapter 8).
Odontocetes have a homodont dentition, which means that all teeth have the
same shape and are not differentiated into incisors, premolars and molars (heterodont)
(Peyer, 1968; Myrick, 1991). Homodont dentition is commonly found in fish,
amphibians and reptiles, but presents an exception among mammals (Peyer, 1968;
Myrick, 1991). The teeth of odontocetes are either conical or peg shaped (Myrick, 1991).
In addition, they are far more numerous in most delphinid species than in any other
mammal (Myrick, 1991). Odontocetes are furthermore monophyodont, meaning that
they do not possess deciduous teeth (milk teeth) (Peyer, 1968) and thus their teeth
contain a complete growth record from the time of birth to the animals’ death.
The differing dental formulae of the two Kogia species have often been used as a
distinguishing characteristic (Handley, 1966; Ross, 1979; Carwardine, 1995) and further
details were presented in Chapter 1. Both species of Kogia exhibit reduced dentition,
which is a phenomenon commonly seen in teuthophagous odontocetes (see Chapter 6). It
has long been suggested that a number of odontocetes may feed by means of suction
feeding, which does not involve the need of teeth for chewing or even grasping of the
prey (Norris and Møhl, 1983). Recent morphological evidence suggests that ziphiids and
possibly also both families of sperm whales (Physeteridae and Kogiidae) employ this
mode of feeding (Heyning and Mead, 1996). This is discussed in more detail in Chapter
6.
3.1.2 Tooth morphology and age determination

Reviews on age determination in mammals have been provided by Klevezal’ and
Kleinenberg (1967) and, more recently, by Langvatn (1995). Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg
(1967) present a general description of the annual layers in the tissues of teeth and bone,
including a general description of mammalian teeth, their histology and growth. In
addition they give an overview of the methods for selecting, processing and reading teeth
3- 3
and bone for age determination. Langvatn (1995) presents a summary of the structure
and chemical composition of teeth, regulation of calcium and phosphate metabolism and,
the process of mineralisation (Langvatn, 1995). A review on the history of age
determination in marine mammals is given by Scheffer and Myrick (1980).
3.1.2.1 Tooth morphology and histology
A number of authors review the histological structures of odontocete teeth

(Boyde, 1980; Myrick, 1980; Langvatn, 1995), as well as the use of these structures in
age determination (Klevezal’, 1980; Pierce and Kajimura, 1980; Myrick, 1980). A
multitude of methods have been developed over the years in order to optimally visualize
the layered structures in the teeth. Techniques include acid etching (Pierce and Kajimura,
1980), polarizing light microscopy (Myrick, 1980), aspartic acid racemization (Bada et
al., 1980), micro radiography and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) (Hohn, 1980a).
Scheffer and Myrick (1980) give a review of age determination results by species.
Mammalian teeth are composed of a crown and a root, the former protrudes out
of the jaw, while the latter is concealed in the tooth alveolus of the jaw (Klevezal’ and
Kleinenberg, 1967). Most of the tooth is made up of dentine, with the crown being
covered by enamel and the root having an outer coat of cementum (Klevezal’ and
Kleinenberg, 1967). Newly erupted teeth in mammals are composed of a thin-walled
dentine cap already covered with enamel, encapsulating a papilla of soft tissue, known as
the pulp cavity (or tooth canal) (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967). The pulp contains
odontoblasts, which give rise to new dentine (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967). As the
tooth grows, dentine is deposited from the side of the pulp cavity in such a way that the
dentine layers formed earlier are situated closer to the outer walls of the tooth and those
formed most recently are closer to the pulp cavity (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967).
The general pattern of tissue differentiation in the tooth into dentine, enamel, and
cementum in odontocetes is described by Perrin and Myrick (1984).
Dental and periosteal tissues of dolphins and other vertebrates are composed of
the mineral hydroxyapatite (Myrick, 1980; Lockyer, 1995a; Outridge et al., 1996).
Because growth is inconstant, layers of various optical densities are formed, and crystal
lattices of hydroxyapatite are deposited within the layers in orientations that tend to
differ from increment to increment, but which have a common alignment within a given
growth increment (Myrick, 1980). The laminations in the dentine and cementum have
3- 4
generally been defined in terms of differing mineralization density or quality (Lockyer,

1993). Contiguous pairs of such laminae comprise a growth-layer group (GLG), defined
as “a repeating or semi-repeating pattern of adjacent groups of incremental growth layers
within the dentine, cementum or bone which is defined as a countable unit” (Perrin and
Myrick, 1980). GLGs consist of thin layers that are deposited with lunar monthly
regularity (Hohn, 1980a; Myrick, 1991). This means that they usually show 13 accessory
layers, which are thought to be related to lunar cyclicity (there are thirteen lunar months
in a year) (Myrick, 1980; Myrick et al., 1984; Myrick and Cornell, 1990). Within the
accessory layers of the postnatal dentine one can distinguish a system of minute
incremental growth layers called “lines of von Ebner”; these are thought to reflect daily
growth (Myrick, 1980).
The formation of layers comprising GLGs is thought to occur seasonally in most
mammals, including odontocetes (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967). Klevezal’ and
Kleinenberg (1967) list a number of reasons for the differences in optical density found
between the layers comprising a GLG. In general it is assumed that one band is related to
slower growth and thus more calcified, while the other band is representative of faster
growth and less calcified (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967). While the layers are
thought to be linked to seasonal changes in food and feeding of the animal or changes in
regular growth rate, the mode of life (i.e. terrestrial, aquatic or semi-aquatic) does not
appear to have an influence (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967).
Both the numbers and the character of the layers found in the teeth are similar in
all the teeth of an individual (Mikhalev, 1982; Myrick, 1991). It appears that both the sex
and the age of the animal have an influence on the rate of deposition of the GLGs
(Nielsen, 1972; Hohn, 1980b; Myrick et al., 1984; Myrick and Cornell, 1990). In
addition, the layers in odontocete teeth appear to decrease in width with age (Kasuya,
1972; Best, 1976; Hohn, 1980b; Myrick and Cornell, 1990), although this is less
pronounced than in other mammals (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967). Although the
layered pattern in the dentine appears to be largely under endogenous control, being
unaffected by conditions of captivity, including changes in water temperature or salinity,
physical activity, some kinds of short-term stress and type of food consumed, variations
in depositional rates of dentine have been related to periods of sickness of the animal
(Myrick et al., 1984; Myrick and Cornell, 1990). In addition, increased depositional rates
were recorded in spring and summer and decreased ones in autumn and winter (Myrick
and Cornell, 1990). Deeper staining layers in the GLGs of two Stenella species were
3- 5
correlated with parturition (Klevezal’ and Myrick, 1984), and the deposition of optically
different types of dentine in dusky dolphins L. obscurus off Peru has been attributed to
changes in mineral composition related to an El Niño event (Manzanilla, 1989). As this
was not observed in other cetacean species at the same time it was thought that the
presence of the hypocalcified layer is related to their dietary dependence on anchoveta,
the stocks of which were dramatically reduced during the El Niño event (Manzanilla,
1989). A review of factors involved in the zonation of odontocete teeth is given by
Lockyer (Lockyer, 1995a), in addition to a detailed classification of anomalies found in
teeth, such as pulp stones, marker lines, mineralization interference, dentinal resorption
and cemental disturbance (Lockyer, 1993). Anomalies are of the same type and pattern
in different teeth from the same individual and occur at the same age, proving that they
are of systemic origin (Lockyer, 1993). Comparisons with known-history captive short-
finned pilot whales Globicephala macrorhynchus indicate that likely stressors, which
may either be directly or indirectly responsible for certain mineralization anomalies, may
include sexual maturation, pregnancy and/or parturition, periods of starvation or
nutritional stress and changes in health and lifestyle (from free-living to captive)
(Lockyer, 1993).
3.1.2.2 Age determination
In order to use GLGs for age determination the rate of deposition of an individual
GLG has to be verified. Incremental growth layer groups in the dentine and cementum
appear as successive pairs of opaque and translucent layers in sectioned teeth examined
in transmitted light, or as alternate light and dark stained layers when the section is
decalcified and stained with haematoxylin. Klevezal’ (1980) found two layers per year
deposited in the hard tissues of both terrestrial and marine mammals.
Another form of calibration is to examine teeth from known-age animals.
Minimum ages are usually known for captive animals and tetracycline labelling has
benefited from that (Myrick et al., 1984). Tetracycline marking has verified an annual
deposition rate per GLG in dusky dolphins L. obscurus (Best, 1976), spinner dolphins S.
longirostris (Myrick et al., 1984), bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus (Myrick and Cornell,
1990), and short-finned pilot whales G. macrorhynchus (Lockyer, 1993). However, the
technique did not contribute to an understanding of the deposition of cemental layers
(Best, 1976; Myrick and Cornell, 1990).
3- 6
A few studies have been able to examine free-ranging animals by having a

record of the birth of individuals to identifiable mothers and by marking and recapturing
individuals and performing multiple tooth extractions (Hohn et al., 1989). One such
study carried out on bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus confirmed an annual deposition rate
of the GLGs in teeth (Hohn et al., 1989).
However, the use of growth layers in age determination has generally been
accepted even when they have not been calibrated for a species based on the facts that 1)
growth layers are very common and have been identified in most mammalian species
examined, 2) the appearance and structure of growth layers have been similar among
different species within the same tissues (e.g. teeth and bone), and 3) in each species for
which data are available, growth layers have been calibrated to real time showing the
existence of annually occurring layers (Hohn et al., 1989).
3.1.2.2.1 Dentine
The neonatal line is thought to demarcate the point of parturition, recording post
parturitional trauma of the neonate as it is confronted with the external environment and
a new mode of feeding (Myrick, 1980). Experiments with tetracycline-marked animals
verified that the neonatal line forms at or near the time of birth (Myrick and Cornell,
1990). Polarized light microscopy shows that this line is composed of an alternating
series of three or more pairs of opaque and translucent layers bounded on either side by a
rather bright translucent layer (Myrick, 1980). As a dolphin matures and dentine
continues to accumulate at the wall of the pulp cavity, the volume of the pulp cavity
decreases gradually and successive GLGs become thinner (Myrick et al., 1983). Once
the pulp cavity occludes one may not be able to age the animal accurately (Myrick et al.,
1983).
Osteodentine (also referred to as secondary dentine or ‘pulp stones’) is made up
of discrete nodules containing concentric rings in the dentine (Lockyer, 1995a). The
occurrence of all anomalies tends to increase with age as a result of their persistence in
the teeth (Lockyer, 1995a). However, the pattern of increase is not regular for pulp
stones and the generally low incidence suggests that occurrence may be both uncommon
and spontaneous. Only 6.8% of the total sample in a study of harbour porpoises P.
phocoena had pulp stones (Lockyer, 1995a). The cause of these stones is not understood
(Lockyer, 1995a), although they are associated with the age at which puberty occurs in
3- 7
long-finned pilot whales G. melas (Lockyer, 1993). In captive short-finned pilot whales
G. macrorhynchus these anomalies coincide with a period of weight loss (Lockyer,
1993). Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg (1967) observe intensive deposition of secondary
dentine, resulting in many accessory bands being formed in the molars of rodents and
suggest that this is caused by big mechanical load (presumably from heavy chewing in
this group of mammals).
3.1.2.2.2 Enamel
Enamel is deposited prenatally and contains growth lamellae, which are thought
to represent daily records of prenatal growth; it does not, however, yield any information
for age determination purposes of the animal (Myrick, 1980).
3.1.2.2.3 Cementum
Because cementum is deposited externally of the tooth and apparently

unconfined, it is thought to form a continuous record representing a dolphin’s entire life.
Cementum, then, may be used to estimate the maximum age of older dolphins for which
maximum dentinal age estimates are not possible (Myrick et al., 1983). In short-finned
pilot whales G. macrorhynchus readings from dentinal and cemental GLGs are equal
and thus either may be used in age determination (Lockyer, 1993). However, GLGs
within the cementum are often difficult to distinguish due to the extreme thinness and
poor layering of the tissue (Myrick, 1980). Marsh and Kasuya (1986) conclude that
cemental and dentinal readings together give more accurate determination of age,
especially for older animals, but cemental readings by themselves are less accurate than
dentinal readings (Kasuya and Brownell, 1979). The number of cemental layers appears
to correspond to the number of dentine layers in species where it is easily countable
(Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967). However, Myrick and Cornell (1990) fail to
demonstrate a relationship between annual GLGs deposited in the dentine and cemental
layers of captive bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus. The thickness of the cementum
appears to be related to the mechanical load exerted on the teeth (Klevezal’ and
Kleinenberg, 1967). One indication of the size of the load is the rate of wear. In many
species the intensive wear of the crown of the tooth is accompanied by the formation of
broad layers of cement on the root, like the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus
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(Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967). However, intensive wear does not always entail the
formation of thick cement depositions (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967).
It has to be emphasized that the criteria and approaches used in age

determination show varying degrees of accuracy and applicability and that ideally a
combination of criteria should be used on the same material in order to get the best
possible age estimate (Langvatn, 1995). The current methods employed for age
determination in mammals, and specifically in odontocetes, have obvious shortcomings
and should be used with a clear understanding of the limitations inherent in the methods
available (Langvatn, 1995).
3.1.3 Age determination in sperm whales (P. macrocephalus)

The pattern of dentine deposition in both Physeter and the two Kogia species
differs to that observed in most other odontocetes. It has been described as a
‘herringbone’ pattern by Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967),
while it is usually referred to as a chevron pattern by other authors (Ross, 1979; Perrin
and Myrick, 1980). It is characterized by each layer of dentine being deposited at an
angle to the longitudinal axis of the tooth.
There has been a relatively long period of use of age determination as a tool in
the study of the biology and management in the sperm whale P. macrocephalus, not at
least due to its long history of exploitation (Ohsumi et al., 1963; Bow and Purday, 1966;
Best, 1970; Berzin, 1972; Perrin and Myrick, 1980; Donovan et al., 1982). For a long
time body length was the only criterion used for comparison of specimens (Berzin,
1972). Later the number of corpora present in the ovaries as well as ossification of the
vertebral column were used to estimate age in sperm whales (Best, 1967; 1970; Berzin,
1972). Ohsumi (1965) uses both dentinal layers and corpora in the ovaries as an
indication of age in sperm whales (in: Best, 1967).
Most researchers assume an annual deposition rate in the teeth of sperm whales
(Ohsumi et al., 1963; Best, 1970; Berzin, 1972; Perrin and Myrick, 1980; Mikhalev,
1982; Rice et al., 1986) and a comparison with an independently arrived at age estimate
based on the number of corpora found in the ovaries confirmed this (Best, 1970).
Ohsumi et al. (1963) describe variation in the thickness of the GLGs with age, sex, and
between different individuals. Berzin (1972) observes that the size of the tooth is directly
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proportional to the number of dentine layers and therefore can be used in old animals
with occluded pulp cavities to determine the age. He states that the layers diminish only
slightly in thickness with age and thus one can assume that that the thickness of a layer
that has completed growth is equal to the thickness of the preceding layer (Berzin, 1972).
In addition, a seasonal pattern of dentine formation is reported for sperm whales (Best,
1970; Berzin, 1972). To reduce inaccuracy of age estimates, Mikhalev (1982) suggests
rejecting those teeth, which do not show the layers clear enough and as a result yield
readings, which differ significantly.
The “Report of the workshop” on age determination held by the International
Whaling Commission (IWC) includes a comprehensive section on sperm whales,
including guidelines for the interpretation of layers in the teeth (Perrin and Myrick,
1980). It was remarked that cemental layers form in a similar pattern to dentinal layers in
sperm whales and cemental GLGs should be examined in teeth in which the pulp cavity
is closed (Perrin and Myrick, 1980).
3.1.4 Age determination in Kogia

Although it has been reported before that the teeth of either Kogia species have
an enamel cap (Flower and Lydekker, 1891), more recent studies conclude that Kogia
teeth characteristically lack enamel (Handley, 1966; Ross, 1979). Enamel was also
reported to be lacking in sperm whales P. macrocephalus (Flower and Lydekker, 1891).
Not much previous work has been carried out on age determination in the two
Kogia species. Handley (1966) in his analysis of Kogia species uses the degree of
closure in the pulp cavity, the degree of ossification of the mesethmoid in the
mesorostral region and the closure of the epiphyses of the vertebrae and of the pectoral
girdle to determine relative ages for his specimens.
Ross (1979) describes the histology of the teeth of the two Kogia species and
makes an attempt to determine the age of 15 K. breviceps specimens from South Africa.
K. sima teeth are shorter and proportionately more slender than K. breviceps teeth and
Ross suggests that teeth over 30mm in height and 4.5mm in diameter are indicative of K.
breviceps (Ross, 1979). He finds an enamel cap to be lacking in K. breviceps, but
describes a clear, narrow neonatal line (about 15µm thick in K. breviceps), which
delineates the postnatal dentine easily from the distinctly homogenous prenatal dentine
in both species; the latter is often worn away in older K. breviceps. The pulp cavity
3-10
appears to remain open at the base throughout life in both Kogia species, although half
the teeth of a K. breviceps had closed pulp cavities, while the other half had open pulp
cavities (Ross, 1979). Growth layers in both the dentine and cementum appear as
alternating opaque and translucent bands in both species, however, the distinctness of the
laminae is very variable in the dentine and teeth vary in opacity, with some being almost
translucent (Ross, 1979). In K. sima the dentinal growth layers are not very distinct and
the postnatal dentine appears to become progressively more obtuse in older teeth (Ross,
1979). Ross also describes a number of accessory layers within a GLG in K. breviceps
and a number of teeth had laminae that were too uniform to allow observation of GLGs.
Although he obtained some good results from his age determination for K. breviceps, the
majority of sections had poor legibility. For K. sima he obtained age estimates that he
thought were too high to present annual layers and thus left any further attempts due to
the large risk of inaccurate counts (Ross, 1979).
Other attempts at age determination in K. breviceps include Bossart et al. (1985),
who use length and reproductive status to categorise animals into age classes, unaware
that chronological age determination methods had been established for the species.
Eliason and Houck (1986) determine the age of a 327cm long female K. breviceps as
8.5GLGs. Bustamante et al. (2003) determine the age of a 310cm long K. breviceps male
as six GLGs and that of a 300cm long female K. breviceps as 19GLGs; both specimens
stranded in New Caledonia. The maximum age estimate obtained for K. breviceps
specimens stranded in New Zealand is 12.5GLGs for a female and 16+ for a male
(Tuohy et al., 2001).
Age determination in K. sima includes a study by Nagorsen and Stewart (1983),
who sectioned a tooth of a 230cm long female K. sima stranded on Vancouver Island,
which revealed 12+ “annuli”. Muñoz-Hincapié et al. (1998) report a stranding of a
238cm long K. sima in Colombia. Age determination revealed eight GLGs in the teeth
and the animal was found physically immature based on the lack of fusion of cranial
sutures, vertebrae and intervertebral discs. However, Valverde and Caminas (1996)
conclude that a 212cm long male K. sima from Spain was probably below one year of
age as they failed to see any GLGs in the teeth. This age estimate appears unrealistic
compared to the results of the present study and indicates that a suitable technique needs
to be found to illustrate the GLGs in the two species of Kogia.
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3.1.5 Length at birth and foetal growth rate

Estimates of birth size are valuable as they present the starting point for growth
curves (Perrin and Reilly, 1984). Length at birth has been reported for a number of
odontocete species (Fisher and Harrison, 1970; Perrin et al., 1976; Cockcroft and Ross,
1990; Aguilar, 1991; van Waerebeek and Read, 1994) and, in delphinids, ranges from
75cm for the tucuxi Sotalia fluviatilis to 276cm for the killer whale Orcinus orca (Perrin
and Reilly, 1984). Any mammalian species has a range of birth sizes (Frazer and
Huggett, 1973) and differences may occur between populations of the same species as
seen in different populations of harbour porpoises P. phocoena (Fisher and Harrison,
1970; Read and Gaskin, 1990; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994). The length of neonates in
cetaceans ranges between 20-50% of maximum adult length depending on the species,
with 25-30% in the mysticetes (Scott, 1949; Evans, 1987) and 40-48% in odontoctes
(Chivers, 2001). This is a higher percentage than for most terrestrial mammals and the
main reason for this may be that it presents a more favourable surface area-to-volume
ratio when the calf enters the cool aquatic environment (Evans, 1987). Odontocetes have
relatively large offspring in comparison with adult size and the size of newborns in
relation to adult body size tends to increase with decreasing adult size of the species
(Ohsumi, 1966; Ralls, 1976; Slooten, 1991). Scott (1949) reports a constant relationship
between neonatal length and maternal length for 10 cetacean species. Marine mammals
bear young which are much larger than the young of large terrestrial mammals, which
was thought to be a result of a prolonged gestation period, resulting in the young being
born in an advanced state of development (Laws, 1956). However, more recent studies
indicate that cetaceans differ from terrestrial mammals in that species differences in birth
size are achieved mainly by altering the rate of growth rather than the length of the
intrauterine phase (Bryden, 1972).
Prenatal growth is difficult to determine in cetaceans, because direct observations
are generally not possible (Laws, 1956). However, most foetal growth in mysticetes
occurs in the last two months of the pregnancy (Laws, 1959) In addition, growth rates for
mysticetes are higher than those for odontocetes (Huggett and Widdas, 1951; Laws,
1959; Frazer and Huggett, 1974). The generally higher foetal growth rates in cetaceans
compared to terrestrial mammals was thought to be a result of the increased size (and
thus higher volume to surface area ratio) at birth being advantageous in the aquatic
environment as well as the increased weight being supported by the aquatic medium
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(Frazer and Huggett, 1974).
3.1.6 Growth
Mammals have determinate growth, which means that the external form changes
continually during the period of growth and as soon as the form becomes constant,
growth ceases (Bryden, 1972). Physical maturity is thus defined as the point when all
vertebral epiphyses are fused to their respective vertebrae (Laws, 1956). Growth patterns
may vary among species depending on their life history and their environment (Case,
1978).
3.1.6.1 Growth rate
Much interspecific variability in growth rates can be observed in reptiles, birds

and mammals, even in species of similar adult size (Ricklefs, 1969; Case, 1978). Thus
no allometric relationship appears to exist between body size and growth rate, but it has
been suggested that different physiological constraints, like the evolution of endothermy,
have played a role in the variation of growth rates among animals as growth rates of
endotherms are on average an order of magnitude higher than those of ectotherms (Case,
1978).
The concept of growth rate is complex and a number of factors have been
suggested to influence growth rates in mammals. However, not all of these factors are
completely understood and little is known about their interrelationships. The metabolic
rate increases proportionally to body weight at roughly the same rate as the growth rate
(Ricklefs, 1969; Case, 1978) and thus the growth rate of mammals is thought to be
influenced or even set by the metabolic rate (McNab, 1980). Among mammals the
fastest growing species are found within the artiodactyls, perissodactyls, cetaceans,
pinnipeds, canids and lagomorphs (Case, 1978). Growth rates appear to be adapted to
certain environmental conditions such as infant mortality rates (resulting from predation
pressure) and food availability (Case, 1978). Mortality rates have been suggested to have
a strong influence on growth rate, because adaptations that reduce the period in which
the young are vulnerable due to exposure to the environment and predators (such as a
high growth rate) should strongly be favoured in evolution through increased survival of
the young (Ricklefs, 1969). A further advantage would be that rapid growth results in a
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shortened developmental period of the young and thus enables adults to reproduce more
often in a given time period (Ricklefs, 1969). Thus an increased growth rate could also
be regarded as resulting from high adult mortality rates.
Furthermore, fast growing mammals have relatively larger offspring and smaller
litter sizes, which may indicate that the selective forces influencing birth weight and
postnatal growth could be very similar (Case, 1978). A larger offspring is favoured when
infant mortality rates are high and resources are abundant and evenly distributed (Case,
1978). These two demographic and environmental factors appear to be associated with
rapid growth in many birds and mammals and usually the sex with the fastest growth
rate has the highest mortality rate (Case, 1978).
3.1.6.2 Growth in marine mammals
Bryden (1972b) gives a review of growth and development in marine mammals

in general as well as overviews by family. Whenever available, length-weight
relationships for the mysticetes are presented (Bryden, 1972). Although most mammals
have determinate growth, and the same was assumed for marine mammals in general and
cetaceans in particular (Bryden, 1972), recent results on the growth of the long-finned
pilot whales off the Faroese indicate that these animals may continue growing past the
stage previously taken as the asymptotic length (Bloch et al., 1993). However, these
results are closely related to the continuing problems encountered in the age
determination of cetaceans. In this respect, growth rates are still difficult to obtain for
mysticetes due to the continuing problems involved in the age determination of some
species (George et al., 1999). Early studies on growth using animals from commercial
whaling operations were hindered by the lack of age determination techniques, as one
needs to assess the age of individuals in order to determine growth rates (Laws, 1956).
Rapid growth during the early postnatal period is especially characteristic for
marine mammals (Laws, 1956; Bryden, 1972). The rapid growth of young during the
lactation period appears to be related to the very high fat and protein content of the
mother’s milk (Bryden, 1972). It is generally believed that both the fast increase in body
size, which will decrease the surface area to volume ratio, and the rapid growth of the
blubber layer both aid to conserve body heat and are adaptations to the aquatic life style
of cetaceans (Bryden, 1972). No difference in growth between the sexes is observed at
this stage.
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Both growth rates and age at sexual maturity in cetaceans vary within species
and appear to depend largely on the environment (Laws, 1956). In a number of species
larger body sizes and higher growth rates for certain schools or populations within a
species have been related to waters with greater productivity (Bryden, 1972; Read and
Gaskin, 1990; Bloch et al., 1993; Di-Méglio et al., 1996; Read and Tolley, 1997).
3.1.6.3 Size at attainment of sexual maturity (ASM)
The body size of marine mammals at sexual maturity appears large in

comparison with terrestrial mammals (Bryden, 1972). Laws (1956) determines that
sexual maturity occurs at 86% of maximum body size in marine mammals as opposed to
30% in most laboratory and farm mammals, probably in order to avoid competition for
nutrients between the mother and offspring.
While in many species growth appears to slow down with the onset of sexual
maturity (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Slooten, 1991; Kasuya and Tai, 1993), in some
species the male exhibits a so-called “secondary growth spurt” at this stage (Sergeant,
1962; Best, 1970; Kasuya et al., 1988a; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990). The earlier physical
maturation of female sperm whales P. macrocephalus (at 28-29yrs) compared to male
sperm whales (over 35yrs) appears to be a direct result of this accelerated growth of
males at puberty (Best, 1970). A secondary growth spurt is characteristic of males of
polygynous species, where there is a great difference in size between the sexes (Best,
1970).
The onset of physical maturity is when an organism has completed its growth
(Berzin, 1972). Growth comes to an end when ankylosis (=ossification) of the greater
part of the vertebral column ceases (Berzin, 1972). The length at physical maturity is
also often referred to as the asymptotic length and may vary between different
populations of a species, possibly depending on environmental factors, particularly
temperature (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990), or the social system (Tolley et al., 1995).
3.1.6.4. Growth models
A number of growth models have been used to describe growth in both

mammals in general and cetaceans in particular. The von Bertalanffy growth model has
been used extensively to describe both mysticete and odontocete growth and appears to
3-15
be the most frequent model used (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990; Bloch et al., 1993).
However, the Gompertz equation is also widely used (Perrin and Henderson, 1984) and
seems to describe phocoenid growth in particular very well (Read and Gaskin, 1990;
Hohn et al., 1996; Read and Tolley, 1997; Ferrero and Walker, 1999). The main
difference between the two models is the growth rate constant (k). The von Bertalanffy
function increases progressively more slowly as the asymptotic length is reached, while
the Gompertz function does not necessarily have its maximum growth rate at t0 (the age
corresponding to zero length), and thus can approximate more sigmoid patterns (Bloch et
al., 1993). Due to the confusion and difficulties with interspecific comparisons some
authors are now presenting results obtained from both models (Bloch et al., 1993).
3.1.7 Sexual dimorphism

A recent review on sexual dimorphism in marine mammals is given by Ralls and
Mesnick (2002) and covers the many forms of sexual dimorphism found in these
animals. For the purpose of brevity only sexual size dimorphism is reviewed here.
Sexual size dimorphism refers to the fact that one of the sexes of a species is
significantly larger in body size than the other. Most cetaceans lack secondary sexual
characters and their dimorphism is more commonly expressed by differences in size and
shape (Tolley et al., 1995). In the 13 species of mysticetes we can observe a so called
“reversed” sexual size dimorphism with the females attaining asymptotic lengths that are
on average 5% longer than males (Bryden, 1972; Ralls and Mesnick, 2002). It is thought
that due to the long migrations that these animals undertake, during which they do not
feed, females need to store additional energy due to the demands of pregnancy and
lactation in the form of blubber and thus gain larger body sizes (Ralls and Mesnick,
2002). In contrast, odontocetes appear to follow the general mammalian pattern of an
increase in sexual size dimorphism with larger body size (Tolley et al., 1995). Males are
longer than females in many species, the most pronounced dimorphism being seen in the
sperm whale P. macrocephalus, killer whale Orcinus orca, bottlenose whales (genus
Hyperoodon), narwhals Monodon monoceros, belugas Delphinapterus leucas and pilot
whales (genus Globicephala) (Sergeant, 1962; Bryden, 1972; Bloch et al., 1993; Ralls
and Mesnick, 2002). The sperm whale P. macrocephalus displays one of the most
extreme cases of sexual size dimorphism found among mammals with adult females
measuring up to 11 metres and weighing 15 tons, whereas males measure up to 16
3-16
metres and weigh up to 45 tons (Ralls and Mesnick, 2002). However, in most moderate
sized odontocetes the sexes are visually indistinguishable and only the size and shape of
the dorsal fin or the flukes may vary (Tolley et al., 1995; Ralls and Mesnick, 2002). In
the smallest odontocetes, such as the harbour porpoise P. phocoena, vaquita P. sinus, or
the Hector’dolphin C. hectori, the dimorphism is again reversed and females are larger
than males (Slooten, 1991; Tolley et al., 1995; Hohn et al., 1996). Some of these traits
may be important for females and their offspring as bigger females make better mothers
(Ralls, 1976; Ralls and Mesnick, 2002). Other dimorphic traits may reflect ecological
differences between the sexes, for example differences in beak length may reflect
differences in diet (Hersh and Duffield, 1990; Ralls and Mesnick, 2002).
Based on studies of terrestrial mammals the amount of sexual dimorphism
displayed by a species can be used as an indicator of the mating system: the greater the
amount of sexual dimorphism the bigger the deviation of the breeding system from
monogamy (Ralls and Mesnick, 2002). This has been shown to be true across pinniped
taxa and in highly polygynous species males were found to compete for access to
females (Ralls and Mesnick, 2002). However, species that lack sexual size dimorphism
do not necessarily lack competition among males for mates (Ralls and Mesnick, 2002).
Sexual size dimorphism and testis size in relation to the mating system in the two Kogia
species is discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.
In his review, Bryden (1972b) points out that growth, as he discusses it, is
measured in terms of linear dimensions, as it is easier to obtain data and compare them
between species. The difference in size between the sexes develops after the attainment
of sexual maturity (hereafter referred to as ASM) (Bryden, 1972). Before puberty the
two sexes of a species are generally the same length, but a growth spurt occurs in the
male between the attainment of sexual maturity and social maturity (which is the
beginning of reproductive activity) (Bryden, 1972). However, in some species females
attain sexual maturity at an earlier age and at a lesser length and mass than males
(Sergeant, 1962; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990), and males have higher growth rates after
sexual maturity (Sergeant, 1962) and a longer growth period, subsequently reaching their
asymptotic length later than females (Di-Méglio et al., 1996). In species where females
are larger than males this pattern appears to be reversed: males have slower growth rates
than females after sexual maturity (Anli and Kaiya, 1992) and females have a longer
growth period, attaining asymptotic length later than the males (Read and Tolley, 1997).
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3.1.8 Observations of morphological differences in appendage size

between K. breviceps and K. sima
As part of the examination of sexual size dimorphism in the two Kogia species
some interesting observations were made with respect to the size of their appendages,
which needed further examination. Although these are briefly discussed here, they are
elaborated on in more detail in Chapter 7 and 9 together with some other evidence that
aids in illuminating basic ecological differences between the two species.
According to the laws of scaling, smaller species are expected to have smaller
appendages and larger species are expected to have larger appendages in relation to their
body size. Cetaceans are no exception and thus harbour porpoises P. phocoena are
expected to have smaller dorsal and pectoral fins and flukes than, for example, killer
whales O. orca, and indeed they do. However, examination of some body measurements
in the two species of Kogia lead to the observation that not only the dorsal fin is larger in
the smaller of the two species, namely K. sima, but in addition the length and width of
the pectoral fins and the width of the flukes appear larger in K. sima than K. breviceps
(personal observation based on Ross’ 1979 measurements). This is contrary to what one
would expect in terms of scaling i.e. the larger animal should also have the larger
appendages to aid in manoeuvrability. In order to test whether K. breviceps has
proportionally larger appendages than K. sima measurements from Ross’ (1979) were re-
analysed.
3.1.9 Aim of the present chapter
The aim of this part of the study was not only to obtain age estimates for the
animals, but also to define a GLG in either species in order to help standardise age
estimation techniques for both Kogia species in the future. Growth curves were
established for both K. breviceps and K. sima and foetal and adult growth rates were
determined. Furthermore, parameters such as length at birth, length, age and body weight
at physical maturity, maximum body length, maximum body weight and longevity were
determined. Such basic life history parameters are necessary in establishing a picture of
the life history strategies employed by the two species (see Chapter 9). Length and age at
sexual maturity are determined in Chapter 4 (Male reproduction) and Chapter 5 (Female
reproduction) and are discussed again in Chapter 9. Data on sexual dimorphism in the
3-18
two species as well as morphological differences between the two Kogia species were
examined.
3.2 Materials and methods
3.2.1 Sample
Teeth of both K. breviceps and K. sima from the marine mammal collections of
the Port Elizabeth Museum, Port Elizabeth, and the South African Museum in Cape
Town were used for age determination (see Chapter 2, Appendix B). Teeth usually
originated from stranded animals and the normal procedure was to leave them to
macerate. As the teeth from the stranded specimens were collected by a number of
individuals with varying levels of experience the exact location in the tooth row from
which the teeth were taken and whether they were mandibular or maxillary (in the case
of K. sima) is not known. However, the largest tooth available was generally chosen for
age estimation to prevent underestimation of ages due to underdevelopment of the tooth.
As a rule only one tooth was used per animal for age determination. Teeth for sectioning
were selected on the basis of greatest size, least curving (in no more than one plane) and
least wear, although in some instances extensive wear was found in all teeth present.
In addition to the South African samples, teeth were also available for 27 K.
breviceps and one K. sima from Australia; these were included in the analyses (see
Appendix C).

Standard methods used for age determination in delphinids, such as
decalcification and etching with formic acid, proved to present unsatisfactory results in
Kogia. Oosthuizen and Bester (1997) got similarly poor results using thin sections of
decalcified teeth stained with haematoxylin for age determination of Cape fur seals
Arctocephalus pusillus pusillus. Thus the following method, which was used
successfully for Cape fur seals (Oosthuizen, 1997), was chosen. Due to the curvature of
Kogia teeth better results were obtained when teeth were ground down from either side
to the midline by hand (rather than embedded in resin and sectioned). The teeth were
initially ground down to yield a final 300µm thick section along the midline. A Buehler
3-19
“Isomet” low speed saw was used for grinding. The saw blade was replaced with an
aluminium disc onto which disposable discs of waterproof silicon carbide paper were
clamped. The catch container of the saw was filled with water through which the water
paper rotated at controlled speed. The initial grind down to a thickness of 1300µm was
done using coarse water paper with a grit size of P120. Then finer water paper with a grit
size of P320 was used to grind the sections down to 500µm. Finally, water paper with a
grit size of P400 was used to grind the sections down by hand to a thickness of 300µm.
Ground sections were stored in absolute alcohol overnight, cleared in xylene for
five minutes and mounted on slides using DPX mounting medium. A binocular
microscope with transmitted, polarized light was used to examine the sections. The use
of the polarizing light microscope assists in overcoming some of the difficulties in
distinguishing any regular layering by expressing structural and histological differences
as highly contrasted patterns of light. (i.e. different colours or shades) (Myrick, 1980).
K. breviceps teeth were examined at 6x magnification and K. sima teeth at 12x
magnification due to the different sizes of the teeth. Dentinal layers were read as
complete GLGs plus an increment consisting of the last incomplete layer. In order to
calculate the increment, measurements of the last complete GLG were done using a
micrometer under 12x magnification in K. breviceps and 25x magnification in K. sima
and the increment was calculated as a percentage of the last complete GLG. Cemental
GLGs were read at a magnification of 40x.
Although some Kogia teeth showed either extensive wear at the tip or
osteodentine formation they were still included in the analysis as small sample sizes
prevented exclusion of the material. However, in future analyses such teeth should be
excluded if possible in order to obtain better age estimates. Age estimation for teeth with
osteodentine formation was attempted by measuring the length of the part of the tooth
occupied by secondary dentine. The mean width of the last three complete GLGs prior to
osteodentine formation was taken as an estimate of the mean GLG width and the area
(length) of osteodentine then could be divided by the mean GLG width to give an
estimate of the number of GLGs occupied by the osteodentine. In addition, counts of
cemental GLGs were also carried out in those teeth. No estimation could be made for the
amount of tooth wear that had occurred, but cemental layer counts possibly provided a
good estimation of the age of these animals. Similarly, for specimens with a closed pulp
cavity age was estimated from the layers in the cementum.
In order to obtain age estimates for animals that had less than one GLG present
3-20
in the dentine, the average width of the first GLG was determined from animals between
one and two years of age. Then the increment of dentine laid down after the neonatal line
was measured and used to calculate the age as a percentage of an average GLG.
The teeth were read five times by each of two independent observers and the
trimmed mean values of both dentine and cementum readings were calculated. Only
estimates within 15% of each other were used (others were neglected). If no clear
neonatal line was visible due to tooth wear, the first layer was taken as the first GLG.
Cemental layers were only read by a second observer (Herman Oosthuizen) when
osteodentine was present. In these cases the cemental readings were used as age
estimates.
If GLG counts were not within 15% of each other revised counts were carried
out by the two observers and an agreement on the age estimate was reached. Estimates
were made without any reference to body parameters, such as body length, which could
have influenced the counts.
Two methods for age estimation were examined. Method 1 examined the
correlation between cemental and dentinal readings where only complete GLGs were
counted. Method 2 examined the correlation between cemental readings and complete
GLGs plus an increment. The increment was composed of the dentine laid down after
the last complete GLG, calculated as a percentage of the last complete GLG. In teeth
where the pulp cavity was closed the cemental reading was taken as an estimate of age.
The percentage closure of the pulp cavity was calculated by measuring the length of the
open pulp cavity as a percentage of the total length of the tooth. For this exercise only
animals with pulp cavities that appeared just closed were included; no animals with
extensive osteodentine were included.
There is to date no calibration of GLGs available for either Kogia species and for
this reason it has been assumed that the deposition rate of dentinal GLGs is the same as
that found in all other odontocetes for which calibration has been carried out: one GLG
per year. Therefore GLGs and years may be used interchangeably in the rest of the
study. However, it has to be kept in mind that this is only an assumption and the results
can only be treated as estimates until calibration of the deposition rate of dentinal GLGs
is possible in this species.
3-21
3.2.3 Growth curves

In order to obtain growth curves for either species, the estimated ages of the
animals were plotted against the body length. The computer package ‘PC-Yield II’,
Version 2.2 (Punt, 1992) was used to establish which growth equation gave the best fit
for the data. The growth model was used to provide data on asymptotic length (or length
at physical maturity) and age.
3.3 Results

Figure 3.1 shows the longitudinal section of a K. breviceps tooth viewed under
translucent, polarized light. The bars on the photograph indicate the neonatal line as well
as five GLGs present. The neonatal line in teeth of the two species of Kogia is clearly
distinguishable from the rather “fuzzy” appearance of the prenatal dentine. In
comparison, the postnatal dentine is more layered in structure. Since the GLGs in the
dentine vary in colour and brightness with the rotation of the polarizing filter it is
difficult to define a GLG in Kogia when using this technique. In general, GLGs were
composed of a broad opaque band and a narrow translucent band. Kogia teeth show
quite conspicuous accessory layers as opposed to the teeth of dolphins, which have finer
accessory layers. As a result the width of a clear GLG was used as a guideline to identify
other GLGs in the same tooth. In order to become familiar with the pattern, teeth were
viewed whole under the dissecting microscope and scanned a number of times before
counting commenced. Although GLGs have not been calibrated in either species of
Kogia it is assumed that one GLG is laid down per year as this was found to be the case
in all other odontocete species for which calibration of GLGs have been carried out.
Although 90 K. breviceps and 48 K. sima teeth were available for age
determination purposes, nine K. breviceps and three K. sima teeth had to be discarded.
This was due to either bad sections or the presence of extensive osteodentine, both
preventing clear readings, or because the two independent observers could not agree on
an age estimate for the individual. As a result 80 K. breviceps and 45 K. sima teeth were
used in the age determination.
3-22
Figure 3.1: Longitudinal section of a Kogia breviceps tooth viewed under translucent
and polarized light (magnification: x12). The bars on the photograph indicate the
neonatal line (N) as well as the five GLGs (1 to 5, respectively). The animal was
estimated to be five years old.
3-23
As adult Kogia teeth are curved it appeared that the side of the tooth with less
curvature (i.e. the one that would have been facing the outside rather than towards the
inside of the mouth) was easier to read than the other. This may be a result of the fact
that GLGs appeared more spaced out on that side and were thus easier to identify. In
young animals the teeth are still rather straight, much like those of delphinids and there
appears to be no difference in GLG layering between the outside and inside of the tooth.
The neonatal line and other laminae in the teeth of K. sima appeared fainter than
in K. breviceps, which together with its smaller size made teeth of K. sima more difficult
to read than those of K. breviceps.
Contrary to other reports on the two Kogia species an enamel cap was found in
some of the teeth of younger animals. Interestingly, this was only observed in one K.
sima from South Africa (South African Museum (SAM) specimen 76/09), which had
two GLGs present in the dentine. However, this phenomenon appeared to be more
common in the Australian specimens. An enamel cap was found in two Australian K.
breviceps female specimens (Australian Museum (AM) specimen M 25869 and
Queensland Museum (QM) specimen JM 11587), which showed 0.37 and 0.18GLGs,
respectively (L: 160cm and 157cm, respectively). In two Australian K. breviceps males
the enamel cap was partly worn away (South Australian Museum (SAUSM) specimens
M 6156 and M 6257); these animals showed 0.92 and 0. 69GLGs, the former measuring
172cm while for the latter no length data were available. Thus it appears that by
approximately one year of age the enamel cap is worn away. One K. sima from Australia
(Western Australian Museum (WAM) specimen M 4519) showed an enamel cap with a
GLG reading of eight (L: 216cm); however, in comparison with other animals of similar
age this appears to be an outlier.
In general the tooth sections obtained from the Australian specimens were much
more readable as the GLGs appeared much clearer and more distinct. The reason for this
is unclear; possible explanations may be a difference in overall condition between the
Australian and South African population, possibly as a direct result from differences in
diet. Another possibility may be different methods in the storage of the teeth.
Little holes in the dentine were observed in two adult male Australian K.
breviceps specimens (Museum of Victoria (MOV) specimens C24972 and C24976).
These may either be a result of a tooth disease or mineralization anomalies as described
by Lockyer for pilot whales (Lockyer, 1993). It is intriguing that both animals originate
from the same geographical area. Mineralization anomalies have previously been linked
3-24
to a number of stress factors, including sexual maturation, pregnancy and/or parturition,

periods of starvation or nutritional stress and changes in health and lifestyle (from free-
living to captive) (Lockyer, 1993). However, which factors caused the anomalies in the
teeth of the two Kogia species cannot be discerned from the information at hand.
Table 3.1 shows the measurements obtained for the mean width of the first GLG
for animals between one and two GLGs. The mean was then used to calculate an age
estimate for animals, which had less than one GLG, present in their dentine.
Table 3.1: Width of the first GLG for Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima between one
and two GLGs.
PEM/SAM # estimated age width of first
GLG (µm)
Kogia breviceps N854 1.00 500
76/17 1.17 666
76/24 1.25 625
N1863 1.25 666
N177 1.33 583
76/19 1.5 666
86/22 1.6 666
84/26 1.67 541
93/14 1.71 500
x =601.44
Kogia sima N228 1.4 541
- 1.67 500
N2041 1.73 541
N236 1.92 500
x =520.5
PEM= Port Elizabeth Museum, Port Elizabeth Museum
SAM= South African Museum, Cape Town
K. breviceps
Figure 3.2 shows the results of methods 1 and 2 for K. breviceps. Correlation
coefficients for both the South African (method 1: r2=0.89; method 2: r2= 0.90) and the
Australian (method 1: r2=0.86; method 2: r2=0.88) specimens were high, indicating a
good correlation between cemental and dentinal age estimates. This indicates that age
estimations from cemental layers may prove useful in cases where the pulp cavity is
closed and osteodentine prevents reading of dentinal GLGs. However, the correlation
coefficients for both groups were higher for method 2, indicating perhaps a slightly
3-25
Method 1:
25
20
(complete GLGs)
15
Dentine
10
South African specimen
2
(n=54; r = 0.89)
5
Australian specimen
(n=27; r2=0.86)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cementum
Method 2:
25
(complete GLGs + increment)
20
15
Dentine
10
5 (n=54; r2=0.90)
Australian specimen
(n=27; r2=0.88)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cementum
Figure 3.2: Results for the two different reading methods of teeth
for Kogia breviceps. Method 1: Correlation between cemental and
dentinal readings consisting of only complete GLGs.
Method 2: Correlation between cemental readings and dentinal
readings consisting of complete GLGs plus an increment of the
last incomplete layer.
3-26
a)
100
Closure of pulp cavity (%)
80
60
40
20 (n=60)
Australian specimen
(n=23)
0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Body length (cm)
b)
100
80
60
40
20 (n=62)
Australian specimen
(n=28)
0
0 10 20 30
Estimated age
(GLGs)
Figure 3.3: Closure of pulp cavity in relation to body

length (a) and estimated age (b) in Kogia breviceps.
3-27
better method for age determination. Therefore only the results from method 2, which is
the dentinal age estimate including the last incomplete layer, are subsequently used. In
addition, they are hereafter only referred to as GLGs.
A Mann-Whitney-U test between the age estimates from Ross’ 1979 study and
the ones from the present study (Table 3.2) indicated that there was no significant
difference between the two sets of age estimates (p=0.856).
Table 3.2: Comparison of Ross’ (1979) results from age determination of

Kogia breviceps with the results from the present study.
old PEM/ELM/ Length of Ross’ estimate Present study
SAM # animal (cm) (GLGs + (GLGs +
(current number) increment) increment)
SAM 35550 (68/13) 194.5 0.75 0.71
PEM 1517/92 (N179) 197 1 -
PEM 1517/90 (N177) 202 1.5 1.33
PEM 1511/10 (N40) 211 1 -
PEM 1519/12 (N225) 234 2.25 2.5
SAM 36980 (74/08) 236 2.75 2.75
SAM 35522 (66/08) 266.5 4.75 5
PEM 1511/13 (N42) 270 4 5
ELM 674 (N424) 275 12.75 12
PEM 1517/28 (N152) 289.5 9* -
SAM 35795 (69/15) 305 7 6.97
PEM 1516/48 (N138) 305 8.5 9
PEM 1517/89 (N176) 305.5 11.5 9.69
PEM 1517/91 (N178) 309.5 17.75* 15.5
PEM 1516/08 (N132) 325 10+ -
NB: Ross gave a range for the completion of the last layer in %; only the lower point
of the range is used here as decimal values.
PEM= Port Elizabeth Museum, Port Elizabeth
ELM= East London Museum, East London
SAM= South African Museum, Cape Town
*
=Ross indicated some doubt in these results in his 1979 publication.
An attempt was made to plot the width of the increment versus the month in
which the animal died in order to determine any seasonal pattern in the deposition of
layers, however, no clear trend was visible.
There was high variation in the closure of the pulp cavity (in %) in relation to
3-28
body length and estimated age in K. breviceps (Figure 3.3). The pulp cavity was 100%
closed in animals ranging in length between 288cm and 321cm in South African K.
breviceps, which is in agreement with the data from one Australian specimen with a
closed pulp cavity, measuring 323cm in length (Figure 3.3a). In relation to age, the pulp
cavity in K. breviceps became occluded as early as 14GLGs in South African specimens,
although other animals with occluded pulp cavities were 19, 21 and 22 years old (Figure
3.3b). The Australian specimen with an occluded pulp cavity had a GLG reading of
12.56.
K. sima
In contrast to the results for K. breviceps, the results for K. sima were slightly
better for method 1 (r2=0.74) than method 2 (r2=73) (Figure 3.4). The lower correlation
coefficient compared to K. breviceps indicates that cemental readings may not be as
reliable in K. sima as they are for K. breviceps. Overall there appears to be little
difference between method 1 and 2, but method 2 has been used for the following
analyses.
Body length and age at occlusion of the pulp cavity was similarly variable in K.
sima as in K. breviceps (Figure 3.5). The shortest animal with an occluded pulp cavity
measured 196cm in length, while most other animals with closed pulp cavities ranged
between 254 and 256cm (Figure 3.5a). While there were three animals with estimated
ages of three, five and seven years, respectively, with occluded pulp cavities, the oldest
animal in the sample, a 21.5yr old female, had a pulp cavity that was only 83.8% closed
(Figure 3.5b). While this animal may represent an outlier, two other animals, a 14yr old
female and a 13yr old male, had pulp cavities that were 96.7% and 84.3% occluded,
respectively. Thus it appears that the pulp cavity closes between 11.83 and 17, which are
the ages estimated for the remaining individuals with occluded pulp cavities (Figure
3.5b).
3-29
Method 1:
25
20
(complete GLGs)
15
Dentine
10
5 (n=41; r2=0.74)
Australian specimen
(n=1)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cementum
Method 2:
25
(complete GLGs + increment)
20
15
Dentine
10
5 (n=41; r2=0.73)
Australian specimen
(n=1)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Cementum
Figure 3.4: Results for the two different reading methods of teeth
for Kogia sima. Method 1: Correlation between cemental and dentinal
readings consisting of only complete GLGs.
Method 2: Correlation between cemental readings and dentinal
readings consisting of complete GLGs plus an increment of the
last incomplete layer.
3-30
a)
100
80
60
40
20 (n=47)
Australian specimen
(n=1)
0
100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
Body length (cm)
b)
100
80
60
40
20 (n=48)
Australian specimen
(n=1)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Age estimate
(GLGs)
Figure 3.5: Closure of pulp cavity in relation to body length (a)

and estimated age (b) in Kogia sima.
3-31
3.3.2 Growth
After trying several growth models it was found that the von Bertalanffy
equation gave the best fit for the data based on the smallest residual sums of squares
values. The von Bertalanffy equation describes the growth curve as follows:
l (t ) = Linf (1 − e − k ( t − t0 ) ) p
where:
Linf is the asymptotic length or mass
k is the constant of metabolism or growth constant
t 0 is the age corresponding to zero length
p is the power constant
Table 3.3 provides a summary of the main parameters obtained from the von
Bertalanffy growth model for males and females of K. breviceps and K. sima.
Table 3.3: Parameters derived from a von Bertalanffy growth equation for male and
female Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima.
Males Females
K. breviceps Parameter
Length Mass (kg) Length Mass (kg)
(cm) (cm)
L1 147 69 184 158.76
L2 304 374.03 324 480
t0 -16.09 -0.76 0.33 1.56
Linf 286.03 412.11 306.04 536.31
k 0.44 0.17 0.199 0.02
Lt 0 142.6 52.84 120 52.8
n 25 14 29 8
L1 103 14.5 181 31.5
K. sima L2 260.4 303 264 264
t0 -4.39 -30.31 -0.39 -1.43
Linf 263.75 294.89 249.14 208.74
k 0.34 0.25 0.15 0.49
Lt 0 106.51 57.41 103 30.71
n 21 13 23 13
L1 = Smallest length or mass in the sample
L2 = Largest length or mass in the sample
t 0 = Age corresponding to zero length or weight
Linf = Asymptotic length or mass
k = Constant of catabolism (or growth constant)
Lt 0 = Estimated length or mass at birth
n = Sample size
3-32
K. breviceps
For K. breviceps von Bertalanffy growth curves were fitted to the length-at-age
data for males and females separately (Figure 3.6). Animals of unknown sex and
Australian specimens were plotted into the same graph, but not included in the
calculations for the growth curves. Individuals were considered physically mature if they
had a standard length equal to or greater than the asymptotic value generated by the von
Bertalanffy equation. The curve estimates the length at birth to be at 120cm for females
and 142.6cm for males. The latter may be quite an overestimate, resulting from the fact
that only larger calves were available for males. The longest foetus measured 113cm,
whereas the shortest calf measured 147cm with an estimated age of 0.57GLGs (see also
Figure 5.4, Chapter 5). The data were too scanty to calculate foetal growth rates or
conception dates using the Huggett and Widdas method (1951). However, Scott (1949)
developed an equation describing the relationship between the maximum body length of
adult animals (both males and females) (x in cm) and neonatal length (y in cm) for both
mysticetes and odontocetes. His equation: y=0.2411x + 44.3 would predict a neonatal
length of 123.63cm for K. breviceps, using a mean maximum body length of 329.05cm
for both sexes in this study (calculated as the mean of the maximum body length
recorded for each sex; see below). This agrees well with the estimated length at birth of
120cm for the present study.
In order to determine foetal growth rates Kasuya’s (1977) equation describing
the relationship between neonatal length (x in cm) and daily foetal growth rate for the
linear part of the foetal growth phase (y in cm/day) for several Delphinid species was
used. The formula is as follows: y=0.001462x + 0.1622. Using 120cm as length at birth
in K. breviceps the foetal growth rate is 0.338cm per day.
The asymptotic length for K. breviceps females was calculated as 306.04cm
(r2=0.81) by the growth model and for males as 286.08cm (r2=0.84) (Figure 3.6). It is
difficult to discern whether this result reflects true sexual size dimorphism in K.
breviceps or is a result of the skewed sample for this species (see Chapter 2). However, it
appears that both sexes reach physical maturity at about the same age of 15 years.
The longest female K. breviceps in the sample measured 327.6cm and the longest
male 330.5cm. The oldest female K. breviceps in the sample was estimated to be 22.4
years old. The oldest K. breviceps male from South Africa was estimated to be 13.33
years old and the oldest Australian male was 16 years old. However, an animal of
3-33
unknown sex (SAM specimen 87/10), which was possibly male according to the data
sheet, was estimated to be 19 years old. This may indicate that the life expectancy may
actually lie between 16 and 23 years in K. breviceps.
Only a reduced number of samples had details on the body weight of the animals
(see Appendix B), which is probably due to the logistical problems encountered when
wanting to weigh an animal the size of K. breviceps. However, a regression of body
length on body weight for the 19 males and 13 females for which data were available
yielded a good correlation of 0.91 and 0.96, respectively (Figure 3.7a). Although a
smaller sample of animals with body length and age estimate data was available for the
females than the males, a von Bertalanffy growth model could only be fitted to the
female data due to the distribution of the sample (Figure 3.7b). The model estimated the
weight at birth as 52.8kg and the asymptotic weight at 536.3kg (r2=0.94), although the
latter might be an overestimate as no clear asymptote was reached. For males the weight
at birth was again estimated at 52.84kg, but the asymptotic weight was estimated at
412.11kg (r2=0.83). The longest foetus weighed 23kg, whereas the shortest calf weighed
69kg and had an age estimate of 0.57GLGs (see also Figure 5.4, Chapter 5). In this
respect the birth weight estimate of around 53kg for both sexes calculated by the model
appears to fit in well with the available data.
The heaviest females in the sample were 320cm and 321cm in length, with no
age estimate and an estimate of 19GLGs, respectively, and both weighed 480kg. For the
males the heaviest animal had an age estimate of 13.33, measured 276cm and weighed
374.03kg.
3-34
340
320
300
280
260
Body length (cm)
240
220
200
180 Females (n= 29)

r2=0.81
160
Males (n=25)
r2=0.84
140
Unknown sex (n=6)
120 Australian females (n=11)
Australian males (n=9)
100
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age estimate
(GLGs)
Figure 3.6: Von Bertalanffy growth curve for Kogia breviceps.

The solid line shows the fit for females, the dotted line for males.
Australian specimens and animals of unknown sex were not
included in these calculations, but plotted afterwards.
Filled symbols represent specimen for which cemental readings
were used as an age estimate.
3-35
a)
3
Males (n=19)
r2=0.91
Log10 body weight (kg)
Females (n=13)
r2= 0.96
1
1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Log10 body length (cm)
b)
600
Males (n=14)
500
Body weight (kg)
400
300
200
100
Females (n=8)
r2=0.94
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age estimate
(GLGs)
Figure 3.7: Body length (a) and age (b) in relation to body weight in
Kogia breviceps. Filled symbols represent specimens for
which cemental readigs were used as an age estimate.
A von Bertalanffy growth curve could only be fitted to the female
data (b).
3-36
K. sima
The von Bertalanffy growth curves fitted to the length-at-age data for K. sima
males and females are shown in Figure 3.8. In this species the intercept with the y-axis,
representing size at birth, was estimated to be at 106.52cm for females and 103cm for
males by the growth model. Both estimates appear realistic as the longest foetus
measured 108cm, while the two shortest calves measured 103cm and 103.5cm (see also
Figure 5.8, Chapter 5). The 103cm long calf had a GLG reading of zero. This indicates
that birth occurs between 103cm and 108cm. The data were too scanty to calculate foetal
growth rates or conception dates using the Huggett and Widdas method (1951).
However, using Scott’s (1949) equation and a mean maximum adult length of 267.35cm
for both sexes of K. sima in the present study (calculated as the mean of the maximum
body length recorded for each sex; see below), a neonatal length of 108.75cm can be
calculated. This is somewhat longer than the 103cm estimated from the lengths of
foetuses and calves. In addition, Kasuya’s (1977) formula gave a foetal growth rate of
0.313 cm/day, based on a length at birth of 103cm in K. sima.
The asymptotic length calculated by the growth model is reached at 249.14cm in
K. sima females (r2=0.9), while the males appear to reach physical maturity at a slightly
larger body size of 263.75cm (r2=0.84) (Figure 3.8, Table 3.3). This corresponds to 13
and 16 years of age for females and males, respectively.
The longest animal in the sample was a 274.3cm long female with no age
estimate. The longest female for which the age could be determined measured 264cm
and for male K. sima the longest animal measured 260.4cm. The oldest female was 21.5
years and the oldest male was estimated to be 17 years old. These data indicate a life
expectancy of 17-22 years in K. sima.
As for K. breviceps, only a few specimens of K. sima had accompanying data on
body weight (see Appendix B). The regression of body length on body weight gave a
similarly good regression coefficient for both sexes (r2=0.95 and 0.96 for males and
females, respectively) (Figure 3.9a). The von Bertalanffy model calculated weight at
birth at 30.71kg for female K. sima and the asymptotic weight at 208.7kg (r2=0.92)
(Figure 3.9b, Table 3.3). For males the model calculated weight at birth at 57.41kg and
the asymptotic weight at 294.9kg (r2=0.88) (Figure 3.9b, Table 3.3). However, as the
growth curve for the male data does not reach a plateau this may be a substantial
overestimate. The longest foetus present in the sample weighed 12.98kg, while the two
3-37
shortest calves weighed 31.5kg and 14.5kg (see also Figure 5.8, Chapter 5). Thus birth
weight probably lies between 13kg and 15kg in this species. The GLG reading of the calf
weighing 31.5kg was 0, indicating that it was a neonate and possibly only a few weeks
old, but weight increases rapidly after birth.
The heaviest female in the sample was a 9.8year old animal, measuring 264cm
with a weight of 264kg (Figure 3.9b, Table 3.3). The heaviest male was estimated to be
16 years old, measured 256cm in body length and weighed 303kg (Figure 3.9b, Table
3.3).
3.3.2.1 Comparison with other species
In order to compare the data obtained from the growth curves for both Kogia
species Table 3.4 lists growth rate constants (k) for both the Gompertz and the von
Bertalanffy model for other cetaceans found in the literature. Most studies of growth in
odontocetes appear to use the Gompertz model and thus the growth rate constants (k) for
males and females from different odontocete species were plotted (Figure 3.10). While
the data do not have a good regression coefficient (r2=0.62 for females and 0.45 for
males), a general trend of higher growth rate constants in smaller species can be
observed. For both males and females the data for K. breviceps appear to fit in better
with the general trend observed in odontocetes than the data for K. sima (Figure 3.10).
While female K. sima have a higher growth rate constant than female K. breviceps, this
trend is not visible in the males (Figure 3.10). Compared to another odontocete of similar
body length, the bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus, the growth constants for both male K.
breviceps and female K. sima are remarkably higher (Figure 3.10, Table 3.4).
3-38
280
260
240
220
Body length (cm)
200
180
160
140
Females (n=23)
120 r2=0.9
Males (n=21)
r2=0.84
100 Australian female (n=1)
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age estimate
(GLGs)
Figure 3.8: Von Bertalanffy growth curve for Kogia sima. The solid
line shows the fit for females, the dotted for males. The Australian
female was not included in these calculations.
The filled symbol represents a specimen for which cemental
readings were used as an age estimate.
3-39
a)
3
Males (n=19)
r2=0.95
Log10 body weight (kg)
Females (n=21)
r2=0.96
1
1.9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.4 2.5
Log10 body length (cm)
b)
350
Males (n=13)
300 r2=0.88
250
Body weight (kg)
200
150
100
50 Females (n=13)
r2=0.92
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age estimate
(GLGs)
Figure 3.9: Body length (a) and age (b) in relation to body weight
in Kogia sima. The solid line shows the fit of the von Bertalanffy
model for females, the dotted line for males.
3-40
a)
1.2
Females
r2=0.62
1.0
Growth rate constant (k)
0.8 P. sinus
S. coeruleoalba
0.6
P. phocoena K. sima
P. dalli Phocoenidae
0.4
River dolphins
T. truncatus K. breviceps Delphinidae
0.2 G. melas
Kogiidae
100 200 300 400 500 600 700

Maximum recorded body length (cm)
b)
1.2
Males
r2=0.45
1.0 P. sinus
Growth rate constant (k)
0.8
P. phocoena
0.6 S. coeruleoalba
P.
blainvillei
0.4 P. dalli K. breviceps
0.2 K.sima
T. truncatus
G. melas
0.0
100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Maximum recorded body length (cm)
Figure 3.10: Body length versus growth rate constants (k) obtained from
Gompertz growth models for different species of odontocetes.
Data are from Ferrero and Walker, 1999; Read and Tolley, 1997;
Di-Méglio et al., 1996; Hohn et al., 1996; Read et al., 1993;
Kasuya and Brownell, 1979.
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Table 3.4: Growth rate constants (k) for different species of cetaceans (for length-age
relationships).
Species Growth rate Model used Reference
constant (k)
Males Females
Vaquita 1.00 0.83 Gompertz Hohn et al.,
Phocoena sinus 1996
Dall’s porpoise 0.48 0.48 Gompertz Ferrero and
Phocoenoides dalli Walker, 1999
Harbour porpoise 0.6 0.5 Gompertz Read and
Phocoena phocoena Tolley, 1997
Phocoena phocoena Gaskin, 1990
Phocoena phocoena Gaskin, 1990
Franciscana 0.56 - Gompertz Kasuya and
Pontoporia blainvillei Brownell, 1979
Striped dolphin 0.51 0.64 Gompertz Di-Méglio et
Stenella coeruleoalba al., 1996
Striped dolphin 0.65 0.38 Gompertz Di-Méglio et
Stenella coeruleoalba al., 1996
Bottlenose dolphin 0.16 0.31 Gompertz Read et al.,
Tursiops truncatus 1993
Bottlenose dolphin 0.09 0.17 v. Bertalanffy Cockcroft and
Tursiops truncatus Ross, 1990
Dwarf sperm whale 0.15 0.34 v. Bertalanffy present study
Kogia sima
Dwarf sperm whale 0.19 0.58 Gompertz present study
Kogia sima
Pygmy sperm whale 0.44 0.20 v. Bertalanffy present study
Kogia breviceps
Pygmy sperm whale 0.44 0.33 Gompertz present study
Kogia breviceps
Long-finned pilot whale 0.13 0.20 Gompertz Bloch et al.,
Globicephala melas 1993
Long-finned pilot whale 0.07 0.04 v. Bertalanffy Bloch et al.,
Globicephala melas 1993
Baird’s beaked whale 0.56 0.54 v. Bertalanffy Kasuya, 1977
Berardius bairdii
Minke whale 0.18 0.22 v. Bertalanffy Masaki, 1979
Balaenoptera
acutorostrata
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Minke whale - 0.20 v. Bertalanffy Lockyer, 1981

Balaenoptera
acutorostrata
Minke whale - 0.25 v. Bertalanffy Mitchell and
Balaenoptera Kozicki, 1975
acutorostrata
Humpback whale 0.23 0.21 v. Bertalanffy Chittleborough,
Megaptera novaeangliae 1965
Fin whale - 0.1-0.13 v. Bertalanffy Mitchell and
Balaenoptera physalus Kozicki, 1975
3.3.3 Sexual size dimorphism

Table 3.5 gives a summary for length and age at both sexual (see Chapters 4 and
5 for details) and physical maturity for K. breviceps and K. sima. These data show that in
K. breviceps age at ASM and age at physical maturity is the same between the two sexes.
In contrast, length at both sexual and physical maturity is shorter in males than in
females. Although this result may again reflect the skewed sample towards younger
males (see Chapter 2) in this species one would expect to see that reflected in the age as
well. Thus these results would indicate that females are larger in body size than males in
K. breviceps.
A different pattern can be seen in K. sima, where females are both older and
longer at ASM, but males “overtake” them and are older and longer at physical maturity.
This a pattern commonly observed in odontocetes species in which males are larger than
the females. Both the later attainment of age and length at physical maturity are
indicators for sexual dimorphism in this species.
Although a series of measurements such as maximum girth, maximum length of
pectoral fins and maximum width of flukes are available in the datasheets for both K.
breviceps and K. sima (Ross, 1979), the majority of these measurements are from
physically immature specimens. Therefore an analysis of sexual size dimorphism
between the sexes of either species was not possible. Although some results of the
growth analysis appear to indicate that females may be larger in K. breviceps and males
in K. sima, these data would need to be supported with a more detailed analysis of sexual
size dimorphism. This highlights the importance of detailed measurements of body
dimensions to be taken from specimens in the future, in particular physically mature
ones.
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Table 3.5: Length and age at sexual and physical maturity for Kogia breviceps and
Kogia sima.
K. breviceps K. sima
Length at sexual Females 262 215
maturity (cm) Males 242 197
Age at sexual Females ~5 ~5
maturity (GLGs) Males 2.5-5 2.55-3
Length at physical Females 306 249.1
maturity (cm) Males 286 263.8
Age at physical Females 15 13
maturity (GLGs) Males 15 16
3.3.4 Morphological differences between K. breviceps and K. sima

As the lack of body measurements for physically mature specimens of either
Kogia species also affects the determination of differences in the size of appendages
between the two species, no definite conclusion can be drawn here. However,
considering Ross’ 1979 results (1979), the length ( x =10.0 in K. breviceps, x =14.7 in K.
sima) and height ( x =3.6 in K. breviceps, x =7.5 in K. sima) of the dorsal fin, flipper
length ( x =13.9 in K. breviceps, x =15 in K. sima) and the width of the flukes ( x =23.8
in K. breviceps, x =26.1 in K. sima) are larger in K. sima than K. breviceps
(measurements are percentages of body length). Although there is some overlap between
the two species the means for these body measurements are consistently larger in K.
sima. This may be a good indication that appendages such as pectoral fins, dorsal fin and
flukes are larger in K. sima than K. breviceps. However, again more detailed
measurements need to be taken for physically mature specimens in order to test this in
more detail in the future.
3.4 Discussion
3.4.1 Tooth morphology and age determination

3.4.1.1 Tooth morphology and histology
The general description of the histology of longitudinal sections of K. breviceps

teeth is in agreement with Ross’ (1979) results. The prenatal dentine is easily
distinguishable from the postnatal dentine by a clear, narrow neonatal line. In addition,
the growth layers in the dentine can be distinguished into GLGs. However, it appears
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that the present technique may give a better resolution than the one employed by Ross
(1979). His sections were of the same thickness or thinner (200µm) than the ones in the
present study (300µm). Grinding down the teeth to very thin sections may have resulted
in loss of resolution and hence inability to distinguish between laminae as he mentioned
in his work. In addition, the use of polarized light in the present study appears to improve
the resolution of the laminae significantly. A similar result is presented for Cape fur seal
A. pusillus pusillus teeth (Oosthuizen, 1997). This technique uses the refractional
properties of the apatite crystals in the teeth of these animals and thus enables distinction
between layers, which would not be possible with normal light microscopy. However,
the reason why results with stains such as haematoxylin (present study) or toluene blue
(as employed by Ross (1979)) did not yield good results for teeth of either Kogia species
is unclear.
Contrary to Ross’ findings (1979) an enamel cap was found in some young
animals in the present study. All of the K. breviceps with an enamel cap were below one
year of age and originated from Australia, indicating that perhaps the presence of an
enamel cap may be more prevalent in Australian K. breviceps. For K. sima an enamel
cap was found for a South African specimen with two GLGs; the age estimate of eight
GLGs for the K. sima from Australia, which had an enamel cap is considered to be an
overestimate. This indicates that something causes wear or grinding down of the teeth
and thus loss of the enamel cap in older animals, which is supported by the worn tooth
tips found in many adult animals of either species of Kogia. In addition, the diet or
environmental conditions to which the Australian animals were exposed may result not
only in a clearer GLG pattern in the teeth, but also facilitate the formation of an enamel
cap.
The high degree of tooth wear found in the two Kogia species is puzzling. It is
unlikely that this would result from feeding as cephalopods are relatively soft and would
not cause increased abrasion of the teeth (see Chapter 6). Furthermore, the redundancy of
teeth in teuthophagous odontocetes and subsequent reduction in the number of teeth
would suggest that they are not used excessively (Heyning and Mead, 1996; MacLeod,
1998). Thus the extensive wear of teeth in the two Kogia species may have an
alternative, as yet unknown origin. Tooth wear may vary between individuals, especially
between sexes due to differences in diet (see Chapter 6), as well as between populations.
As the rate of tooth wear is unknown and cannot be determined from the current sample
no attempt can be made to correct the estimate of age at sexual maturity presented here
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for both Kogia species. Therefore results from the present study cannot be directly
compared with age estimates from other populations.
3.4.1.2 Age determination
The lack of significant difference between the age estimates from the present
study and the ones made by Ross (1979) supports the fact that the interpretation of the
GLGs was the same by both observers. The greatest source of error in age determination
of T. truncatus is the misinterpretation of GLGs (Hohn et al., 1989). Errors are
predominantly due to accessory layers and poorly prepared sections (Hohn et al., 1989).
Any guide or “model” for estimating age from odontocete teeth must take into account
that accessory layers are often a part of the GLG pattern (Hohn et al., 1989) and this is
particularly the case with Kogia teeth as the number of accessory layers present is high
in the two species. This highlights the need to standardise age estimation techniques for
Kogia in order to compare results from different studies.
Age estimation in K. sima seems less reliable than in K. breviceps. Ross (1979)
indicates that the number of accessory layers present in the teeth in addition to the
smaller tooth size and the resulting compression of GLGs make age estimation in this
species exceedingly difficult. Although Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg (1967) report that the
method of preservation of the teeth does not appear to make a difference to the
visualisation of the GLGs, there is some evidence that it might (pers. obs.; Peter Best,
pers. com.). In addition, the readability of the teeth varies with the species examined
(Kasuya et al., 1988a). Perrin et al. (1977) report that postnatal dentine in spinner
dolphins S. longirostris has a better readability than in spotted dolphins S. attenuata, two
species that also belong to the same genus. Bloch et al. (1993) state that the teeth of
long-finned pilot whales G. melas originating from one school are easier to read than
those from other schools. Genetic similarity, post-mortem changes in tissues,
predisposition to disease, and environmental stress, such as malnutrition, are all possible
reasons for this variation (Bloch et al., 1993). As mammalian teeth from species
inhabiting colder areas show a clearer definition of laminae than those from animals
inhabiting warmer areas (Grue and Jensen, 1979 in: Lockyer, 1995a; Langvatn, 1995),
the differences in distribution patterns between the two Kogia species, with K. breviceps
inhabiting cooler waters than K. sima (see Chapter 7) may be reflected in the teeth.
These factors combined with the high number of accessory layers, smaller tooth size and
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resulting compression of GLGs in K. sima would explain the differences in readability

between the teeth of K. breviceps and K. sima.
It should be kept in mind that for both Kogia species the present results on age
determination can only be viewed as an estimate. Estimates of age are imprecise for
most cetacean species as the definite rate of dentine and cementum deposition is not
known for the majority of species. Furthermore, the age estimation is subjective and
based on the observers’ interpretation of GLGs. This imprecision tends to increase with
the age of the animals. Although the present study presents the first age estimates for a
comparatively large sample of Kogia and thus a good start into exploring the life history
strategy of both species, the technique may be refined and perfected once teeth and age
estimates from more animals become available. In particular, reading teeth from animals
originating from different geographical locations may aid in defining the GLG patterns
in the teeth of the two Kogia species as was found with the Australian samples in the
present study.
The high correlation between dentinal and cemental layers for both K. breviceps
and K. sima leads to the conclusion that both are deposited at the same rate in both
species, but after the closure of the pulp cavity only cemental layers continue to be
deposited. Similar results have been observed in other odontocetes (Sergeant, 1962;
Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990; Bloch et al., 1993) and in most
odontocetes age estimation from dentinal layers alone has been hindered by the
occlusion of the pulp cavity at some stage during the life of the animal (Sergeant, 1962).
In general, dentinal counts are considered to be more reliable, with cemental counts only
being used after occlusion of the pulp cavity (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990; Bloch et al.,
1993). Without direct evidence it is assumed that the cemental deposition is homogenous
throughout life (Kasuya et al., 1988a).
On average about 12 layers are laid down in the dentine of long-finned pilot
whales G. melas before occlusion of the pulp cavity (Sergeant, 1962) and in bottlenose
dolphins T. truncatus the pulp cavity closes at about 12 years, which almost coincides
with the age at attainment of sexual maturity (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990). Thus the start
of the occlusion of the pulp cavity in K. breviceps at 14 years and in K. sima at 11 years
appears to agree well with data for other odontocetes.
Similarly cemental layers are used as an age estimate when osteodentine
formation prevents age estimates to be made from dentinal layers (Miyazaki, 1984).
Teeth of the two Kogia species appear to have an unusually high percentage of
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osteodentine compared to other odontocetes (Sergeant, 1962; Bloch et al., 1993). As

expected the occurrence of osteodentine increases with age in long-finned pilot whales
G. melas, albeit in an irregular manner (Lockyer, 1995a). This is due to the fact that it
may form at an early age, but not embed in the dentine until later, if at all (Lockyer,
1995a). The cause of osteodentine formation is not understood (Lockyer, 1995a). It has,
however, been suggested for terrestrial mammals that a big mechanical load results in
intensive deposition of secondary dentine and as a result many accessory bands form in
the dentine (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967).
3.4.2 Length at birth and foetal growth rate

Based on the data from the present study the length at birth for K. breviceps lies
around 120cm and the weight around 53kg, while it is around 103cm and 14kg for K.
sima. However, the largest foetus ever reported for a K. breviceps was 125cm from a
stranded female in California, USA (Eliason and Houck, 1986), while the shortest
neonate reported for a K. sima in the literature is 95cm for an animal, which was thought
to be less than a week old (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). Some variation of birth length
is expected within a species, especially when comparing animals from different
geographical locations and possibly different populations. The present results agree well
with Ross’ (1979) estimate of the length at birth of 120cm for K. breviceps and 100cm
for K. sima. These data indicate that K. breviceps neonates are born at 40.5% of mean
adult asymptotic length (296cm), whereas it is 40.2% in K. sima (mean adult asymptotic
length: 256.5cm). This is in agreement with Scott’s (1949) estimate that the length of
neonates ranges between 20-50% of maximum adult length depending on the species,
with 25-30% for the mysticetes. A more recent estimate for mysticetes is 25% (Evans,
1987) and 40-48% in odontocetes (Chivers, 2001).
The data calculated here for length at birth for the two Kogia species using
Scott’s (1949) equation (K. breviceps: 123.6cm, K. sima: 120cm) differ somewhat from
the estimated length at birth based on actual calf and foetus lengths (K. breviceps:
120cm; K. sima: 103cm). As he based his equation on both mysticetes and odontocetes
together some inaccuracies are to be expected. In addition, he used maximum recorded
body length in his formula rather than average or mean adult body length. However, if
only considered as a rough estimate of length at birth the data are not too far off from the
observed length at birth for either species of Kogia in the present study.
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The results for the foetal growth rate in cm/day during the linear part of the
growth curve using Kasuya’s (1977) formula indicate that growth is slightly faster in K.
breviceps (0.34cm/day) than K. sima (0.31cm/day). Although Kasuya derived his
equation from data on delphinids, this is to be expected as it was found that those species
of cetaceans that produce a larger full-term foetus also exhibit a higher foetal growth rate
rather than a prolonged gestation period (Huggett and Widdas, 1951; Laws, 1959; Frazer
and Huggett, 1974). In comparison, the Ganges dolphin Platanista gangetica, the
harbour porpoise P. phocoena and the bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus all have lower
specific foetal growth rates of 0.23, 0.28 and 0.28, respectively (Frazer and Huggett,
1974). Larger odontocetes such as the beluga D. leucas and Baird’s beaked whale
Berardius bairdii have specific foetal growth rates of 0.56 and 0.95 (Frazer and Huggett,
1974; Kasuya, 1977). A similar foetal growth rate to Kogia was seen in the long-finned
pilot whale G. melas with 0.33 (Frazer and Huggett, 1974). Interestingly, data presented
on K. breviceps indicate a specific foetal growth rate of 0.8 (Frazer and Huggett, 1974),
which does not conform with those of the present study. The main reason for this
appears to be that the estimated gestation period was only 270 days or nine months
(Frazer and Huggett, 1974), which is in contrast to 12 months in the present study (see
Chapter 5). Considering the trend in increased foetal growth rate with increased length at
birth (and thus increased adult length) the data from the present study are in better
agreement than those presented by Frazer and Huggett (1974).
3.4.3 Growth
The growth curves generated for both K. breviceps and K. sima show a rapid
increase of length with age. This is in agreement with other data as cetaceans show rapid
growth subsequent to birth, especially in terms of mass, and growth rate decreases
gradually with age (Hohn, 1980b; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990). The growth rate of
bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus off South Africa is greatest during the first year of life
(Cockcroft and Ross, 1990). Mass increases by 255% in the first year, but only by 49%,
13.5% 10.6 and 3.8% in the following years (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990). In contrast,
length increases less rapidly by 57%, 15.2%, 3.7%, 4% and 5.5% (Cockcroft and Ross,
1990). Similarly, the growth rate of bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus from the western
North Atlantic is high in the first year with an increase in length of 53%, an average of
10% during the second year and a considerable slowing down of the growth rate after
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three GLGs (Hohn, 1980b).

The data for either Kogia species from the present study also show some
variation of length with age, which, considering the above data for other odontocetes,
appears common among cetaceans. High variability in total lengths of individuals in any
age class is also observed for T. truncatus from the western North Atlantic, which
indicates that total length alone is not a reliable indicator of the age of the animals
(Hohn, 1980b). Juvenile T. truncatus from Sarasota, Florida, also show considerable
variation in size-at-age (Read et al., 1993). For example, a 200cm long female could be
either one, two, or three years old. As these data are derived from known age animals,
error due to age estimation from GLGs in the teeth can be excluded.
Both sexes of both species of Kogia continued growing past their ASM, which is
not necessarily common among odontocetes of similar size. Although among larger
mammals females usually start breeding before they have reached adult body weight
(Clutton-Brock and Iason, 1986), in bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus sexual maturity in
the females coincides with physical maturity (Read et al., 1993). Males continue to grow
past their attainment of sexual maturity, at which stage they have attained only 70% of
their asymptotic mass (Read et al., 1993). In captive populations older males are known
to sire more offspring than do young males, and recent genetic evidence suggests that
this is also true for the Sarasota population (Duffield and Wells, 2002). This continued
growth in males suggests that size may be an important factor in the mating system (see
also Chapter 4). Size at ASM is discussed in more detail below (see section on sexual
dimorphism).
3.4.3.1 Length and age at physical maturity
In contrast to Ross’ study (1979) it was possible in the present study to calculate
physical maturity for females and males separately using the von Bertalanffy growth
equation. While Ross estimates physical maturity based on the fusion of epiphyses to
occur between 305cm and 330cm for both sexes of K. breviceps (Ross, 1979), the results
from the present study indicate that for males this is quite a bit smaller (286cm).
However, the estimate of the occurrence of physical maturity at 306cm for female K.
breviceps is in agreement with results from the previous study. An increase in sample
size may be accountable for these differences between the two studies. The age at
physical maturity appeared to be similar in both sexes of K. breviceps and occurred
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around 15 years.
For K. sima the asymptotic length was calculated as 249.1cm for females and
263.8cm for males. In contrast, Ross (1979) could only calculate the onset of physical
maturity for the two sexes combined. The shortest physically mature animal measured
247cm and was a male (Ross, 1979). The data obtained here for K. sima may be best
compared to those for a similar sized odontocete like the bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus.
Asymptotic length for these animals off South Africa occurs at 238cm for females and
243cm for males (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990). The age at physical maturity occurred
around 13 years in female K. sima, while it appeared to be slightly later in males,
corresponding to 16 years. Again these data are comparable to data obtained from
bottlenose dolphins off South Africa, where both males and females reach physical
maturity between 12 and 15 years (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990).
3.4.3.2 Maximum length and age
Data from the present study on the maximum length recorded for female and
male K. breviceps (327.6cm and 330.5cm, respectively) exceed the previous records
reported by Ross for South African animals (Ross, 1979). He states 309.5cm and 325cm
as maximum lengths for female and male K. breviceps, respectively. Thus the present
study presents a substantially greater maximum length for female K. breviceps than
previous studies, which can again be accredited to the increased sample size available. In
comparison, Odell et al. (1984) report the mean adult length of females as 303cm and
that of males as 307cm based on strandings along the Florida coastline. These data differ
somewhat from South Africa and geographical variation in body length is observed quite
frequently among odontocetes (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990).
In the present study the longest female K. sima measured 274.3cm and the
longest male 260.4cm. This is a slight increase from the longest specimen reported by
Ross, which was a 264cm long female (Ross, 1979). This is most likely a result of an
increased sample available.
The maximum age estimates obtained for K. breviceps of 22 years for females
and 13 years for males (16 for a male animal from Australia) are in agreement with
previous work on the same species. For specimens from New Zealand the maximum age
estimates are 12.5 and 16+ for females and males, respectively (Tuohy et al., 2001),
while a female from New Caledonia was estimated to be 19 years of age (Bustamante et
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al., 2003). The shorter life expectancy of K. breviceps males in comparison with females
is possibly a reflection of the biased sample towards immature males and mature females
(see Chapter 2). However, it may also be a true reflection of differential life spans in this
species and should be taken into consideration in future studies on the life history and
social system. In addition, differences in the interpretation of GLGs between observers
and between studies cannot be excluded and any comparison of age between studies in
Kogia should be carried out with caution.
Maximum age estimates in K. sima are also higher for females than for males
(21.5 and 17, respectively), with the one for males being five years lower than the
estimate for females. As the sample for this species is normally distributed (see Chapter
2) this difference may be a true indication of different life expectancies in this species.
Male long-finned pilot whales G. melas off Newfoundland have a higher mortality
throughout life than females and subsequently females attain higher maximum ages than
males (Sergeant, 1962; Bloch et al., 1993). However, additional samples for either Kogia
species would provide more insight into this aspect.
The maximum life span of 16-23 years for K. breviceps and 17-22 years for K.
sima is surprisingly low for odontocetes the size of Kogia. Similar life expectancies have
to date only been reported from some of the smallest odontocetes such as the vaquita P.
sinus (21 years) (Hohn et al., 1996). In Hector’s dolphins C. hectori the maximum age
recorded is 19GLGs for females and 20 for males (Slooten, 1991). Although the highest
reported age of harbour porpoises P. phocoena from the western North Atlantic is 13
(Gaskin et al., 1984; Read, 1990), animals up to the age of 24 were reported from the
population off California and from British waters (Hohn and Brownell, 1990; Lockyer,
1995b). This makes a difference of 11 years, and although it was suggested that 24 may
represent the age of an outlier (Hohn and Brownell, 1990) it may well be the maximum
age these animals can reach if unaffected by incidental mortality in fishing gear or
predation (Lockyer, 1995b). In contrast, odontocetes the size of Kogia reach maximum
ages around 50 to 60 years (Perrin and Reilly, 1984) (see Chapter 9). The bottlenose
dolphin T. truncatus, for example, which has a similar body length to K. sima, reaches
maximum ages in excess of 40 years (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990). The implications of
such a surprisingly low life expectancy as well as low age at ASM (see Chapters 4 and
5) in the two Kogia species compared to other odontocetes of similar body size are
discussed in detail in Chapter 9.
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3.4.3.3 Body weight
Data on body weights for medium to large odontocetes, including the two Kogia
species, are scarce in the literature, probably as a result of the logistic difficulties
involved. Thus the present sample represents the first comprehensive collection of body
weight data for the two Kogia species. Ross (1979) presents data for three animals, one
of which was a foetus and the other rather emaciated. Weights of another cow stranded
with its female calf were added in his 1984 publication (Ross, 1984). In his summary of
published data on weights of another six animals from the literature, the maximum
weight is 417kg for an animal of 298.6cm; no sex is given (Tomilin, 1957 in: Ross,
1979). This is exceeded in the present study by two females each weighing 480kg. Data
published by Marten (2000) on a 179cm long male K. breviceps weighing 79kg and by
Price (1984) on a 173cm long female K. breviceps weighing 84kg appear to fit in well
with the present data. However, the weight of 450kg reported for a 317cm long male
stranded in New Brunswick, Canada, exceeds the maximum weight recorded for a male
K. breviceps in the present study (374kg) and appears to be the maximum reported for a
male K. breviceps (McAlpine and Murison, 1997). Weights for sexually mature male
and female K. breviceps are discussed in Chapters 4 and 5.
Weight at birth was estimated to be around 53kg in K. breviceps in the present
study. As there appear to be no published data in the literature this is the first estimate of
birth weight of this species. In addition, birth weights of odontocetes are scarce in the
literature, making a comparison with other species difficult. No relationship between
neonatal weight and adult weight like the one between neonatal length and adult length
has been established for any cetacean.
For K. sima published data on body weights for 11 animals range from 47.3kg
for a 136cm long female to 209.1kg for a 235cm long female from South Africa (Ross,
1979). Data for another three animals were added in his 1984 publication (Ross, 1984),
ranging from 61.5kg to 156kg. Thus the data from the present study present new record
weights for the species. Willis and Baird (1998) report that adult K. sima weigh between
136kg and 272kg, but neglect to define whether they refer to sexual or physical maturity.
Data on weights for sexually mature animals are presented in Chapter 4 and 5 for males
and females, respectively.
Weight at birth was estimated to be between 13kg and 15kg in the present study,
with length at birth being around 103cm. This supports previous data on a 105cm long
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K. sima calf, which weighed 20kg (Carvan III, 1988).
3.4.3.4 Comparison with other species
The data from other odontocetes indicate that the growth rate constants (k)
obtained for both species of Kogia in the present study fit in well with the general trend
that smaller odontocetes have higher growth rates than larger ones. The growth rates of
most endotherms are at least an order of magnitude greater than the maximum growth
rates of ectotherms, and cetaceans are amongst the fastest growing mammals (Case,
1978). It is thought that between species of mammals, the growth rate is an adaptation to
the species’ environment, infant mortality rate and the available food to adults (Case,
1978). In this respect, it is thought that harbour porpoises grow quickly in order to attain
adult size as quickly as possible and facilitate early reproduction in this short-lived
species (Read and Tolley, 1997). However, the present comparison indicates that
harbour porpoises P. phocoena do not grow any quicker than expected for their body
size- and neither do the two Kogia species. This result is surprising as species with a fast
life history strategy would be expected to exhibit higher growth rates than those with a
slow life history strategy (see Chapter 9).
3.4.4 Sexual size dimorphism

Males are consistently shorter at sexual maturity than females in all species of
baleen whales (Lockyer, 1984). As females are the larger sex in baleen whales (Ralls,
1976), the data for K. breviceps, indicating an overall smaller body size for males at
ASM as well as at physical maturity, may suggest that females are actually larger than
males in this species. Data from the literature would support this, as the largest animal
recorded was a female (Caldwell et al., 1971). These results are surprising since reversed
sexual size dimorphism is usually only found in the smallest odontocetes and some
mysticetes and is absent in medium to large-sized odontocetes. Although sexual size
dimorphism is often used as an indicator of the mating system of a species, it may have
evolved from differential evolutionary pressures on males and females (Clapham, 1996)
as bigger females appear to be better mothers (Ralls, 1976). Thus the large body size in
female K. breviceps may well be necessitated by the annual reproduction employed in
this species (see Chapter 5). Mammals in which females are larger than males have a
3-54
variety of social systems ranging from monogamy to harems (Ralls, 1976; Brownell and
Ralls, 1986; Clapham, 1996) and the implications of reversed sexual size dimorphism for
the mating system of K. breviceps are discussed in more detail in Chapter 4.
In contrast, the pattern found for K. sima, with males being of similar size to
females at sexual maturity, but reaching larger body lengths at physical maturity, is
common among odontocetes. In mammals in which males are considerably larger than
females, the females typically cease growth at an earlier age than the males (Bryden,
1972; Ralls, 1976). Although sexual maturity appears to occur at the same time in both
sexes, age and length at physical maturity occurs at a greater body length and age in
males in this species. Similar trends have been reported for bottlenose dolphins T.
truncatus (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990), long-finned pilot whales G. melas (Sergeant,
1962) and the sperm whale P. macrocephalus (Best, 1970). Since female K. sima show
facultative annual reproduction, which is probably heavily dependent on environmental
conditions and resources (see Chapter 5), body size may not be as important in females
of this species as it is for female K. breviceps.
These data, although in need of support from additional measurements, are
interesting in that most reports on the two species of Kogia state that there is no
difference in size between the sexes. Allen (1941) reports that there does not appear to be
great sexual dimorphism in the two Kogia species, as the literature up until then always
reported the sexes to be of equal size with the male being slightly longer when fully
grown. Even a recent review on sexual dimorphism in marine mammals comments on
the absence of sexual size dimorphism in the two species of Kogia (Ralls and Mesnick,
2002).
As already pointed out additional data for either Kogia species would be useful
as more recent studies have found that sexual size dimorphism is often expressed in
weight or girth in odontocetes rather than total body length (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990;
Read et al., 1993; Tolley et al., 1995).
3.4.5. Morphological differences between K. breviceps and K. sima

The observed differences in the size of the appendages of the two Kogia species
are counter intuitive according to the laws of scaling (Peters, 1983) as one would expect
the larger species (K. breviceps) to have the larger dorsal fin, flukes and pectoral fins and
the smaller species (K. sima) to have the smaller appendages. Although the data are
3-55
scanty they do indicate that the scenario is the opposite in the two species of Kogia
(Ross, 1979). This may be an indication of the habitat of the two species. Cetaceans live
in an aquatic environment, which acts as a heat conductor, continuously removing heat
from the body to the surrounding waters. In comparison to the terrestrial environment,
water conducts heat away from the body at 25 times the rate of air (Heyning, 2001). The
dorsal fin, flukes and pectoral fins contain counter-current heat exchangers, giving off
heat when the animals overheats and shutting down the blood flow to these extremities
when the animal is cold (Pabst et al., 1995; Rommel et al., 1998). Reducing the size of
the extremities would further reduce the surface-area-to-volume ratio in a cold
environment, preventing more heat loss. In this respect, the data on the distribution and
preferred sea surface temperatures by the two species (see Chapter 7) in addition to
information on diving depths (see Chapter 6) support the idea that K. breviceps inhabits
cooler, more temperate waters than does K. sima. Thus the small size of the extremities
of K. breviceps may be an adaptation to reduce heat loss. In contrast, K. sima appears to
prefer warmer, subtropical waters, which is reflected in larger appendage size as heat
loss is less prominent in that habitat.
A similar separation by preference for a particular water temperature range can
be observed in other closely related species such as the harbour porpoise P. phocoena
and the vaquita P. sinus (Read and Hohn, 1995; Hohn et al., 1996) and the long-finned
(G. melas) and short-finned (G. macrorhynchus) pilot whale (Payne and Heinemann,
1993). Even within the latter species the northern and southern form of Japan exhibit
preferences for differing water temperatures (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Kasuya and Tai,
1993). In all of these cases the larger (in terms of total body length) of the two species or
forms is found in cooler waters, but unfortunately no comparative morphometric studies
on flipper length and dorsal fin size on these animals have been carried out to date. This
observation is discussed in more detail in Chapter 9.
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Helden, A., Plön, S. and Baker, C. S. 2001. Pygmy sperm whale (Kogia breviceps)
strandings in New Zealand: Distribution patterns based on age, sex, and
reproductive status. 14th Biennial Conference on the Biology of Marine Mammals,
28. Nov.- 3. Dec., Vancouver, Canada. Poster.
Valverde, J. A. and Caminas, J. A. 1996. On a dwarf sperm whale Kogia simus (Owen,
1866), Physeteroidea, in Spain: a correction. European Research on Cetaceans-10.
Proceedings of the Tenth Annual Conference of the European Cetacean Society,
Lisbon, Portugal. p. 168-171.
van Waerebeek, K. and Read, A. J. 1994. Reproduction of dusky dolphins,
Lagenorhynchus obscurus, from coastal Peru. Journal of Mammalogy 75(4): 1054-
1062.
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4.1.1 General background to reproductive studies in cetaceans

The majority of studies of cetacean reproduction are based on material obtained
from hunted (Best, 1969; Miyazaki, 1984; Desportes et al., 1993) or stranded animals
(Ross, 1979; 1984; Calzada et al., 1996) or from animals incidentally caught and killed
in fishing nets (Perrin et al., 1976; Perrin et al., 1977; Read, 1990a; 1990b; Slooten,
1991; van Waerebeek and Read, 1994; Hohn et al., 1996) or anti-shark nets (Cockcroft
and Ross, 1990). Data on the reproduction of live, wild animals are difficult to obtain
and studies of reproduction in captive animals may not be representative of wild
populations. Although animals may be approached by boat, most of the reproductive
activities occur underwater and thus are inaccessible for boat-based researchers.
However, in recent years, a few studies have successfully observed reproductive and
other life history events in wild populations of dolphins (Wells et al., 1987; Herzing,
1997).
Major reviews have been written on reproduction in mysticetes (Lockyer, 1984),
phocoenids (Gaskin et al., 1984), delphinids (Perrin and Reilly, 1984), the sperm whale
Physeter macrocephalus (Best et al., 1984), ziphiids (Mead, 1984), monodontidae
(Braham, 1984), and platanistids (Brownell, 1984). Most of the recent reproductive
studies have been carried out on pilot whales (Genus Globicephala), which are still
being hunted in Japan (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Kasuya and Tai, 1993) and the Faroe
Islands (Desportes et al., 1993, 1994; Desportes, 1994), and on small odontocetes
incidentally caught in fishing operations (Barlow, 1984; Collet and Saint Girons, 1984;
Perrin and Henderson, 1984; Hohn et al., 1985; Read and Gaskin, 1990; Read and Hohn,
1995).
Detailed studies on the reproductive biology of a number of cetaceans have aided
in elucidating the life histories of these animals (Ross, 1979; Kasuya and Marsh, 1984;
Ross, 1984; Slooten, 1991; Kasuya and Tai, 1993; Hohn et al., 1996). In a number of
cases these studies have been used to estimate the level of human impact from directed
or incidental catches on the species concerned (Read and Gaskin, 1990; Slooten, 1991;
Hohn et al., 1996).
The present chapter examines the reproductive biology of male Kogia, while the
following chapter (Chapter 5) examines reproduction in female Kogia.
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4.1.2 Male reproduction

Research on the reproduction of cetaceans has in the past focused on females and
studies that exclusively examine male reproduction are still rare (Chittleborough, 1954;
Best, 1969; Collet and Saint Girons, 1984; Mitchell and Kozicki, 1984; Hohn et al.,
1985; Desportes et al., 1993; Desportes, 1994; Desportes et al., 1994). However, in the
last two decades the focus has shifted to detailed studies of both sexes (Hohn and
Brownell, 1990; Read and Gaskin, 1990; Slooten, 1991; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994; van
Waerebeek and Read, 1994; Read and Hohn, 1995; Hohn et al., 1996).
4.1.3 Reproductive anatomy

The morphology of the male reproductive organs of cetaceans has been
extensively covered (Slijper, 1966; Harrison et al., 1972; de Smet, 1977). Cetaceans
differ from most other mammals in that they are testicond, meaning the testes are located
inside the abdominal cavity to improve streamlining (Slijper, 1962; de Smet, 1977).
There are minor differences in the morphology of the testes between species and the
testis volume may change with age and sexual activity (de Smet, 1977) and between
species (see section 4.1.6 below). Thermoregulation of the intra-abdominal testes is
carried out by a counter-current heat exchange in Tursiops truncatus (Pabst et al., 1995)
and there are no differences in spermatogenesis between mammals with abdominal and
scrotal testes (Setchell, 1978).
Little has been published on the testes of the two Kogia species. Roest (1970)
reports 40cm long testes, “lying one behind the other along the midventral body wall
between the posterior edge of the liver and the urogenital opening” for a 224cm long
Kogia breviceps.
4.1.4 Attainment of sexual maturity (ASM)

Estimates of the size and age at the attainment of sexual maturity (ASM)
(Barlow, 1985; Chivers and Myrick, 1993) and data on the reproductive cycle of a
species are necessary to understand the reproductive strategy and ecology of the animals
and to be able to make inter- or intraspecific comparisons (Hohn et al., 1985). Data for
the length at sexual maturity for a given species are especially useful in the field or for
animals for which no age estimates are available (Perrin and Reilly, 1984). Furthermore,
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these data are needed for the management of species that are subject to mortality by man
(Read and Gaskin, 1990; Slooten, 1991; Chivers and Myrick, 1993; Desportes et al.,
1993; Hohn et al., 1996). For example, an increase in length at ASM over time is
reported for male spotted dolphins Stenella attenuata incidentally caught in the tuna
purse-seine fishery in the Eastern Tropical Pacific, with no coincidental increase in age
at ASM (Hohn et al., 1985). Perrin and Henderson (1984) report that mature testis
weight can vary greatly between populations, possibly as a function of the degree of
exploitation. Therefore these data may play an important role in stock assessment studies
(Perrin and Henderson, 1984) and in determining the degree of exploitation of a stock or
population (Read and Gaskin, 1990; Slooten, 1991; Hohn et al., 1996).
The definition of attainment of sexual maturity (ASM) in male cetaceans is
complex (Perrin and Reilly, 1984) and there is no single criterion for the onset of sexual
maturity (Perrin and Henderson, 1984). Testis histology (i.e. stage of spermatogenesis)
and seminiferous tubule diameter, testis weight or length, sperm abundance, the presence
of sperm in the epididymis, and serum testosterone levels have all been used to indicate
ASM and are described in detail below. Additionally, there is some discrepancy as to
how many different stages of maturity can be defined in odontocetes. Whereas the most
common practise is to distinguish between immature, pubertal (also called prepubescent
or maturing), and mature animals (Best, 1969; Hohn et al., 1985; Sørensen and Kinze,
1994), a few studies define four different stages of maturity, namely immature, early
maturing, late maturing, and mature (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Desportes et al., 1993;
Kasuya and Tai, 1993). In the present study I have recognised three stages of maturity
(immature, early spermatogenesis, late spermatogenesis) based on histological studies of
the testes. Early and late spermatogenesis can be regarded as equal to the pubertal (also
referred to as prepubescent or maturing) and mature stage mentioned in the literature,
respectively. The former is defined as the stage when spermatogonia and spermatocytes
are present, but spermatozoa are absent (Hohn et al., 1985).
Histological examination of the testes is the most accurate way to determine
ASM (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Perrin and Donovan, 1984; Hohn et al., 1985;
Desportes et al., 1993), although it is a lengthy process, which has to be carried out in
the laboratory. Both examination of the state of spermatogenesis (Best, 1969; Kasuya
and Marsh, 1984; Desportes et al., 1993; Kasuya and Tai, 1993) and of the seminiferous
tubule diameters (Hohn et al., 1985; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990; Desportes et al., 1993)
are carried out widely in male cetaceans.
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A rapid increase in testis weight is used as an indicator of ASM (Sergeant, 1962;

Perrin et al., 1976; Perrin et al., 1977; Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Hohn et al., 1985;
Kasuya and Tai, 1993). However, large individual variation of testis weight among
mature males is reported for mysticetes (Chittleborough, 1954) as well as odontocetes
(Collet and Saint Girons, 1984; Desportes et al., 1993). Furthermore, differences in testis
weight are observed between two different stocks of spinner dolphins with different
degrees of exploitation (Perrin and Henderson, 1984). Thus changes in testis mass
should be interpreted with care.
Some studies use the abundance of sperm from both testicular, epididymal
(Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Desportes et al., 1993) and vas deferens smears
(Chittleborough, 1954; Desportes et al., 1993), as well as from histological preparations
of the testes (Chittleborough, 1954; Best, 1969; Mitchell and Kozicki, 1984) as an
indication of the stage of maturity of the animal. The determination of the presence or
absence of seminal fluid in the epididymis (Fisher and Harrison, 1970; Harrison and
Brownell, 1971; Perrin et al., 1977; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990; van Waerebeek and
Read, 1994) may be the easiest method to determine sexual maturity in the field, but it
occurs at a slightly later stage in ontogeny than the histological detection of spermatozoa
(Sergeant, 1962; Kasuya and Marsh, 1984). If the presence of seminal fluid in the
epididymis is used as a single indicator of male maturity, it is generally assumed that
sperm are produced continuously in the species concerned (Perrin and Reilly, 1984;
Desportes et al., 1993). This assumption is not valid as the males of some species may
have a resting phase during which testis size decreases and no sperm are produced
(Collet and Saint Girons, 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984). The value of this tool is
questionable unless the presence of sperm in the seminal fluid is confirmed
histologically.
Another indicator of sexual maturity is the level of testosterone in the blood, but
studies on male odontocetes so far are restricted to a few captive delphinid species
(Harrison and Ridgway, 1971; Wells, 1984; Schroeder and Keller, 1989) and wild long-
finned pilot whales Globicephala melas (Desportes et al., 1993; 1994). In addition, the
ranges of serum testosterone vary between different species of odontocetes (Desportes et
al., 1994), which makes comparisons between species difficult. Due to these reasons
plasma testosterone cannot be used as single indicator of sexual maturity, but provides a
good means of monitoring sexual activity over time (Desportes et al., 1994).
The available information indicates that in the majority of species both testes
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mature at the same rate (Chittleborough, 1954; Collet and Saint Girons, 1984; Miyazaki,
1984; van Waerebeek and Read, 1994) and therefore usually only one testis is used for
examination (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990).
In some species like the sperm whale P. macrocephalus (Best, 1969), the long-
finned pilot whale G. melas (Desportes, 1994), and Baird’s beaked whale Berardius
bairdii (Kasuya et al., 1997) a zonal maturation of the testes occurs. The testes of the
sperm whale appear to mature from the centre outwards (Best, 1969), and this has
subsequently been used as a guideline for taking samples for reproductive studies.
Most studies use a combination of criteria to determine the onset of sexual
maturity in males (Best, 1969; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990; Desportes et al., 1993). This
appears to be the best solution in view of the constraints encountered with each factor
mentioned above. Perrin and Donovan (1984) suggest that in order to assess the different
stages of maturity in male cetaceans testes weights should be recorded, the epididymis
should be examined for sperm, and smears from the periphery as well as from the centre
of the testis should be examined histologically. Gonadal characteristics like testis weight
(Chittleborough, 1954; Hohn et al., 1996), seminiferous tubule diameter (Mitchell and
Kozicki, 1984; Hohn et al., 1985), and testis length (Desportes et al., 1993; Hohn et al.,
1996) are reliable indicators of maturity, whereas other factors such as age (Hohn et al.,
1985; Desportes et al., 1993), body length (Chittleborough, 1954; Hohn et al., 1985;
Desportes et al., 1993), body weight (Desportes et al., 1993), and colour phase (Hohn et
al., 1985; Kasuya et al., 1988a) are less reliable. Which characteristic presents the most
reliable indicator of maturity may vary between species and even between populations of
the same species (Perrin and Henderson, 1984; Hohn et al., 1985). The variety of
methods used in determining sexual maturity and age and length at ASM in male
cetaceans has to be kept in mind and comparisons between species should be carried out
with care (DeMaster, 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Hohn et al., 1985).
It has been suggested that an index of testis development, which defines maturity
in terms of unit testis weight (g) per unit of testis length (mm), may remove some of the
variability in testis weight among species of different sizes and thus allow comparison
between different stocks or species (Hohn et al., 1985).
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4.1.5 Seasonality
Whether a mammal reproduces seasonally or continuously depends largely on its
environment (Bronson, 1989). Seasonal differences in food availability, rainfall,
temperature, photoperiod, predation and female condition are all important determinants
of the timing and duration of a seasonal cycle in mammals (Bronson, 1989; Urian et al.,
1996). Most habitats have at least some seasonal variation in climate and food
availability and this is especially pronounced in higher latitudes, where annual variations
in temperature can be extreme (Bronson, 1989; Urian et al., 1996). Although
reproductive seasonality has been widely researched in terrestrial mammals (Bronson,
1989), the factors influencing seasonality in marine mammals are little understood. This
can primarily be attributed to the complex marine environment with its largely
unpredictable spatial and temporal variation in biotic and abiotic factors (Sørensen and
Kinze, 1994). Seasonality of reproduction has been widely monitored in marine
invertebrates and fish, but it is somewhat more difficult to find cues for seasonality in
marine mammals. As males have to shape their annual reproductive pattern around the
pattern that is most advantageous for the females (Bronson, 1989), reproductive
seasonality has largely been examined in view of the timing and duration of the calving
period (see Chapter 5).
Changes in testis weight (Hohn et al., 1985; Read, 1990b; Slooten, 1991; van
Waerebeek and Read, 1994; Hohn et al., 1996), testis volume (Gaskin et al., 1984),
seminiferous tubule diameters (Fisher and Harrison, 1970; Collet and Saint Girons,
1984; Hohn et al., 1985), sperm abundance (Gaskin et al., 1984; Hohn et al., 1985;
Desportes et al., 1993), spermatogenic activity (Sergeant, 1962; Fisher and Harrison,
1970; Desportes et al., 1993; Hohn et al., 1996), Leydig cell diameter (Clarke et al.,
1994), and serum testosterone levels (Harrison and Ridgway, 1971; Wells, 1984;
Desportes et al., 1993) have all been used as indicators of a male seasonal cycle in
cetaceans. Furthermore, testis length and index differ significantly between periods of
high and low testicular activity in long-finned pilot whales G. melas (Desportes et al.,
1993). Based on the above criteria seasonality in testicular activity was reported for a
number of wild populations of mysticetes (Chittleborough, 1954) and odontocetes
(Sergeant, 1962; Read, 1990b; van Waerebeek and Read, 1994; Read and Hohn, 1995).
In captive delphinids serum testosterone levels change seasonally, reflecting seasonal
testicular activity (Harrison and Ridgway, 1971; Wells, 1984; Schroeder and Keller,
4-7
1989).
One would expect a seasonal peak in male testicular activity to occur shortly
before or at the same time as the females are receptive. However, few investigators have
concentrated on this aspect and evidence has so far only been gathered for few cetacean
species, such as the humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae (Chittleborough, 1954),
dusky dolphin Lagenorhynchus obscurus (van Waerebeek and Read, 1994), long-finned
pilot whale G. melas (Sergeant, 1962; Desportes et al., 1993; Martin and Rothery, 1993),
harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena (Read, 1990b; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994), and
captive bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus (Harrison and Ridgway, 1971). Times of
elevated testes weights coincided with the mating season in the spotted dolphin S.
attenuata, but although the seasonal peak in testes weight of the northern and southern
offshore stock was similar, calving seasons differed between the two stocks (Hohn et al.,
1985).
While testes weights vary seasonally in a number of cetaceans, histological
evidence for a seasonal complete cessation of spermatogenesis (also termed
aspermatogenesis) is rare in both mysticetes and odontocetes (Perrin and Donovan,
1984) and is only reported for the humpback whale M. novaeangliae (Chittleborough,
1954), the common dolphin Delphinus delphis (Collet and Saint Girons, 1984), and the
harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Gaskin et al., 1984; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994). In dusky
dolphins L. obscurus and the vaquita Phocoena sinus complete cessation occurs, but is
rare (van Waerebeek and Read, 1994; Hohn et al., 1996). In contrast, a number of
species show continuous spermatogenesis throughout the year (Best, 1969; Mitchell and
Kozicki, 1984; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990).
4.1.6 Male mating strategy

Copulation and other sexual behaviour of cetaceans are frequently observed in
captivity (Saayman and Tayler, 1977), but less often in natural environments (Herzing,
1997). However, as dolphins in particular seem to use sexual contact (both homo- and
heterosexual) to strengthen the social bonds of a group or school (Kasuya et al., 1993),
observations in the wild may often not give unequivocal evidence about a species’
reproductive strategy. Numerous factors are involved in shaping a species’ mating
system and thus multifactorial models are needed to predict mating systems (Sandell and
Liberg, 1992). Indicators like testis mass to body mass ratio, sexual dimorphism, and
4-8
group size are used to provide information about the mating system of terrestrial
mammals (Harcourt et al., 1981; Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986; Rose et al., 1997).
These parameters together with the degree of scarring resulting from intrasexual fights
(McCann, 1974; Heyning, 1984; MacLeod, 1998) are used for cetaceans to provide a
starting point for the development of hypotheses about the mating system of a species
(Brownell and Ralls, 1986; Slooten, 1991; Aguilar and Monzon, 1992; Cockcroft, 1993;
van Waerebeek and Read, 1994). This is especially useful for species for which data
from behavioural observations in the wild are either difficult or costly to obtain.
Based on these data a number of different male mating strategies are described
for cetaceans, ranging from floating leks in humpback whales M. novaeangliae
(Clapham, 1996), multimale polygynous breeding systems (or joint harems) in short-
finned pilot whales G. macrorhynchus (Kasuya et al., 1993; Magnusson and Kasuya,
1997) and Hector’s dolphins Cephalorhynchus hectori (Slooten, 1991) to a roving male
strategy proposed for the sperm whale P. macrocephalus (Best and Butterworth, 1980;
Whitehead, 1990; Magnusson and Kasuya, 1997) and the bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus
(Wells et al., 1987) (for a review see Connor et al., 2000). Sperm competition may occur
in some mysticetes (Brownell and Ralls, 1986) as well as some odontocetes like the
dusky dolphin L. obscurus (van Waerebeek and Read, 1994), the vaquita P. sinus (Hohn
et al., 1996), and the common dolphin D. delphis (Cockcroft, 1993). The majority of
proposed mating systems for cetaceans appear to be either polygynous or promiscuous
(see Evans, 1987 for a summary) and the latter probably occurs in most delphinids
(Evans, 1987; Connor et al., 2000). Geographical variation in the mating system of a
species is observed in spinner dolphins S. longirostris (Perrin and Mesnick, 2003).
Teuthophagous odontocetes in general show a reduction in dentition (Heyning,
1984; MacLeod, 1998) and recent studies suggest that the remaining teeth are not needed
in prey capture (Heyning and Mead, 1996) (see Chapter 6). Thus it is assumed that a
number of teuthophagous species retain the teeth primarily as weapons for intraspecific
fighting (MacLeod, 1998; Connor et al., 2000). Tooth scars are reported for K. breviceps
and these may have originated from fights between males (Hubbs, 1951). McCann
(1974) also reports scars on the head and body of “combatants” in K. breviceps,
implying intrasexual fighting, although this is not supported by any evidence.
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4.1.7 Sperm morphology

The sperm morphology of cetaceans was first described by means of light
microscopy by Ballowitz (1907). He examined spermatozoa from the harbour porpoise
P. phocoena and produced excellent drawings of the sperm morphology. However, he
interprets the spherical mitochondria of cetacean sperm as indentations of a helix of
mitochondria that spirals around the midpiece as seen in other eutherian mammals. Only
in 1909, while reanalysing Ballowitz’s results with new results from examinations of the
long-finned pilot whale G. melas, did Retzius conclude that the mitochondria are indeed
spherical in shape and arranged in rows and columns along the midpiece (Retzius, 1909).
Since then spermatozoa of only six other cetacean species have been examined
(M. novaengliae, Chittleborough, 1954; P. macrocephalus, Yamane, 1936; Eubalaena
glacialis, Omura et al., 1969; T. truncatus, Ridgway and Green, 1967; Fleming et al.,
1981; D. delphis, Ridgway and Green, 1967; Reddy, 1996; and Balaenoptera
acutorostrata, Mogoe et al., in prep.).

In the present study different stages of maturity in males were described based on
both macroscopic and histological examination of the reproductive organs. After
defining sexual maturity, length and age at ASM were calculated. Indicators of a
seasonal reproductive cycle in both species were examined and a hypothesis about the
possible mating system of the two species was formulated. Sperm morphology in both
species of Kogia was described.
4.2 Materials and Methods
4.2.1 Sample
Reproductive organs from 19 K. breviceps and 19 K. sima males were examined
to determine the reproductive status of the individual animals. Although the original
tissue was not available in some cases (see Appendix B), weights and measurements of
the gonads were available from data sheets. This explains discrepancies in sample sizes
between tables and figures.
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4.2.2 Determination of maturity

Testes were weighed (to the nearest 0.01 of a gram) and a piece of tissue
approximately 1cm3 was taken from the middle of the testis. The tissue was dehydrated
through a standard series of alcohols (30% to 100%) and then embedded in Paraffin wax.
5µm thick sections were cut with a Leica microtome, mounted on slides and stained with
Mallory’s trichrome. Slides of the testis from 19 K. breviceps and 19 K. sima were
examined and the reproductive status was determined for each animal. Twenty randomly
selected sections through seminiferous tubules were examined and specimens were
defined as either immature (spermatogonia and Sertoli cells in the seminiferous
epithelium), in early spermatogenesis (spermatogonia and spermatocytes present in the
seminiferous epithelium, but no spermatids), or in late spermatogenesis (spermatids
present in the seminiferous epithelium). An animal was placed into a specific category if
more than 50% of the tubules were in a particular condition. Animals in late
spermatogenesis were considered adults. Seminiferous tubule diameters were measured
using an ocular micrometer. Mean diameters were taken as the average of 20 randomly
chosen tubules. For two animals from each species these data could not be obtained due
to extensive tissue damage, probably as a result of decay prior to sampling, or freezing
subsequent to sampling.
Published results from previous studies on the male reproduction of the two
Kogia species from South Africa (Ross, 1979; 1984) were included in the analysis only
if the original material was not available for re-examination. In most cases new slides
were prepared and examined and measured independently of the previous results (for
more details see Appendix B). For three K. sima males, for which no testis tissue was
available for histological examination, body length and testis weight were used as
indicators of the stage of maturity.
An index of testis development was calculated as the mean testis weight
(excluding the epididmides) (in g) divided by the mean testis length (in mm) per testis
pair (Hohn et al., 1985; Desportes et al., 1993).
4.2.3 Testis size and male mating strategy

The combined testis weight as a percentage of the total body weight was
calculated for the animal with the largest testes for each species. Photographs of stranded
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animals of both Kogia species were examined to determine the degree of intraspecific
scarring.

A piece of tissue (1cm3) was cut from the centre of the testis from two sexually
mature K. breviceps (PEM N342, SAM 78/13) and four sexually mature K. sima (PEM
N2243, N687, N239 and N148). A smear from the tissue was made on a coverslip and
then fixed with 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 molar phosphate buffer for two hours.
Subsequently the coverslips were washed twice with phosphate buffer for 10 minutes.
The smears were then put through an ethanol series (30% to 100%), treated with
increasing concentrations of amyl acetate (25% to 100%) and critical point dried. The
preparations were coated with gold (SEM coating unit E5100; Polaron Equipment Ltd.)
and observed at 10kV with the scanning electron microscope (JEOL JSM 840).
Micrographs were taken of appropriate specimens and from these, measurements of
sperm head length, midpiece length, and tail length were obtained.
In order to look at the ultrastructure of the spermatozoon midpiece a small piece
of the testis that had been fixed in 2.5% glutaraldehyde in 0.1 molar phosphate buffer
was washed with phosphate buffer and placed into osmium tetroxide solution for 90
minutes. The sample was then dehydrated through a graded ethanol series (30% to
100%) and infiltrated with a series of propylene oxide/resin mixtures and finally with an
epoxy resin mixture (Cross, 1989). The tissue was subsequently sectioned at 100nm and
examined at 80kV with a transmission electron microscope (JEOL 1210). Due to poor
prior preservation of the tissue good results could only be obtained for one K. sima.
Appropriate micrographs were later saved to a computer and analysed using
SigmaScan/Image (Jandel Scientific Software, San Rafael, CA 1992) in order to obtain
the surface area values for the individual sperm heads.
4.3 Results
4.3.1 Assessment of stages of maturity

A dependent paired t-test showed no significant difference in either length or
weight between the left and the right testis in both K. breviceps (testis length: p=0.27302;
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testis weight: p=0.2717) and K. sima (testis length: p=0.155025; testis weight:
p=0.499991). Thus it was concluded that either testis may be examined to establish the
stage of maturity of an animal.
Immature testes were observed in 13 K. breviceps (Table 4.1) and six K. sima
(Table 4.3) based on histological examination. Immaturity is characterised by tightly
packed, narrow seminiferous tubules with no lumen, surrounded by abundant interstitial
tissue (Figure 4.1a). The seminiferous epithelium comprised one cell layer of Sertoli
cells with interspersed spermatogonia (Figure 4.1). Seminiferous tubule diameters of
immature animals ranged from 39.2µm to 67.2µm for K. breviceps ( x : 53.0µm ±9.13;
Table 4.1) (Figure 4.2) and from 34.6µm to 52.0µm for K. sima ( x : 42.9µm ±6.98;
Table 4.3) (Figure 4.3).
Early spermatogenesis was characterized by two to four cell layers of
spermatogonia and spermatocytes in the seminiferous epithelium (Figure 4.1b). No
spermatids were present and very little interstitial tissue was present between the
seminiferous tubules (Figure 4.1b). Two K. breviceps and one K. sima were found to be
in early spermatogenesis, with seminiferous tubule diameters of 72.2µm to 77.6µm being
recorded for the former (Table 4.1, Figure 4.2) and a diameter of 65.0µm for the latter
(Table 4.3, Figure 4.3).
Three K. breviceps (Table 4.1) and ten K. sima were in late spermatogenesis
(Table 4.3), which was characterised by large seminiferous tubules with an open lumen
(Figure 4.1c,d). A complex seminiferous epithelium was present, which comprised three
or more cell layers of spermatogonia, spermatocytes and spermatids, and little interstitial
tissue was present (Figure 4.1c,d). The seminiferous tubule diameters ranged from
89.0µm to 208.5µm ( x : 135.5µm ±63.99) (Table 4.1, Figure 4.2) and from 87.1µm to
123.2µm (mean: 100.2µm ±12.16) (Table 4.3, Figure 4.3) for K. breviceps and K. sima
in late spermatogenesis, respectively. No animal with testes in a mature but inactive or
resting stage was observed and there was no evidence for a seasonal cessation of
spermatogenesis.
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Figure 4.1: Histological preparations of different maturity stages of the testes in

Kogia. a: Immature testis, characterised by tightly packed, narrow seminiferous
tubules with no lumen and abundant surrounding interstitial tissue (I). Sp:
Spermatogonia, S: Sertoli cells. b: Early spermatogenesis is characterised by two to
four cell layers of spermatogonia and spermatocytes in the seminiferous epithelium
(SE). No spermatids are present and only little interstitial tissue is found between the
seminiferous tubules. c,d: Late spermatogenesis as indicated by large seminiferous
tubules with an open lumen and a complex seminiferous epithelium with
spermatogonia, spermatocytes and spermatids (St) present.
4-14
Table 4.1: Gonadal characteristics for different maturity stages in Kogia breviceps.
Maturity stage Mean (SD) Range Sample

size
Single testis weight (g)

Immature* 42.34 (24.46) 13.8-83.6 13
Early spermatogenesis* 148.7 (69.86) 99.3-198.1 2
Late spermatogenesis 1000.67 (826.64) 457.5-1952.0 3
Mean testis length (mm)

Immature* 123.8 (25.61) 79.0-158.0 13
Index of testis development
(g/mm)1
Immature* 0.33 (0.13) 0.16-0.57 13
Seminiferous tubule
diameter (µm)
Immature* 53.0 (9.13) 39.2-67.2 12
1
=Mean testis weight/mean testis length per testis pair. Rows with an asterisk are not
significantly different from each other (p≥0.0001).
breviceps males. Determination of maturity was based on histological examination of
the reproductive organs and subsequently only specimens for which the state of
maturity could be confirmed were included (i.e. calves were excluded).
Immature Early Mature

spermatogenesis
n range n Range n Range
Age (GLGs) 13 0.57-2.5 2 1.6-2.3 2 5.0-13.33
Length (cm) 14 147.0-241.0 2 218-232.7 3 242.0-276.0
Mass (kg) 12 68.99-210.0 2 182.0-185.97 2 233.6-374.03
4-15
a)
220
n=17
200
180
tubule diameter (µm)
Mean seminiferous
160
140
120
100
Immature
80 Early
60 spermatogenesis
40 Late
spermatogenesis
20
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Body length (cm)
b)
220
n=17
200
180
Mean seminiferous
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Estimated age
(GLGs)
Figure 4.2: Mean seminiferous tubule diameters for male Kogia breviceps
of different maturity stages in relation to body length (cm) (a)
and age (complete GLGs + increment) (b).
4-16
a)
140
n=17
120
Mean seminiferous
100
80
60 Immature
Early
spermatogenesis
40 Late
spermatogenesis
20
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Body length (cm)
b) 140
n=11
120
Mean seminiferous
100
80
60
40
20
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Age estimate
(GLGs)
Figure 4.3: Mean seminiferous tubule diameters for male Kogia sima
of different maturity stages in relation to body length (cm) (a)
and age (complete GLGs + increment) (b).
4-17

K. breviceps
As expected from the length-frequency distribution of the sample (see Chapter 2)

the majority of animals for which a tissue sample of the testes could be examined
histologically were immature (Table 4.1).
Early spermatogenesis in male K. breviceps occurred at a mean testis weight of
148.7g (n=2) and a mean testis length of 155.5mm (n=2) (Table 4.1, Figure 4.4), which
corresponds to ages between 1.6 and 2.3 years (Table 4.2, Figure 4.4b), respectively. The
three animals in late spermatogenesis had a mean testis weight of 1000.67g (±826.64)
and a mean testis length of 310mm (±130.77) (Table 4.1, Figure 4.4). The age range for
these animals was five to 13.33 years (Table 4.2, Figure 4.4). The mean index of testis
development was 1.04 for animals in early spermatogenesis and 2.9 for those in late
spermatogenesis (Table 4.1). Some overlap of mean testis length occurred between
immature animals and animals in early spermatogenesis (Table 4.1).
One-way ANOVA tables showed that there were significant differences between
the mean testis weight (p=0.0007), mean testis length (p=0.0003), mean testis index
(p<0.0001), and mean seminiferous tubule diameter (p=0.0001) of specimens that were
immature, in early or in late spermatogenesis. A Tukey’s multiple range test yielded
significant differences between early and late spermatogenesis, as well as between late
spermatogenesis and immature for all four categories, but not between immature and
early spermatogenesis (Figure 4.1).
The two male K. breviceps that were in early spermatogenesis measured 218cm
and 232cm in length with combined testis weights of 198.6g and 396.2g, respectively
(Table 4.2, Figure 4.5). The shortest male in late spermatogenesis measured 242cm and
had a combined testis weight of 915g (Figure 4.5). Unfortunately, no age estimate was
available for this animal. The youngest male in a late spermatogenic state was estimated
to be five years old, measured 266.7cm and had a combined testis weight of 1185g
(Table 4.2, Figure 4.5). As the sample was too small to calculate a meaningful statistical
estimate for the age and length at ASM a range between the oldest/longest immature
animal and the youngest/shortest mature animal had to be taken as the onset of sexual
maturity. In this sense a summary of the size and age ranges of immature and mature K.
breviceps shows that ASM occurs between 2.5 and five years and 241-242cm in K.
breviceps (Table 4.2). However, the oldest male in early spermatogenesis was estimated
4-18
a)
50
n=18
40
Mean testis length (cm)
30
20
Immature
Early
10 spermatogenesis
Late
(2) spermatogenesis
0
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Body length (cm)
b)
50
n=16
40
30
20
10
0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Estimated age
(GLG's)
Figure 4.4: Mean testis length (cm) as a function of body length (cm) (a)
and estimated age (complete GLG's + increment) (b) in Kogia breviceps.
4-19
a)
5000
n=18
Combined testis weight (g)
4000
3000
2000
1000 Immature
Early
spermatogenesis
0 Late
spermatogenesis
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300

Body length (cm)
b)
5000
n=16
4000
3000
2000
1000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Estimated age
(GLGs)
Figure 4.5: Attainment of sexual maturity with body length (cm) (a)
and age (complete GLGs + increment) (b) in male Kogia breviceps.
4-20
to be 2.3 years old. If one takes the conservative approach and defines sexual maturity as
the onset of late spermatogenesis this would correspond to five years in male K.
breviceps.
Compared to age, both body length and body weight appear to better define
ASM (Table 4.2). Thus sexual maturity in males was reached between 241-242cm and
210.0- 233.6kg (Table 4.2).
K. sima
The results previously reported for the length-frequency distribution of the

sample (see Chapter 2) were reflected in the samples available for histological
examination of the testes: immature and mature animals were present in almost equal
numbers (Table 4.3).
Only one animal was found to be in early spermatogenesis. It had a mean testis
weight of 172.5g and a mean testis length of 225.0mm and an estimated age of 3.3 years
(Table 4.3, Table 4.4, Figure 4.6). Late spermatogenesis occurred at a mean testis weight
of 1316.99g and a mean testis length of 395.15mm (Table 4.3, Figure 4.6). Animals
belonging to this maturity stage ranged from 2.55 to 17 years of age (Table 4.4). The
testis development index was 0.77 for the animal in early spermatogenesis and the mean
for animals in late spermatogenesis was 2.61 (±1.18) (Table 4.3). No overlap between
the different stages of maturity was found for any category.
Whether or not the data obtained for the different stages of maturity were
significantly different could not be tested because of the low sample size of one animal
in early spermatogenesis.
The oldest immature male was estimated to be three years old (Table 4.4) with a
body length of 196cm and combined testis weight of 190.93g (Figure 4.7). The youngest
male in late spermatogenesis was 2.55GLGs old (Table 4.4), measuring 204.5cm with a
combined testis weight of 556g (Figure 4.7). The animal in early spermatogenesis
measured 211cm, had an age estimate of 3.3 years and a combined testis weight of 345g
(Figure 4.7). The shortest animal in late spermatogenesis measured 197cm and had a
combined testis weight of 1454g (Figure 4.7); no age estimate was available. Thus it
appears that ASM occured between 2.55 and three years of age in male K. sima.
The body length at ASM can be defined more accurately than in K. breviceps at
197cm as the longest immature and the shortest mature male measured 197.5cm and
4-21
197cm, respectively (Table 4.4). Furthermore, sexual maturity was reached between
body weights of 111.8kg and 124.0kg (Table 4.4).
Table 4.3: Gonadal characteristics for different maturity stages in Kogia sima.
Maturity stage Mean (SD) Range Sample

size
Single testis weight (g)
Immature 55.08 (21.67) 32.95-87.5 6
Early spermatogenesis 172.5 172.5 1
Mean testis length (mm)
Immature 145.07 (12.86) 126.0-160.0 7
Index of testis development
(g/mm)1
Immature 0.41 (0.15) 0.26-0.61 7
Seminiferous tubule diameter
(µm)
Immature 42.9 (6.98) 34.6-52.0 6
1
Mean testis weight/mean testis length per testes pair.
males. Determination of maturity was based on histological examination of the
reproductive organs and subsequently only specimens for which the state of maturity
could be confirmed were included (i.e. calves were excluded).
Immature Early Mature

spermatogenesis
n Range n Range n Range
Age (GLGs) 4 1.67-3.0 1 3.3 8 2.55-17.0
Length (cm) 7 171.0-197.5 1 211 11 197.0-256.0
Mass (kg) 4 98.5-111.8 1 114.5 9 124.0-303.0
4-22
a)
60
n=18
50
40
Immature
30 Early
spermatogenesis
Late
20 spermatogenesis
Unknown maturity
stage
10
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300
Body length (cm)
b)
60
n=13
50
40
30
20
10
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Age estimate
(GLGs)
Figure 4.6: Mean testis length (cm) as a function of body length (cm) (a)
and estimated age (complete GLGs + increment) (b) in Kogia sima.
4-23
a)
n=21
5000
4000
3000
Immature
2000 Early
spermatogenesis
1000 Late
spermatogenesis
(2)
Unknown maturity
0 stage
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300

Body length (cm)
b)
n=14
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Age estimate
(GLGs)
Figure 4.7: Attainment of sexual maturity with body length (cm) (a)
and age (complete GLGs + increment) (b) in male Kogia sima.
4-24
4.3.3 Testis weight as a percentage of body weight

The longest mature male K. breviceps had a combined testis weight of 3904g or
1.04% of its total body weight. It measured 276cm and the estimated age for this animal
was 13.33GLGs, which indicated that it had reached physical maturity (see Chapter 3).
The maximum combined testis weight available for K. sima was 4923g for a
230cm long specimen weighing 240kg (GLGs: 9). The combined testis weight made up
2.05% of the total body weight of this animal. However, no testis tissue was available for
examination from this specimen to ensure that spermatogenesis was occurring. Another
animal that had a combined testes weight of 4053g and was producing sperm, measured
228cm and weighed 202.5kg. The combined testis weight made up 2% of its total body
weight. No age estimate was available for the latter specimen, but according to the body
lengths of both animals they had reached physical maturity (see Chapter 3).
4.3.4 Seasonality
Unfortunately the small sample, which was biased towards immature males in K.
breviceps (see Chapter 2), prevented a detailed examination of seasonality of
spermatogenesis (Figure 4.8 and 4.9). However, the year-round presence of K. sima
males in late spermatogenesis suggested an absence of seasonal testicular activity in this
species (Figure 4.9). All stranded adult K. breviceps and K. sima males were
spermatogenically active.

The spermatozoa of K. breviceps and K. sima were similar in shape (Figure
4.10a,b) and size (Table 4.5). While in K. breviceps the sperm head was more rounded
(Figure 4.10a), it was bullet-shaped in K. sima (Figure 4.10b). However, the surface area
of the sperm head was the same for both species (K. breviceps: n=17 sperm from two
animals, x =5.9±0.72µm2; K. sima: n=13 sperm from four animals, x =5.9±1.31µm2). In
both species the midpiece was short and comprised of spherical mitochondria arranged
in rows and columns (Figure 4.10c). In transverse section it could be seen that the
midpiece of the spermatozoon of K. sima comprised at least five mitochondria in one
row (Figure 4.10d). Unfortunately no results could be obtained from the TEM
4-25
a)
n=19
C
Stage of spermatogenesis
Immature
A Early
(2) (3) (6) spermatogenesis
Late
spermatogenesis
J F M A M J J A S O N D
Month
b)
5000
n=18
4000
3000
2000
1000
(1)
0
(2) (3) (6)
Month
Figure 4.8: Reproductive condition (a) and combined testis weight (b) over
the year in male Kogia breviceps. Stage of spermatogenesis A: immature;
B: early spermatogenesis; C: late spermatogenesis.
Numbers in brackets are sample sizes when n>1.
4-26
a)
n=18
C
Stage of spermatogenesis
(2) (2) (3)
Immature
A Early
(4) spermatogenesis
Late
spermatogenesis
Month
b)
6000
n=20
5000
4000
3000
(2)
2000
1000 (1)
0 (1) Unknown
(4) maturity stage
Month
Figure 4.9: Reproductive condition (a) and combined testis weight (b) over
the year in male Kogia sima. Stage of spermatogenesis A: immature;
B: early spermatogenesis; C: late spermatogenesis.
Numbers in brackets are sample sizes when n>1.
4-27
Figure 4.10: Scanning electron micrographs of a K. breviceps (a, c) and K. sima (b)
spermatozoa. A: acrosome; N: neck; M: midpiece. The transmission electron
micrograph (d) shows a cross-section through the neck region of a K. sima
spermatozoon, indicating the number of mitochondria surrounding the midpiece (1-5).
AC: axoneme complex.
4-28
examination of K. breviceps spermatozoa, but SEM pictures indicated that both species
had five to six rows of spherical mitochondria. Assuming five mitochondria per row
(Figure 4.10d) this would result in 25 to 30 mitochondria.
The mean total length of the sperm was larger in K. breviceps, but due to the
small sample size of eight spermatozoa from one specimen of K. breviceps and one
sperm from one specimen of K. sima no statistical test was possible. The mean length of
the head of the spermatozoon was slightly but significantly larger in K. sima than in K.
breviceps (p<0,001) given the assumption of the equality of means within the
samples/species. Although the midpiece of K. sima also appeared larger than that of K.
breviceps there was no significant difference (p=0.136). Consequently, the relative
lengths of the head and midpiece (expressed as percentages of total length) were greater
in K. sima, with the head (6.7%) and midpiece (5.7%) of K. breviceps being almost half
as long as that of K. sima (12.3% and 10.7%, respectively) (Table 4.5).
Table 4.5: Sperm dimensions of Kogia from the present study.

Mean length (µm) % of total length
Head Midpiece Total Head Midpiece

length
Pygmy sperm 3.4 (±0.24) 2.9 (±0.53) 50.5 6.7 5.7
whale (n=18/2) (n=17/2) (n=8/2)
Kogia breviceps
Dwarf sperm 4.0 (±0.58) 3.5 (±0.51) 32.6 12.3 10.7
whale (n=17/4) (n=8/4) (n=1/4)
Kogia sima
Values in parentheses indicate the number of sperm examined from the given number
of specimens.
4.4 Discussion
4.4.1 Attainment of sexual maturity

The onset of sexual maturity, defined here as being late spermatogenesis, has
previously been determined to occur between body lengths of 270cm and 300cm for K.
breviceps and between 210cm and 220cm for K. sima, with early spermatogenesis
starting at a body length of 200cm in the latter (based on examination of the
4-29
epididymides) (Ross, 1979; 1984). The present study, which was based on animals from
the same geographical region, showed that the onset of sexual maturity occurred
between 241cm and 242cm and 2.5 and five years in K. breviceps (Table 4.2) and at
about 197cm and between 2.6 and three years in K. sima (Table 4.4). Thus this study
indicates that both Kogia species may actually attain sexual maturity at a somewhat
shorter body length than previously reported. There are no previous records for body
weight at ASM for either species and thus the present data of 210-233.6kg for K.
breviceps and 111.8-124kg for K. sima present a first report on body weight at the onset
of sexual maturity in the two species.
Few records of testis weights and dimensions (Scheffer and Slipp, 1948; Hubbs,
1951; Harrison et al., 1972; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989) are available for either Kogia
species. Roest (1970) concludes that a 224cm long K. sima was mature based on the size
of the testes (each about 40cm long). The only histological studies of ASM in both
Kogia species have been carried out in South Africa (Ross, 1979; 1984). The data
obtained for testis weight and length for the different maturity stages for both species of
Kogia in the present study concur well with those previously presented in the literature
(Roest, 1970; Harrison et al., 1972; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989). The only data that
exceed the ranges presented here are 3090g and 50cm for the left testis and 2840g and
48.5cm for the right testis of a 305cm long mature K. breviceps (Caldwell and Caldwell,
1989). Hubbs (1951) reports a 234.5cm long animal with approximately 101.6mm long
testes and suggests that it was mature. Although the reported body length could indicate
a sexually mature animal, the data for testis length suggest that the animal was immature
according to the data gathered in the present study. Testes lengths of 47.5cm and 50cm
and testes weights of 910g and 1030g, respectively, presented by Harrison et al. (1972)
for a 229cm long K. sima from Japan are intriguing as body length, testis length, and
testis weight indicate a mature animal, but no sperm were present. The only obvious
interpretation of this is that the animal may have been producing sperm seasonally, but
this would represent the only indication of a male seasonal cycle in the two Kogia
species in the literature.
The results of the present study reveal that there was no overlap in testis size
(both length and weight) in either K. breviceps or K. sima between early and late
spermatogenesis. Thus either measure could be used to indicate the onset of sexual
maturity. A small degree of overlap was observed between the mean testis length of
immature animals and those in early spermatogenesis in K. breviceps; all other
4-30
categories showed no overlap. Some overlap has been reported for all categories in
spotted dolphins S. attenuata (Hohn et al., 1985) and in long finned pilot whales G.
melas (Desportes et al., 1993), with the exception of testis length in the latter. Thus the
little or no overlap in testis size between different maturity stages found for both Kogia
species in this study may be an artefact of the relatively small sample size and it is
difficult to determine which parameter would be the best indicator for sexual maturity in
the genus Kogia.
As expected the diameter of the seminiferous tubules increased in both species as
the testes matured. The seminiferous tubule diameters from the present study as well as
the different stages of maturity are in close agreement with the only data available in the
literature from a K. breviceps from the Californian coast and K. sima from Japan
(Harrison et al., 1972). The mean seminiferous tubule diameter of adult,
spermatogenically active animals is greater in K. breviceps (135.5±63.99µm) than in K.
sima (100.2±12.16µm) and similar results have been reported for the two species of
Globicephala (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984). Since seminiferous tubule diameter is larger in
the large cetaceans like the sperm whale P. macrocephalus (Best, 1969; Mitchell and
Kozicki, 1984) and the humpback whale M. novaeangliae (Chittleborough, 1954) it is
likely that the differences seen here in the two species of Kogia are due to scaling.
An index of testis development was calculated by Collet and Saint Girons
(1984), Hohn et al. (1985), and Desportes et al. (1993) to allow comparison of maturity
between stocks and species. But as the above authors have all calculated the testis index
in different ways such a comparison is not possible. The mean testis index values
obtained for both K. breviceps and K. sima were roughly half those of Desportes et al.
(1993) for long-finned pilot whales G. melas, using the same formula; the biological
significance of these results is unknown.
Attainment of sexual maturity between 2.5 and five years in K. breviceps and
2.55 and three years in K. sima was surprising, because most other odontocetes of similar
size mature at a greater age (Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Evans, 1987). The implications of
this are discussed in depth in Chapter 9. Studies on a small number of K. breviceps
stranded in New Zealand indicate that mature males range in age between three and
16GLGs (Tuohy et al., 2001), which supports the findings of the present study. In
general body length and weight are better correlated with the onset of sexual maturity in
male Kogia than age as different animals which would fall in the same length class
showed quite different age estimates (Tables 4.2 and 4.4 and Figures 4.4 and 4.7). This
4-31
may partly be a result of the problems encountered with tooth wear and the aging
technique (see Chapter 3), or individually differing growth rates.
In both Kogia species males attained sexual maturity at a shorter body length and
lower body weight than females. The significance of this has already been addressed in
Chapter 3. However, age at sexual maturity was similar for both sexes in both K.
breviceps and K. sima, as is commonly found in a number of phocoeinid and delphinid
species (Miyazaki, 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Slooten, 1991; Hohn et al., 1996).
4.4.2 Seasonality
The results for both K. breviceps and K. sima did not show any conclusive
evidence for a seasonal cycle of testicular activity. However, these data must be
interpreted with caution due to the small sample size and the bias of samples towards
immature males in K. breviceps (see Chapter 2). Since the majority of odontocetes
appear to exhibit seasonal testicular activity (Sergeant, 1962; Gaskin et al., 1984; Hohn
et al., 1985; van Waerebeek and Read, 1994), a similar result would be expected for the
two Kogia species, especially as the data from the present study indicated that mating
does not occur all year round (see Chapter 5).
4.4.3 Testis size and male mating strategy

Testis size usually increases as body size increases, regardless of the breeding
system (Harcourt et al., 1981; Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986), but variation in relative
testis size within and between species generally reflects variations in the requirements
for sperm production (Setchell, 1978; Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986). Therefore testis
weight as a percentage of body weight is often used as an indicator of the mating system
of a species (Harcourt et al., 1981; Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986; Rose et al., 1997).
Large testes in relation to body weight are usually associated with a multimale breeding
system (or polyandry), in which the males compete with each other in the form of sperm
competition (Harcourt et al., 1981; Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986). Large testes are
apparently a result of the selective pressures of multiple inseminations, sperm
competition within the female reproductive tract, spontaneous ovulations, and seasonal
reproduction (Harcourt et al., 1981; Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986). Sexual dimorphism
is usually absent in these species (Aguilar and Monzon, 1992).
4-32
Small testes in relation to body weight are indicative of low copulatory frequency
and thus of monogamous or extreme polygynous single-male mating systems, the latter
involving one male mating with a number of females (i.e. harem) (Harcourt et al., 1981;
Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986). Sexual dimorphism is usually great in species where
males have to fight over access to a number of females. In cetaceans intraspecific
fighting is thought to be reflected in the amount of scarring (MacLeod, 1998). Generally
very little sexual dimorphism is found in monogamous species (Harcourt et al., 1981).
Intermediate levels of sexual dimorphism, large testes, and thus assumed high copulatory
frequency, and low degrees of scarring indicate a multimale breeding system, for
example promiscuity or multimale polygyny (Harcourt et al., 1981; van Waerebeek and
Read, 1994) (Table 4.6).
Combined testis weights comprise less than 1% of body mass in most terrestrial
mammals and cetaceans have slightly, but significantly larger testes relative to body
weight (Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986). In addition, there are large differences in testis
size between the mysticetes and the odontocetes (Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986; Aguilar
and Monzon, 1992). There are a number of possible explanations for cetaceans
possessing larger testes than terrestrial mammals. An aquatic mode of life may facilitate
larger testes due to the support of body weight in the aquatic medium or it may
necessitate larger testes due to a possibly different reproductive physiology involved in
internal fertilization in an aquatic medium (Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986). Furthermore,
cetaceans as a group may show more frequent copulations than other mammals and thus
exhibit larger testes (Kenagy and Trombulak, 1986; Connor et al., 2000). However,
marsupials have significantly smaller testes than eutherian mammals, but within their
range the testis sizes of the marsupials are still indicative of the different mating systems
mentioned above (Rose et al., 1997). Thus relatively small testes in cetaceans probably
still indicate a monogamous or extreme polygynous mating system, whereas relatively
large testes are assumed to indicate frequent copulations and sperm competition.
In most mysticetes the combined testis weight makes up less than 1% of the total
body mass, except in right whales (Eubalaena spp.), where it comprises up to 1.31% of
the body weight (Brownell and Ralls, 1986). Although a similar percentage has been
reported for the humpback dolphin Sousa chinensis (0.7%) and the bottlenose dolphin T.
4-33
Table 4.6: Proposed male mating strategies for different species of odontocetes based on testis size, sexual dimorphism, degree of scarring and
group size. Testis size is expressed as a percentage of the total body weight.
Species examined
Dusky dolphin 1
Vaquita 2
Harbour porpoise 3
Common dolphin 4
Hector's dolphin 5
Bottlenose dolphin 6
Humpback dolphin 7
Dwarf sperm whale 8
Pygmy sperm whale 9
Sperm whale 10
Pilot whale 11
Ziphiidae 12
Criterion
Testis size 1% 0.7% 2% 1.7% 0.01-
Small testes in relation to body weight 0.05% √
Medium sized testes in relation to body weight 5% 3-4% 4.2% 2.9%
Large testes in relation to body weight 8.5%
Sexual Males larger than females √ √ √ √
dimorphism Little or no sexual dimorphism √ √ √ √
Females larger than males √ √
Group size Solitary or small groups √ √ √ √ √ √
Medium sized schools √ √ √ √
Large schools √
Scarring Little or no scarring √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √ √
Extensive scarring √ √
Sp Sp Sp Sp R R ? R R R JH H
Proposed mating strategy
Sp= sperm competition; R= roving males; JH= joint harem; H= harem.
1
van Waerebeek and Read, 1994; Carwardine, 1995; 2Hohn et al., 1996; 3Gaskin et al., 1984; Carwardine, 1995; Read and Hohn, 1995; Hohn et al., 1996; 4Cockcroft, 1993;
5
Slooten, 1991; Carwardine, 1995; Dawson et al., 1993; Slooten and Dawson, 1994; Dawson, pers.com. 6Wells et al., 1987; Cockcroft, 1993; 7Cockcroft, 1993; 8Present
study; 9John Heyning, unpubl. data; 10Best et al., 1984; Gaskin et al., 1984; Kato, 1984; MacLeod, 1998; 11Kasuya and Tai, 1993; Magnusson and Kasuya, 1997; MacLeod,
1998; Kasuya, pers. com. 12Aguilar and Monzon, 1992; MacLeod, 1998
truncatus (1%) (Cockcroft, 1993), most odontocetes have a somewhat bigger testis weight
to body weight ratio (Table 4.6). In Hector’s dolphin C. hectori the testes make up 2.9% of
the total body weight (Slooten, 1991) (Table 4.6). Furthermore, values of 3.5% and 3-4%
have been reported for the harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Gaskin et al., 1984; Read,
1990b), 4.2% for the common dolphin D. delphis (Cockcroft, 1993), almost 5% in the
vaquita P. sinus (Hohn et al., 1996), and 5% for the Tucuxi Sotalia fluviatilis (Best and da
Silva, 1984), respectively (Table 4.6). The dusky dolphin L. obscurus has testes weighing
up to 8.5% of the total body weight, amongst the highest recorded for mammals (van
Waerebeek and Read, 1994) (Table 4.6). Based on testis size it is suggested that the dusky
dolphin may have a promiscuous mating system with sperm competition and this is
supported by the fact that only little intraspecific scarring is observed on the males (van
Waerebeek and Read, 1994) (Table 4.6). A similar scenario is found in the Hector’s
dolphin C. hectori (Slooten, 1991) (Table 4.6). Due to the large testis size in the vaquita P.
sinus, the small group size and reversed sexual dimorphism, sperm competition is
suggested for this species (Hohn et al., 1996) (Table 4.6). A multimale polygynous mating
system (or joint harem) is reported for both the southern and northern form of the short-
finned pilot whale G. macrorhynchus off Japan (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Kasuya and
Tai, 1993; Magnusson and Kasuya, 1997) (Table 4.6). While this would indicate that
mating systems do not vary within a species, the mating systems of bottlenose dolphins T.
truncatus may vary slightly between populations (Tolley et al., 1995; Connor et al., 2000).
The above results support the suggestion that in mammals a polygynous mating system is
the dominant strategy (Krebs and Davies, 1981). The one exception to the phenomenon
that larger testes are found in cetaceans compared to terrestrial mammals (Aguilar and
Monzon, 1992) appears to be the ziphiids, which also show some of the highest degree of
intraspecific scarring (MacLeod, 1998). This suggests a mating system where males fight
over access to females (Connor et al., 2000).
Although a number of researchers provide combined testes weights for either
species of Kogia (Harrison et al., 1972; Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989), no body weights
are provided for the animals concerned and thus the percentage that the combined testes
weight contributes to the total body weight could not be determined. Caldwell and
Caldwell (1989) remark on the large testis size of a 305cm long K. breviceps, which had a
combined testis weight of 5.93kg. Similarly, Maigret and Robineau (1981) estimate the
combined testis weight of a 222cm long male K. sima stranded in Senegal at around 6kg.
Aguilar and Monzon (1992) provide relative testes weights for 54 cetacean species,
4-35
including K. breviceps and K. sima, but unfortunately no reference to the original data is
provided. The maximum combined testis weights of 1.04% for K. breviceps and 2% for K.
sima obtained in this study suggest that both Kogia species have relatively small testes in
comparison with other odontocete species (Table 4.6). Although it is frequently mentioned
that both Kogia species have large testes (MacLeod, 1998), no indications of bigger testes
in relation to body weight could be found in the literature. As yet unpublished data from
the Los Angeles County Museum for a 300cm long K. breviceps (LACM 88938) weighing
385kg showed a combined testis weight of 6049g (John Heyning, pers. com.), which made
up 1.69% of the total body weight. No age estimate was available for the animal.
However, none of the South African animals for which relative testis weight could be
calculated had reached physical maturity and it is possible that larger specimens may have
relatively larger testes.
There is a difference between sexual and social maturity in a number of cetacean
species. Social maturity has been defined as the stage when males may gain access to
receptive females and successfully fertilise them (sensu Best, 1969; Kasuya and Marsh,
1984; Desportes et al., 1993; Kasuya et al., 1997). In some species like the long-finned
pilot whale G. melas, sexually mature males may be capable of producing sperm, but may
not reach social maturity until a later stage (Desportes et al., 1993). In the bottlenose
dolphin T. truncatus only males older than 21 years appear to sire calves (Duffield and
Wells, 2002). An extreme example is the Baird’s beaked whale Berardius bairdii, in
which testis weight continues to increase for almost 20 years after ASM (Kasuya et al.,
1997). In other species, such as the short-finned pilot whale G. macrorhynchus, full sexual
maturity (based on histology) and social maturity occur at the same time (Kasuya and
Marsh, 1984). The substantial increase in testes size that occurred after ASM in both K.
breviceps (4.3 fold) and K. sima (11.7 fold) may indicate that social maturity is reached
only at a later stage in life. A 7.62 fold increase of combined testis weight after ASM is
reported for long-finned pilot whales G. melas (Desportes et al., 1993).
Sexual dimorphism is another important indicator as to the mating system (Table
4.6). Cetaceans generally lack secondary sexual characters, with the exception of the
narwhal Monodon monoceros, where only males possess an up to 2.6m long tusk (Gerson
and Hickie, 1985). Sexual dimorphism is most pronounced in the largest odontocete, the
sperm whale P. macrocephalus (Best et al., 1984), with males being up to five metres
longer than females (Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983). Sexual dimorphism in the shape and
colour of the melon is reported for the northern bottlenose whale Hyperoodon ampullatus
4-36
(Bloch et al., 1996) and in the colouration of the patch around the genital area for Hector’s
dolphins C. hectori and Commerson’s dolphins C. commersonii (Slooten and Dawson,
1994). But in most medium-sized odontocetes sexual dimorphism may be expressed as
differences in girth and weight rather than length (Hohn and Brownell, 1990; Cockcroft
and Ross, 1990; Cockcroft, 1993; Tolley et al., 1995). Although only slight or no
differences in asymptotic length are found between the sexes in bottlenose dolphins T.
truncatus; (Hohn and Brownell, 1990; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990), males are about 30%
heavier (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990; Cockcroft, 1993), more robust and possess larger
appendages than females of the same length (Tolley et al., 1995). Thus it appears that
robustness rather than length plays a role in male-female (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990) as
well as male-male intraspecific interactions (Tolley et al., 1995). This may well be the case
for a number of other cetacean species, for example common dolphin D. delphis males are
about 10% heavier than females (Cockcroft, 1993). In the smallest odontocetes, namely
the phocoenids and the delphinid genus Cephalorhynchus, and in the large baleen whales
sexual dimorphism is reversed, with the females being larger than the males (Brownell and
Ralls, 1986; Read and Gaskin, 1990; Slooten, 1991; Connor et al., 2000) (Table 4.6).
However, sexual dimorphism in cetacea has not been very well researched in the past and
should be the subject of further investigation in order to shed more light on the mating
system of cetaceans. In the present study reversed sexual size dimorphism was found for
K. breviceps, while in K. sima the males were larger than the females in body length (see
Chapter 3). Mammals in which females are larger than males have a variety of social
systems ranging from monogamy to harems (Ralls, 1976; Brownell and Ralls, 1986;
Clapham, 1996) and in this respect the reversed sexual size dimorphism found in K.
breviceps gives no indication as to the mating system of the species. In K. sima the fact
that males were slightly larger than females may indicate that there is some male-male
competition over access to females.
Knowledge about the degree of sexual dimorphism represents a starting point for
the exploration of cetacean mating systems as it indicates the degree of male-male
competition and the role it plays in determining male reproductive success (Connor et al.,
2000). However, the extent of body scarring resulting from intrasexual fights is thought to
present a further clue (Table 4.6). Depending on the type of scarring, they are indicators of
intraspecific fighting in a number of odontocetes (Heyning, 1984; Kato, 1984; Gerson and
Hickie, 1985; MacLeod, 1998) (Table 4.6). In some instances body scars are an indicator
of the male maturity status (Kato, 1984) and “quality” (Gerson and Hickie, 1985;
4-37
MacLeod, 1998) and thus indirectly add information about the breeding system of a
species (Kato, 1984; MacLeod, 1998). A number of odontocete species show a clear
reduction in the number of teeth (Gaskin, 1982; MacLeod, 1998) and this is especially
obvious in teuthophagous species, such as Physeter (Kato, 1984) and both Kogia species
(see Chapters 3 and 6), and reaches an extreme in the ziphiids (Mead, 1984; Heyning and
Mead, 1996; MacLeod, 1998). Recent studies suggest that the ziphiids employ suction-
feeding in which the prey is sucked into the mouth in a hoover-like fashion without the
need for teeth to grasp or even chew the prey (Heyning and Mead, 1996) (see also Chapter
6). A similar mechanism is considered likely in both genera of the sperm whales (Heyning
and Mead, 1996) and a number of other odontocete species (Norris and Møhl, 1983). Thus
in species that feed by suction the retained teeth might play a role in social interaction
(Heyning, 1984; Kato, 1984; MacLeod, 1998), since in some species the remaining teeth
show an adaptation for use as weapons (Gerson and Hickie, 1985). Body scarring is
reported for a number of odontocete species (McCann, 1974; MacLeod, 1998) and even
for one mysticete (Chu and Nieukirk, 1988).
Examination of photographs of stranded specimens of Kogia from South Africa
did not show any tooth scars. This may be due to the bias in the stranding record since
adult males may be under-represented (see Chapter 2). However, no indications of
intraspecific scarring were found on animals (both male and female) of both Kogia species
stranded along the coast of Florida (Nelio Barros, pers. com.). Thus it appears that male
animals of either Kogia species may not fight over females and this may be due to the
small group size, averaging one to two animals for K. breviceps and one to six animals for
K. sima (Ross, 1979; Barlow and Sexton, 1996) (Table 4.6) (see Chapter 1 and Chapter 7).
Group size influences the mating system of cetaceans (Evans, 1987; Cockcroft, 1993) as
do social structure and association patterns (Evans, 1987; Wells et al., 1987). Large testes
and little sexual dimorphism in conjunction with large schools, as found in the common
dolphin D. delphis, are attributed to sperm competition, whereas small testes, great sexual
dimorphism and small group sizes, as found in humpback dolphins S. chinensis, are
thought to indicate that larger males dominate smaller males and deny access to females
(Cockcroft, 1993) (Table 4.6). The stranding data for Kogia specimens from South Africa
suggested that groups are comprised of females with their calves, small groups of juveniles
(up to four animals in K. sima) and solitary males (both immature and mature animals)
(see Chapter 7). Consequently encounters between males would be rare and thus there may
not be a need for intraspecific fights. However, Connor et al. (2000) point out that it is
4-38
likely that most serious fighting in cetaceans may occur by means of strikes with the
peduncle, flukes or other body parts. This would not result in any obvious wounds and
thus, in the absence of any direct behavioural observations, the examination of body scars
may lead to an underestimation of the frequency and severity of intra- and interspecific
aggression (Connor et al., 2000). In this respect one male K. breviceps (PEM N2115; L:
275cm) was reported to have stranded with broken mandibles and ribs and specimens
stranded in the Western Cape region are often found with broken mandibles (Peter Best,
pers. com.). These occurrences are also reported in the literature (McAlpine and Murison,
1997) and may be indications of intraspecific aggression, but could just as easily result
from the carcass being washed over rocks. However, this circumstantial evidence can only
be clarified with further data from direct observations.
MacLeod (1998) states that the vast majority of 32 species of odontocetes, for
which there was no evidence that intraspecific scarring acted as an indicator for male
quality, were primarily non-teuthophagous. The four exceptions are the two Kogia species,
the long-finned pilot whale G. melas and the Ginkgo-toothed beaked whale Mesoplodon
gingkodens. He suggests sperm competition as an alternative to direct male-male
aggressive competition in the genus Kogia, but gives no direct indication of testis weights
for either Kogia species. As the length (Whitehead, 1990; Sandell and Liberg, 1992;
Magnusson and Kasuya, 1997) and synchrony (Best and Butterworth, 1980) of female
oestrus, as well as the group size, density and dispersion of the females (Best and
Butterworth, 1980; Krebs and Davies, 1981; Whitehead, 1990; Sandell and Liberg, 1992;
Magnusson and Kasuya, 1997; Connor et al., 2000) have a profound effect on the mating
strategy of a species and as these data are lacking for both Kogia species, no definite
model for the mating strategy of either Kogia species can be established. However, based
on the comparatively small testis size, indicating moderate copulation frequency (as
opposed to high copulation frequency in sperm competition), reversed or small sexual size
dimorphism, little scarring and small group size, a promiscuous or polygynous mating
system, with more than one male gaining access to females, is suggested for either Kogia
species (Table 4.6). The density and dispersion of the females largely determines the
difference between a harem strategy and a roving male strategy (Best and Butterworth,
1980; Krebs and Davies, 1981; Whitehead, 1990; Sandell and Liberg, 1992; Magnusson
and Kasuya, 1997). Where females range widely and are solitary or occur in small groups,
as is the case in Kogia, males may employ a roving strategy in search of receptive females
(Connor et al., 2000). However, observational data are needed to show whether females
4-39
aggregate during the breeding season or not, but comparisons with other odontocetes
favour the roving male theory (Table 4.6). The roving male strategy is also suggested for
the sperm whale P. macrocephalus (Whitehead, 1990; Magnusson and Kasuya, 1997)
(Table 4.6), although there is evidence for male-male aggressive interaction in this species
(Kato, 1984). Bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus also show little sexual dimorphism (Wells
et al., 1987; Tolley et al., 1995) and have relatively small testes, which make up 1% of the
total body weight (Cockcroft, 1993). Extensive studies on bottlenose dolphins in Sarasota,
Florida, show that male pairs may adopt a roving strategy in which one male may
dominate the other, but both mate with receptive females without showing any aggressive
interaction (Wells et al., 1987) (Table 4.6). Alliance formation between males is only
observed in habitats where males encounter each other frequently (Connor et al., 2000).
Thus if a male has a low probability of encountering a rival male while with a female he
would be better off alone (Connor et al., 2000). Although it appears unlikely that males of
either Kogia species form pairs, as males seem to be solitary based on the stranding data,
they may rove between females in order to maximize their reproductive opportunities
rather than monopolize and fight over a number of females. Postmortem examinations of
stranded specimens of either Kogia species along the coast of the United States showed
that the epididymis is almost always full of sperm (Nelio Barros, pers. com., John
Heyning, pers. com., Dan Odell, pers. com.), which would further support an opportunistic
mating strategy. By contrast ziphiids have some of the smallest testes sizes recorded for
odontocetes (Aguilar and Monzon, 1992) and this together with their extensive scarring
may indicate a harem system (Table 4.6).
Although it has been assumed, based on morphology and field observations, that
cetaceans in general have some form of polygynous or promiscuous mating system
(Slooten, 1991; van Waerebeek and Read, 1994; Hohn et al., 1996; Connor et al., 2000)
like most mammals (Krebs and Davies, 1981), the use of techniques like molecular
analysis have, in recent years, provided hard evidence to support these observations (Amos
et al., 1993; Clapham and Palsbøll, 1997; Debbie Duffield, pers. com.). Although the
analysis of testes size, group size and sexual dimorphism may give a good first indication
as to the mating system of a species, it remains widely speculative and only behavioural
observations in the wild (Slooten et al., 1993) and genetic analysis will eventually give
unequivocal evidence as to which males dominate the matings (Amos et al., 1993;
Duffield and Wells, 2002). In these cases, genetic analysis of paternity may lead to
interesting results.
4-40

The sperm of either Kogia species were similar in size and shape to those
described for other marine mammals (Table 4.7). The only apparent difference was the
relatively small total length observed for the sperm of K. sima, which resulted in the head
and midpiece being longer in relation to the total length than in most other cetaceans
(Table 4.7). However, as the total sperm length for K. sima was calculated from a single
spermatozoon, the above results may be an artefact of an unusually short or damaged
sperm. Similarly, the sperm dimensions for the sperm whale P. macrocephalus should be
treated cautiously as the two sets of measurements that are available from the literature
(Yamane, 1936) differ quite substantially from each other as indicated by the large
standard deviations (Table 4.7). The results obtained for both Kogia species were from
material fixed in buffered formalin for a considerable amount of time and it should be
noted that some shrinkage would have occurred, leading to underestimations of the
measurements.
Within the Cetacea the sperm head is generally bullet-shaped or oval and dorso-
ventrally flattened and shows little variation. In this respect the head shapes found in the
two Kogia species concur with previous results from other species (Ballowitz, 1907;
Retzius, 1909; Yamane, 1936). In some cases the acrosome may taper at the tip or even
curve slightly over to one side as seen in the pilot whale G. melas (Retzius, 1909), but this
was not observed in either Kogia species.
4-41
Table 4.7: Sperm dimensions in marine mammals.

Mean length (µm) % of total length
Head Midpiece Total length Head Midpiece
Balaenopteridae
Humpback Whale 3-5 - 52.5 - -

Megaptera nodosa
(=Megaptera novaengliae1)
Minke Whale 5.2(±0.1) - 56.7(±0.5) 9.2 -

Balaenoptera acutorostrata2
Physeteridae
Sperm Whale 6.9(±1.63) 2.1 41.3(±19.16) 16.7 5.1

Physeter catodon3
Pygmy Sperm Whale 3.4(±0.24) 2.9(±0.53) 50.5 6.7 5.7

Kogia breviceps4
Dwarf Sperm Whale 4.0(±0.58) 3.5(±0.51) 32.6 12.3 10.7

Kogia sima4
Delphinidae
Long-finned Pilot Whale - - 67* - -

Globicephalus melas
(=Globicephala melaena5)
Atlantic Bottlenose Dolphin 4.5 4.0 65 6.9 6.2

Tursiops truncatus6
Common Dolphin 4.4 2.4 - - -

Delphinus delphis7
Phocoenidae
Harbour Porpoise 5.4-6.3** 2.7-3.6 73.8 7.3- 3.7-4.9

Phocaena communis 8.5
(=Phocoena phocoena8)
Pinnipedia, Phocidae
Southern Elephant Seal 4.8 5.3 73.7 6.5 7.2

Mirounga leonina9
*
Measurements were taken from the published drawings. ** The data for this species
were only presented as ranges by the author, except for the mean total length. Data in
brackets are standard deviations. 1Chittleborough, 1955, LM; 2Mogoe et al., in prep.,
SEM; 3Yamane, 1936 (LM) and Matano et al., 1976 (measurements from SEM
micrographs). The values are means from the two studies. 4Present study, SEM;
5
Measurements from LM drawings in Retzius, 1909; 6Fleming et al., 1981, SEM and
4-42
TEM; 7Reddy, 1996, SEM; 8Ballowitz, 1907, Drawings from LM; 9Cummins, pers.
obs., LM, in: Cummins and Woodall, 1985. LM: light microscopy; SEM: scanning
electron microscopy.
In comparison with other orders of mammals such as rodents and artiodactyls the
midpiece of cetacean spermatozoa is relatively short (Table 4.8). The general arrangement
in mammalian spermatozoa is a number of small, elongate mitochondria arranged end-to-
end and helically wrapped around the midpiece to form a tight coil (Fawcett, 1970; 1975;
Gould et al., 1975; Phillips, 1975; Eddy, 1988). The latter scenario is more commonly
found, but there is a lot of variation in the length of the midpiece and subsequently the
number of mitochondria among the different mammalian orders (Fawcett, 1975; Phillips,
1975; Eddy, 1988), ranging from a short midpiece with as few as 15 gyres of fused
mitochondria in man to a long midpiece with up to 300 gyres in rodents (Fawcett, 1970;
1975; Gould et al., 1975).
Table 4.8: Sperm dimensions from different orders of mammals.

Mean length (µm) % of total
length
Number Head Midpiece Total Head Midpiece
of length
species
All 171 7.9 18.7 96.9 8.4 19.3
Mammalia
Rodentia 92 7.9 25.3 108.9 7.4 23.2
Artiodactyla 14 6.9 9.9 52.2 13.1 19.0
Cetacea 9 4.7(±1.22) 3.0(±0.78) 54.9(±13.71) 8.6 5.5
Data for all Mammalia, rodents and artiodactyls are taken from Cummins and Woodall,
1985. Standard deviations were not provided for those data. For the overall analysis for
the Cetacea, species for which only ranges were provided have been omitted.
A short midpiece is only reported for a few rodent species, namely the coypu
Myocastor coypus, the chinchilla Chinchilla laniger and the casiragua Proechimys
guairae, and man (Cummins and Woodall, 1985). Retzius (1909) reports a short midpiece
in the gibbon Hylobates, the porcupine Hystrix, the sloth Bradypus and in monotremes and
remarks that the mitochondria are spherical in shape in the gibbon and the sloth.
4-43
Unfortunately, there are no recent data to support these observations. As it is assumed that
the conditions in the females’ reproductive tract, encountered by the spermatozoa, do not
vary a great deal between species no explanation for this diversity in midpiece length in
mammalian sperm has been put forward to date (Fawcett, 1975). Thus the arrangement of
separate, spherical mitochondria along a short midpiece, as found in the cetacea, is unique
among mammals. The only other vertebrate for which spherical mitochondria are reported
is the tuatara Sphenodon punctatus (Healy and Jamieson, 1992).
The shape and arrangement of the mitochondria found in the two Kogia species
agrees well with previous findings on cetacean sperm morphology (Retzius, 1909; Reddy,
1996). While Ballowitz reports four rows of mitochondria and shows three or four
mitochondria per row in his drawings of the harbour porpoise P. phocoena spermatozoa
(Ballowitz, 1907), Retzius reports four mitochondria per row and three to four rows for
long-finned pilot whale G. melas sperm (Retzius, 1909). Three rows and three columns of
mitochondria are suggested for the common dolphin D. delphis (Reddy, 1996). The
estimated total number of mitochondria in ceatacean spermatozoa ranges from nine
reported for the common dolphin D. delphis (Reddy, 1996), 12 for the bottlenose dolphin
T. truncatus (Fleming et al., 1981), to 12-16 for the long-finned pilot whale G. melas
(Retzius, 1909) as well as for the harbour porpoise P. phocoena. From the SEM and TEM
examination the number of mitochondria for either Kogia species could range between 20
and 30. These data are in contrast to that of other eutherian mammals, in which the
estimated number of mitochondria is much higher (Fawcett, 1965).
While one would think that a short midpiece as well as a low number of
mitochondria means a lower potential energy output, it appears that spermatozoa can
switch between glycolysis and oxidative phosphorylation in order to obtain energy for
motility. As human sperm also have small mitochondrial sheaths and rely heavily on
glycolysis rather than respiration, the small number of mitochondria in Cetacea suggests a
similar scenario (Jim Cummins, pers. com.). The midpiece of aquatic invertebrates usually
comprises one ring-like mitochondrion or a cluster of four spherical mitochondria
(Fawcett, 1970). Therefore it may be speculated that, in the Cetacea, the spherical
mitochondria present a character that has reverted to the primitive condition (reversal)
rather than a pleisiomorphic character.
Total lengths of spermatozoa in mammals range from 39.96µm reported for the pig
Scus scrofa to 258.32µm for the Chinese hamster Cricetulus griseus (Cummins and
Woodall, 1985). The inverse relationship between body size and total sperm length in
4-44
mammals has been mentioned before (Yamane, 1936) and the cetacea are no exception in
this respect (Table 4.8).
The morphology of spermatozoa correlates far better with the environment in
which fertilization takes place than it does with systematic characters or phylogenetic rank
(Fawcett, 1970). As spermatozoon morphology is thought to be an adaptation to the
specific conditions under which fertilization occurs, it is interesting to note that another
marine mammal, namely the Southern elephant seal Mirounga leonina (Cummins and
Woodall, 1985), shows a relatively short midpiece as well. This information is
unfortunately based on only one other species, but it would be interesting to examine and
compare spermatozoa of other animals with an aquatic lifestyle such as Sirenia, Lutrinae
and Pinnipeds.
In conclusion the main features of cetacean sperm, namely a short midpiece with
few, spherical mitochondria, are unique within the Mammalia. Unfortunately the
physiological processes involved in internal fertilization in an aquatic environment are
poorly understood and the implications of these results are not clear.
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5.1. Theoretical Background

The continued survival of a number of cetacean species depends on adequate
management plans based on knowledge of the reproductive potential and other basic life
history parameters of the species concerned (Read and Gaskin, 1990; Read, 1990a;
1990b; Slooten, 1991; Hohn et al., 1996). In particular, knowledge of female
reproductive parameters is important for forming an understanding of the impacts that
exploitation, habitat degradation, pollution and other factors may have on a population
(Perrin et al., 1976; 1977; Perrin and Henderson, 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Barlow,
1985; Kasuya, 1985; Myrick et al., 1986; Chivers and Myrick, 1993).
But even for species that are unlikely to be exploited knowledge of the
reproductive parameters is essential to facilitate a complete understanding of their life
history. This would enable an assessment of possible future impacts on a population
from factors like pollution and habitat degradation.
Cetacean ovaries are situated on the dorso-lateral side of the abdominal cavity
just behind the kidneys, placing them roughly in the same position as the testes in the
male (Slijper, 1966). The literature on the ovaries of odontocetes has been extensively
reviewed by Slijper (1966), Harrison (1969; 1972) and Harrison and McBrearty (1977).
These works dealt mainly with the macroscopic examination of the ovaries and the
different types of corpora, while others described the histology of the corpora in more
detail (Sergeant, 1962; Slijper, 1966; Best, 1967; Fisher and Harrison, 1970; Harrison,
1977; Collet and Harrison, 1981; Ivashin, 1984; Collet and Robineau, 1988; Claver et
al., 1992). The histology of corpora found in the ovaries of a Kogia breviceps female is
described by Harrison et al. (1972), and Ross (1979; 1984) briefly describes the
macroscopic histology of the ovaries of both K. breviceps and K. sima from South
Africa. Ultrastructural studies of cetacean corpora have been carried out by Bryden et al.
(1984) and Harrison (1977).
Ovary weights have been provided for a number of species and generally
increase with increasing length and age of the animal (Best, 1967; Harrison and
Brownell, 1971; Marsh and Kasuya, 1984; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a; Hohn et al.,
1996). Ross (1979; 1984) provides ovary weights and dimensions for seven K. breviceps
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and 13 K. sima. Harrison et al. (1972) give ovary weights for one mature K. breviceps
female.
Probably the most comprehensive work to date on the anatomy, both gross and
microscopic, of the female reproductive organs of pygmy and dwarf sperm whales was
carried out by Beckmen (1986). She examined nine K. breviceps and seven K. sima
stranded along the Florida coastline and concluded that the reproductive tract of the two
Kogia species is anatomically similar to that of other odontocetes. Immature ovaries of
either Kogia species are ellipsoid in shape (Beckmen, 1986), which is common for
immature odontocetes (Harrison, 1949). The ovaries become less flattened in mature
odontocetes and progressively darker, from a light beige in immature animals to a
brownish grey with increasing age (Harrison, 1949; Beckmen, 1986). The ovaries of
adult animals of either Kogia species are ovoid in shape, although slightly deformed due
to the corpora lutea (CL’s) and corpora albicantia (CA’s) (Beckmen, 1986). In contrast
the ovaries of other adult odontocetes are spherical (Harrison et al., 1972). Corpora
albicantia in the two Kogia species are visible macroscopically in the majority of cases
due to conspicuous pigmentation as a result of varying amounts of lipochromes present
(Beckmen, 1986). Sectioning of the ovary revealed the CA’s to be usually spherical with
or without a core and trabeculations, or button mushroom or crescent shaped (Beckmen,
1986). The corpora lutea (CL’s) were typically mammalian (Beckmen, 1986). Although
not observed by Beckmen (1986), Harrison et al., (1972) report a female K. breviceps
with a pedunculate CL.
The accumulation of ovarian scars in a number of species suggests that, unlike
other mammals, the corpora of ovulation persist throughout life in cetaceans (Slijper,
1966; Best, 1967; Kasuya, 1972; Harrison, 1977; Collet and Harrison, 1981; Marsh and
Kasuya, 1984; Perrin and Donovan, 1984; Slooten, 1991) and therefore present a reliable
record of a females’ reproductive history (Perrin and Reilly, 1984). One exception is the
Franciscana Pontoporia blainvillei, in which the corpora are completely reabsorbed after
four years (Harrison et al., 1981). Evidence for the persistence of corpora in the ovaries
of the two species of Kogia is presented by Ross (1979) and Harrison et al. (1972).
Although some authors claim to be able to distinguish between the scars of ovulations
which were infertile and the scars of ovulations that resulted in a pregnancy (Harrison,
1969; Harrison and Brownell, 1971; Collet and Harrison, 1981; Ivashin, 1984), the
majority of investigators were not able to reliably differentiate two different types of
scars (Perrin et al., 1976; Benirschke et al., 1980; Lockyer, 1984; Perrin and Donovan,
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1984; Beckmen, 1986; Slooten, 1991). It has, however, been suggested that the state of
the endometrial histology would be a better guide to distinguish between a current or
recent pregnancy and an infertile ovulation (Benirschke et al., 1980). The number of
scars present in the ovary of a specimen reflects the number of ovulations the animal has
had during the course of its life and is therefore an indication of the ovulation rate. It
may not, however, accurately represent the number of past pregnancies as a few cetacean
species exhibit a number of infertile ovulations at the onset of sexual maturity (Sergeant,
1962; Perrin et al., 1976; Collet and Harrison, 1981; Miyazaki, 1984; Perrin and Reilly,
1984; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a; Read, 1990a). Furthermore, CL’s have been recorded
in animals, which, upon closer examination, were not pregnant (Benirschke et al., 1980).
Thus ovulation can occur without a subsequent pregnancy as was reported for a number
of delphinids (Harrison and McBrearty, 1977; Benirschke et al., 1980; Benirschke and
Marsh, 1984). Size ranges for CL’s as well as CA’s in the two Kogia species were
provided by Beckmen (1986) and Ross (1979; 1984).
Although accessory corpora (defined as more than one CL occurring per foetus
in a pair of ovaries) have occasionally been reported for other cetaceans (Sergeant, 1962;
Harrison and McBrearty, 1977), including the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus
(Best, 1967), and occur frequently in belugas Delphinapterus leucas (Sergeant, 1973;
Braham, 1984) and narwhals Monodon monoceros (Perrin and Donovan, 1984), there
have been no reports for such a phenomenon in either species of Kogia (Beckmen,
1986).
The CL of pregnancy persists throughout gestation in cetaceans (Matthews,
1938; Best, 1967; Marsh and Kasuya, 1984; Perrin and Donovan, 1984) and rapidly
regresses after birth (Sergeant, 1962; Harrison et al., 1969; Fisher and Harrison, 1970;
Harrison et al., 1981; Marsh and Kasuya, 1984; Perrin and Donovan, 1984). The rate of
regression of CL’s and CA’s has been covered in detail by Best (1968), Perrin et al.
(1976) and Kasuya and Marsh (1984), and briefly by Kasuya et al. (1974), Cockcroft
and Ross (1990a) and Read (1990b).
Harrison (1949) remarks on transverse vaginal folds found in the pilot whale
Globicephala melas and gives a short overview of this phenomenon. The number of
folds varies between different species of cetaceans, but also within a species. It is
thought that the penis probably penetrates these folds during intercourse and that their
function is to promote the emission of seminal fluid. The seminal fluid would collect in
the chambers formed by the vaginal folds, which will prevent seawater from entering the
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uterus (Harrison, 1949; Slijper, 1966), and probably be transported towards the uterus by
means of muscular contraction. Beckmen (1986) found a lot of individual variation in
size, location and configuration of these folds in both Kogia species and the number of
folds varied from one to five or more (Beckmen, 1986).
5.1.2 Spontaneous and induced ovulations, and ovarian symmetry

The question of whether cetaceans have copulation-induced ovulations or
ovulate spontaneously remains unresolved, although it is important in the interpretation
of ovarian corpora and ovulation rates (Perrin and Reilly, 1984). Some mammals have
either exclusively or predominantly copulation-induced ovulation, while the vast
majority exhibits spontaneous ovulation. There is some evidence for copulation-induced
ovulation in the bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus (Harrison et al., 1969; Harrison,
1977; Harrison and McBrearty, 1977), although evidence for spontaneous ovulation was
also presented for the species (Kirby, 1984; Kirby and Ridgway, 1984; Ozharovskaya,
1990; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a). Spontaneous ovulation has been reported for a
number of other delphinids (Harrison et al., 1969; Benirschke et al., 1980; Collet and
Harrison, 1981; Kirby, 1984).
Some mammals ovulate almost exclusively from one ovary, whereas in other
species both ovaries seem to be functional and therefore either exhibit equal ovulation
rates or one ovary being more active than the other (Asdell, 1946; Ohsumi, 1964).
Ohsumi (1964) collected ovaries from mature females of 23 species of Cetacea
containing representatives of all families except those comprising the river dolphins.
From the examination of the number of corpora present in the left and the right ovary, he
described three different types of accumulation rates. Species belonging to the same
genus show the same type of corpora accumulation. All species of mysticetes have an
equal accumulation rate in the left and right ovary (Type I). Although only one specimen
of Kogia (unidentified to species level) was available to him, which had six corpora in
the left ovary and seven in the right, he included the family in the Type I ovulation
pattern; the animal was not identified to species level. The sperm whale P.
macrocephalus was also included in the Type I pattern. It is interesting to note that
another family of the odontocetes, the Ziphiidae, are also reported to have a Type I
ovulation pattern, whereas all the other families in the odontocetes fall in the Type II or
III category (Ohsumi, 1964). Both Type II and III categories are characterised by the
5-5
right ovary maturing somewhat later than the left one, resulting in a higher accumulation
rate in the left ovary in younger animals, which is exceeded by the number of ovulations
from the right ovary in older animals (Ohsumi, 1964). The main difference between the
Type II and Type III ovulation pattern is that the difference in accumulation rate between
the left and right ovary is only slight in the Type II pattern, but quite pronounced in the
Type III pattern (Ohsumi, 1964).
Subsequent examinations support Ohsumi’s findings that odontocetes ovulate
predominantly or exclusively from the left ovary (Best, 1967; Fisher and Harrison, 1970;
Harrison and Ridgway, 1971; Perrin et al., 1977; Benirschke et al., 1980; Collet and
Harrison, 1981; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a; Read, 1990b; Claver et al., 1992; Sørensen
and Kinze, 1994; Read and Hohn, 1995; Hohn et al., 1996; Dans et al., 1997) and a
Type III accumulation pattern has been described for the Franciscana P. blainvillei, in
contrast to a Type I pattern in the other river dolphins (Inia geoffrensis, Platanista minor
and P. gagentica and Lipotes vexilifer) (Brownell, 1984). Harrison, Brownell and Boice
(Harrison et al., 1972) state that a 303cm female K. breviceps stranded at Jekyll Island,
Georgia, had seven corpora in the left ovary and eight in the right ovary, which would
support Ohsumi’s (1964) findings. Beckmen (1986) also reports an equal accumulation
rate in both ovaries as well as an equal implantation rate in both uterine horns for both
Kogia species, but her sample size did not allow any statistical examination of the data.

Unlike the gradual process of sexual maturation in male cetaceans, female
maturation is rapid and the onset of sexual maturity is generally defined as the age at
which a female has ovulated at least once as evidenced by the presence of at least one
corpus in her ovaries (Perrin and Donovan, 1984). The corpora, reflecting the females’
past reproductive history (Perrin and Donovan, 1984), can be related to the age of the
animal in order to determine the age of first ovulation, the birth interval, and the female’s
reproductive lifespan. This in turn, can lead to further indications as to the reproductive
ability of the whole population. Histological examination of the uterus can give further
information on the females’ reproductive status (Benirschke et al., 1980; Slooten, 1991).
There have been conflicting results on the effects of exploitation on the
attainment of sexual maturity (ASM) in small cetaceans (Read and Gaskin, 1990).
Sexual maturity was reached at a shorter body length and a younger age in the more
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exploited stock of spinner dolphins Stenella longirostris in the eastern tropical Pacific
than in the less exploited stock (Perrin et al., 1977; Perrin and Henderson, 1984), while
no change in age at ASM was found for exploited spotted dolphins S. attenuata in the
same area (Myrick et al., 1986). But ASM can vary between different parts of the same
population as seen in the northern form of short-finned pilot whales G. macrorhynchus
that reached sexual maturity at a longer length, but at approximately the same age as the
southern form (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Kasuya and Tai, 1993). Length is usually a
better indicator than age for the attainment of sexual maturity (Hohn et al., 1985). This is
not least due to errors involved in the age estimation of cetaceans (see Chapter 3).
The attainment of sexual maturity often occurs at a younger age and shorter body
length in females than in males of the same species (Laws, 1956; Sergeant, 1962; Perrin
and Reilly, 1984; Evans, 1987; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a; Kasuya and Tai, 1993) and
the length at ASM was found to be remarkably constant in female cetaceans, occurring
on average at 85.1% (range 80.0-88.5%) of asymptotic length (Laws, 1956).
The slow-fast continuum found in other mammals can also be observed in
cetaceans (see Chapter 9). The smaller odontocetes like the phocoenids attain sexual
maturity at an early age between three and six years (Read, 1990a; Read and Hohn,
1995; Hohn et al., 1996), while the smaller delphinids reach sexual maturity around six
to seven years (Perrin and Henderson, 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Slooten, 1991;
Dans et al., 1997). Larger delphinids reach sexual maturity between eight and 16 years
(Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a; Kasuya and Tai, 1993) and
mysticetes between eight and 12 years (Lockyer, 1984; Evans, 1987). In contrast, the
largest mammal on earth, the blue whale Balaenoptera musculus, matures at five to six
years of age (Evans, 1987). Age at ASM is not available for either Kogia species, but
Ross (1979; 1984) estimated the length at ASM to be between 270 and 280cm for
female K. breviceps and between 210 and 220cm for female K. sima (Ross, 1979).
Larger delphinids appear to have longer life spans (between 25-50 years) than the
smaller dolphins (up to 20 years) (Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Slooten, 1991) or the
porpoises (up to 24 years) (Hohn and Brownell, 1990; Lockyer, 1995a), while age
estimates of mysticetes indicate lifespans in excess of 100 years (George et al., 1997).
The biases and degrees of precision resulting from different ways of estimating
age at ASM in cetaceans have been reviewed by Perrin and Reilly (1984) and in more
detail by DeMaster (1984), who found the mean age of first time ovulators the best
estimate. However, most of these estimates require large sample sizes and will thus not
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be applicable to the present study.
5.1.4 Ovulation rate and reproductive cycle

5.1.4.1 Ovulation rate
The number of ovulations a female has per year is termed the annual ovulation
rate and is usually obtained from the slope of the regression equation of the ages of all
mature females versus the total number of corpora (Myrick et al., 1986; Cockcroft and
Ross, 1990a). If the maximum longevity of a species is known, the ovulation rate can
provide an estimate about the maximum lifetime productivity (i.e. the maximum number
of offspring in a lifetime) per female, which in turn is important for population
management.
The occurrence of a number of infertile ovulations at the onset of sexual maturity
in some odontocetes and the decline in ovulation rate with age as well as female
senescence have already been discussed. Age-specific ovulation rates can be calculated
when the sample is large enough to be divided into age classes (Best, 1980; Marsh and
Kasuya, 1984; Perrin and Donovan, 1984; Marsh and Kasuya, 1986), while observations
on smaller samples can only indicate a trend in the number of ovulations in relation to
age. For example, young female harbour porpoises Phocoena phocoena up to the age of
four years ovulate more than once per year without becoming pregnant, whereas older
females usually ovulate only once per year and achieve conception (Read, 1990a). In
contrast, ovulations in older female short-finned pilot whales G. macrorhynchus result
less often in pregnancy than in younger females (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Kasuya and
Tai, 1993). Furthermore, fecundity can vary even between different populations of the
same species and consequently the comparatively shorter reproductive cycles (defined as
the timespan between births) and higher fecundity rates of dusky dolphins
Lagenorhynchus obscurus off Peru have been attributed to exploitation or to an adaptive
strategy to deal with food shortage due to El Niño events (van Waerebeek and Read,
1994).
It is unlikely that all females of a population reach sexual maturity at the same
age and subsequently have the same ovulation rate (Collet and Robineau, 1988). Great
variation occurs in ovulation rates among odontocetes (Sergeant, 1962; Perrin and
Donovan, 1984; Myrick et al., 1986) and there is usually a high variability in the number
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of corpora between individual females of the same age for a given population (Perrin et
al., 1976; Marsh and Kasuya, 1984; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a). The factors that
contribute to this variation include unreliability of age estimates, variation in the age at
ASM, and change in ovulation rate during the reproductive life span (Perrin et al., 1976;
Perrin et al., 1977; Marsh and Kasuya, 1984). As the relationship between estimated age
and the number of corpora cannot always be satisfactorily described by a straight line,
some researchers have fitted a curve instead (Perrin et al., 1976; Marsh and Kasuya,
1984). Those data suggested that the ovulation rate decreases continuously throughout
life in short-finned pilot whales G. macrorhynchus (Marsh and Kasuya, 1984).
The occurrence of reproductively “senescent” females has been reported for a
number of odontocetes (Sergeant, 1962; Best, 1967; Perrin et al., 1976; Perrin et al.,
1977; Best, 1980; Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Myrick et al., 1986; Kasuya and Tai, 1993;
Sørensen and Kinze, 1994), while no evidence for this is present in other species and
populations of odontocetes (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a; Read, 1990a). Several criteria
have been used to identify post-reproductive females in cetacea. These include a decline
in the pregnancy rate with age (Best, 1967; Perrin et al., 1976; Best, 1980), a decline in
the lactation rate (Perrin et al., 1976) and in the ovulation rate with age (Marsh and
Kasuya, 1984; Myrick et al., 1986), absence of young CA’s (indicating no recent
ovulations) in the ovaries of older females (Sergeant, 1962; Perrin et al., 1977; Sørensen
and Kinze, 1994), regressed mammary glands (Sergeant, 1962), withered or atrophied
ovaries (Perrin et al., 1977), lowered mean ovary weights (Myrick et al., 1986), absence
of large follicles in the ovaries (Perrin et al., 1977; Myrick et al., 1986; Sørensen and
Kinze, 1994), a decrease in follicle abundance (Marsh and Kasuya, 1984), follicular
degeneration or atresia with age (Sergeant, 1962; Best, 1967; Marsh and Kasuya, 1984),
and other histological changes of the ovary (Marsh and Kasuya, 1984; Sørensen and
Kinze, 1994). However, not all these criteria reliably indicate senescence in female
cetaceans and this subject has been reviewed thoroughly by Marsh and Kasuya (1986).
In all female mammals the entire number of oocytes is produced prior to birth and
follicle production is always in excess of the number that ovulate. Thus the two major
factors influencing the age at senescence are the depletion of oocytes and age-related,
degenerative changes of the uterus (Marsh and Kasuya, 1986). These have also been
reported in long-finned pilot whales G. melas (Sergeant, 1962). Post-reproductive female
short-finned pilot whales G. macrorhynchus have an average life expectancy of another
14 years (Marsh and Kasuya, 1984; 1986), whereas the ages of two senescent harbour
5-9
porpoises were 18 and 19 years, respectively (Sørensen and Kinze, 1994). This is close
to the maximum age of 24 years reported for the species (Hohn and Brownell, 1990;
Lockyer, 1995a). Post reproductive females are observed less frequently in long-finned
pilot whales G. melas (Sergeant, 1962) and spotted (S. attenuata) and spinner dolphins
(S. longirostris) (Perrin et al., 1976; Perrin et al., 1977) than in short-finned pilot whales
G. macrorhynchus (Marsh and Kasuya, 1984) and evidence for non-reproductive
matings in the latter species suggests that the social system may be the determining
factor for these differences (Myrick et al., 1986; Kasuya et al., 1993).
5.1.4.2 Gestation
While gestation lengths in baleen whales range from 10 months in right whales
(Eubalaena australia and E. glacialis) and minke whales (B. acutorostrata) to 12 or 13
months in the bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus, sei whale B. borealis and pygmy
right whale Carperea marginata (Lockyer, 1984; Evans, 1987), the range of gestation
lengths is much broader in odontocetes. The river dolphins exhibit gestation lengths
around 10 months (Brownell, 1984; Evans, 1987) and the porpoises around 11 months
(Gaskin et al., 1984; Evans, 1987). In the dolphins, pregnancy can last between 10 and
12 months in the smaller species and 11 to 16 months in the larger pilot whales (genus
Globicephala) and the killer whale Orcinus orca (Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Evans, 1987).
Monodontidae have gestation lengths of 14 and 15 months (Braham, 1984; Evans, 1987)
and the longest gestation reported for odontocetes and in fact for any cetacean is that of
the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus, which can last 15 to 17 months on average
and up to 19 months maximum (Best, 1968; Best et al., 1984; Evans, 1987). However,
within a species of delphinid gestation length is one of the least variable reproductive
parameters (Perrin and Reilly, 1984). The length at birth for either Kogia species has
been discussed in detail in Chapter 3 and estimates of birth size have been used to
estimate the length of gestation in delphinids (Kasuya, 1977). These data will be used to
verify the length of gestation in the two species of Kogia.
Observations of cetacean parturitions both in the wild and captivity are rare. The
only account published on a parturition in a Kogia species is by Hückstädt and Antezana
(2001) on a 277cm long female K. breviceps, which gave birth to a male foetus and was
accompanied by a 153cm long male calf. Unfortunately, no data were available on the
length of the newborn.
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5.1.4.3 Lactation and weaning
Only few studies have been carried out on lactation in cetacea and even less
information is available on its energetic demands on the mother. Data on the
composition of whale milk in general and K. breviceps milk in particular are presented
by Slijper (1966) and Jenness and Odell (1978), respectively. Cetacean milk is much
richer in fat than that of most terrestrial mammals (Gaskin, 1982), possibly because the
offspring needs to grow at a fast rate after birth to reach a smaller surface area to volume
ratio, which is more advantageous in the cool aquatic environment. Although the
energetic demands increase exponentially in the second half of pregnancy in baleen
whales (Evans, 1987), the overall costs of lactation were higher than the costs of
gestation in fin whales B. physalus and probably most other whales (Evans, 1987;
Lockyer, 1987). Cockcroft and Ross (1990b) came to the same conclusion when
estimating the energy required for lactation in a bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus.
Furthermore, body condition, food abundance and fertility are intimately linked in a
number of marine mammals (Lockyer, 1987; Stewart et al., 1989). The costs of lactation
are greater in recently matured females as they are still actively growing to reach
physical maturity (Evans, 1987). The length of lactation ranges from five to six months
in bowhead whales B. mysticetus and pygmy right whales C. marginata to 10-12 months
in humpback whales Megaptera novaeangliae (Lockyer, 1984; Evans, 1987). While
mysticetes appear to invest more energy in calf bearing, as reflected by the longer
gestation lengths in relation to duration of lactation, odontocetes seem to invest more in
calf rearing (Evans, 1987). As already observed with gestation length, the duration of
lactation varies greatly among the odontocetes and is the most variable component of the
reproductive cycle (Gaskin et al., 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Evans, 1987; Read,
1990b). For the majority of odontocetes the lactation period lasts between 18 and 20
months, although some solid food will be taken on average from six months onwards
(Sergeant, 1962; Evans, 1987; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990b). In the sperm whale P.
macrocephalus the length of lactation is on average 24 to 25 months (Best, 1968; Evans,
1987), but some male sperm whales may suckle for up to 13 years, females up to 7.5
years (Best et al., 1984). This is thought to have a social function rather than a
nutritional one (Best et al., 1984). One reason why the length of lactation appears so
varied in odontocetes may be that the lactation period is more difficult to estimate than
the length of gestation (Evans, 1987).
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Weaning is a response to increased energy requirements resulting from growth

and possibly also increased activity of the young (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990b). Solids
are taken on average from six months onwards, although in some species calves appear
to feed independently from as early as three months of age (Perrin and Reilly, 1984). In
calves of the bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus solids first appear in the stomach at six
months of age, although milk remains are still present until three years of age (Cockcroft
and Ross, 1990a). Lactation in species inhabiting inshore waters may last longer as
calves may need a greater amount of maternal care and a longer learning period in order
to master the more complex inshore environment (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990b). Weaning
may coincide with a peak in food availability as reported for the northern form of short-
finned pilot whales G. macrorhynchus off Japan (Kasuya and Tai, 1993). Usually the
age at weaning is estimated from the oldest suckling calf in the sample, but the result
may be biased by individual variation in growth rate (Evans, 1987). Another method
determines the presence of lactose in the stomachs of calves (Best et al., 1984).
Although an estimate of the age at weaning can be obtained by either method, some
species may continue suckling for long periods of time to maintain the social bond
(“social suckling”) as seen in the sperm whale P. macrocephalus, and therefore this
estimate may be biased (Evans, 1987).
In K. breviceps the calf usually stays with the cow during the first year (Allen,
1941). Evidence from South Africa suggests that calves stop suckling between 171cm
and 202cm of body length (Ross, 1979). A 189cm calf from Australia was still reported
to be suckling (Hale, 1962). Data from the south-eastern United States suggest that the
young may take solid food from 160cm onwards (Caldwell and Golley, 1965). The close
association between mother and calf probably ends shortly after weaning in K. breviceps
(Ross, 1979). K. sima from South Africa may suckle until over 150cm in length, but a
136cm long calf already showed indications of taking solid food (Ross, 1979).
5.1.4.4 Simultaneous lactation and pregnancy
Simultaneous lactation and pregnancy is not uncommon in cetaceans and has

been reported for a number of species (Best, 1968; Perrin et al., 1976; Perrin et al., 1977;
Marsh and Kasuya, 1984; Miyazaki, 1984), but is usually only found in a very low
percentage of the total sample of adult females.
The phenomenon of simultaneously lactating and pregnant females indicates that
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the females can conceive during lactation (Best, 1968; Perrin et al., 1976; Kasuya and
Tai, 1993). A detailed investigation of this phenomenon in short-finned pilot whales G.
macrorhynchus showed that females conceive either towards the end of lactation and/or
that once lactating females become pregnant they cease lactation soon afterwards
(Kasuya and Tai, 1993). In sperm whales P. macrocephalus post-partum, mid-lactation
and post-lactation ovulations are rare, but about 39% of mature females show at least
one ovulation in late lactation and almost all females ovulate after the resting period
(Best, 1968). Based on the occurrence of Graafian follicles in lactating female spotted
dolphins S. attenuata Perrin et al. (1976) suggest that oestrus occurs sometime after
parturition as opposed to immediately after parturition. A true postpartum oestrus
followed by a pre-implantation pregnancy was described for harbour porpoises P.
phocoena (Read, 1990b).
Among the mysticetes, humpback whales M. novaeangliae are often observed
with calves in successive years, although the most common reproductive cycle lasts two
to three years (Straley et al., 1994). This implies that the females are capable of
conceiving at postpartum ovulation. Evidence has emerged that these postpartum
pregnancies are successful and that older females appear better in achieving annual
reproduction (Straley et al., 1994). Annual reproduction in this species may be a
common event, but only a small percentage of mature females may be able to maintain it
and deal with the constraints involved (Straley et al., 1994). The maintenance of a
postpartum pregnancy could be dependent on the physiological and metabolic condition
of the mother and is probably intimately linked to sufficient prey resources (Straley et
al., 1994).
Simultaneously pregnant and lactating Kogia are reported frequently (Allen,
1941; Hale, 1947; Ross, 1979; Odell et al., 1984; Price et al., 1984; Ross, 1984;
Beckmen, 1986; Credle, 1988; Hückstädt and Antezana, 2001), which led to
speculations that some females may breed annually (Ross, 1979; Baird et al., 1996).
However, to date there are no data on ovulation rates to support this suggestion.
5.1.4.5 Resting period
Female cetaceans that are neither pregnant nor lactating are usually classified as
resting (Perrin and Reilly, 1984) and the resting period is a stable part of the reproductive
cycle of many cetaceans (Best, 1968; Lockyer, 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984). The
5-13
resting period is thought to aid in refilling the energy reserves of the female exhausted by
the high costs of lactation discussed above (Gaskin, 1982). This resting phase can range
between two and fifteen months in odontocetes (Best, 1968; Perrin and Reilly, 1984;
Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a), but on average lasts four to five months (Perrin and Reilly,
1984; Evans, 1987). Lactation and resting phase may lengthen with age in the striped
dolphin S. coeruleoalba and as a result the reproductive cycle becomes longer in older
females (Miyazaki, 1984). The resting period may be absent in species that exhibit
annual ovulations such as the harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Read and Hohn, 1995) and
Dall’s porpoise Phocoenoides dalli (Ferrero and Walker, 1999).
5.1.5 Seasonality
The concepts underlying seasonal reproduction in mammals have already been
introduced in Chapter 4 and the most accessible data describing the seasonal
reproduction of a species in marine mammals are derived from the calving period
(Barlow, 1984).
Seasonal reproduction has been observed widely in cetaceans. Mysticetes
typically show a definite, highly synchronised annual reproductive season, whereas in
odontocetes a variety of patterns are observed (see Kasuya, 1995 for a review of
parturition season and calving peaks). Some odontocetes exhibit a definite calving
season, which is often protracted over a few months (Best, 1968; Sergeant, 1973;
Braham, 1984; Aguilar, 1991; van Waerebeek and Read, 1994; Dans et al., 1997). In
contrast, the seasonal frequency of ovulations in long-finned pilot whales G. melas
showed that ovulations probably occur throughout the year and thus the observed
calving peak must be due to the reported seasonal trend in the male reproductive activity
(Sergeant, 1962). An extremely high degree of reproductive synchrony is found in the
harbour porpoise P. phocoena from the North Atlantic (Fisher and Harrison, 1970;
Gaskin et al., 1984; Read, 1990b; Read and Hohn, 1995), with the vast majority of births
occurring over a one month period (Read, 1990b; Read and Hohn, 1995). Possibly a
similar scenario is found in the vaquita P. sinus (Hohn et al., 1996). The obvious
implications of synchronized reproduction are that a female that either fails to mate, fails
to fall pregnant, aborts her foetus or looses her calf, will have to wait for the next mating
season (which may be as long as 12 months away) in order to mate again (Barlow, 1984;
Read, 1990b) (see Chapter 4). A short breeding season is a reflection of the limited time
5-14
span in which conditions are suitable for calving (Kasuya, 1995). Some odontocete
species show births all year round, but exhibit a calving peak over part of the year, a
phenomenon that is termed “diffusely seasonal” (Sergeant, 1962; Harrison and Ridgway,
1971; Wells et al., 1987; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a; Martin and Rothery, 1993; Thayer
et al., 2003).
Synchrony and seasonality of reproduction vary with latitude in many terrestrial
mammals. At high latitudes, where the seasons are more pronounced, births occur over a
well-defined short period and are timed in such a way that the elevated energy demands
of females and their offspring coincide with times of maximum food availability
(Bronson, 1989). In the tropics the birthing period is much less pronounced with
reproduction often occurring year-round (Bronson, 1989). This general latitudinal
pattern of reproductive seasonality can also be observed in odontocetes (Barlow, 1984;
Read, 1990b), but it appears that populations of the same species at similar latitudes can
exhibit distinctly different patterns of reproduction (Urian et al., 1996). Geographical
differences in reproductive seasonality, which supported differentiation into different
populations, have been observed within stocks of spotted and spinner dolphins (Stenella
spp.) in the eastern tropical Pacific (Barlow, 1984).
Most cases of seasonal reproduction in terrestrial mammals reflect variation of
interacting dietary and climatic factors: namely food, rainfall and temperature (Bronson,
1989). Photoperiod, which changes with latitude, influences the length of the pupping
season in captive California sea lions Zalophus californianus (Temte and Temte, 1993),
although latitude does not affect reproductive seasonality in bottlenose dolphins T.
truncatus (Urian et al., 1996). More likely the seasonal availability of local resources
like primary prey species may play a role in the seasonal timing of reproduction in this
species (Urian et al., 1996). In Atlantic harp seals Phoca groenlandica environmental
factors like storms and lack of suitable ice conditions in addition to female body
condition have an influence on the timing of reproduction (Stewart et al., 1989).
Lactational demands often bring about a change in dietary requirements (Bernard and
Hohn, 1989; Young and Cockcroft, 1994) (see Chapter 6), which results in the timing of
reproduction being closely related to seasonal peaks in food availability and abundance
(Wells et al., 1987; Bernard and Hohn, 1989; Aguilar, 1991; Young and Cockcroft,
1994) as well as prey quality (Read, 1990b). Another factor that may determine seasonal
reproduction in cetaceans is water temperature, which in turn may affect prey
availability (Urian et al., 1996), but may also be important for the thermoregulatory
5-15
requirements of the calf (Wells et al., 1987; Aguilar, 1991).

Differences in seasonality between different populations of the same species
were reported in striped dolphins S. coeruleoalba (Kasuya, 1972; Miyazaki, 1984;
Aguilar, 1991), short-finned pilot whales G. macrorhynchus (Kasuya and Marsh, 1984;
Kasuya and Tai, 1993) and the harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Read, 1990b; Sørensen
and Kinze, 1994) and were attributed to differences in climate (Sørensen and Kinze,
1994), food availability (Barlow, 1984; Aguilar, 1991; Kasuya and Tai, 1993) and food
quality (Read, 1990b; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994), variation in water temperatures
(Aguilar, 1991; Kasuya and Tai, 1993) and degree of exploitation (Barlow, 1984).
Allen (1941) suggests that mating in K. breviceps takes place in late summer in
the Northern Hemisphere and birth in the following spring after about nine months of
gestation. The possibility of food availability as well as temperature playing a role in the
reproductive seasonality of the two Kogia species will be further explored in Chapters 6
and 7. Other, perhaps less major, factors influencing seasonality are competition between
different populations or species for similar types of resources (see Chapter 6) and
avoidance of predation by either concentrating or spacing out of births (Rutberg, 1987;
Wells et al., 1987; Bronson, 1989).
5.1.6 Reproductive strategy

As seen from the data on length of gestation, lactation, and resting period, the
majority of mysticetes and odontocetes exhibit a reproductive cycle that lasts between
two and three years (Sergeant, 1962; Gaskin, 1982; Brownell, 1984; Gaskin et al., 1984;
Lockyer, 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Evans, 1987; Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a).
Exceptions already mentioned include some populations of the harbour porpoise P.
phocoena (Gaskin et al., 1984; Read, 1990a; Read and Hohn, 1995), the Dall’s porpoise
P. dalli (Kasuya, 1978; Ferrero and Walker, 1999), minke whales B. acutorostrata
(Masaki, 1979 in: Lockyer, 1984; Lockyer, 1984) and individual humpback whales M.
novaeangliae (Straley et al., 1994), which all show annual reproductive cycles. Another
exception is the sperm whale P. macrocephalus, which has a calving interval of four to
six years (Best, 1968; Best et al., 1984).
Larger odontocetes appear to have a longer lifespan, but do not necessarily
produce a substantially larger number of offspring as they become sexually mature at a
later stage and have longer inter-calf intervals (Slooten, 1991). Consequently the number
5-16
of calves produced per lifetime in long-finned pilot whales G. melas was estimated to be
nine (although no estimate for lifespan was given) (Sergeant, 1962), while that for the
Hector’s dolphin Cephalorhynchus hectori (lifespan: 19yrs; Slooten, 1991) and other
small odontocetes like the Commerson’s dolphin C. commersonii (lifespan: 18yrs; Collet
and Robineau, 1988; Lockyer et al., 1988), harbour porpoise P. phocoena (lifespan:
15yrs; Gaskin et al., 1984; Read, 1990a) and the Franciscana P.blainvillei (lifespan:
16yrs; Kasuya and Brownell, 1979; Brownell, 1984) was estimated at four to seven
(Slooten, 1991).
5.1.7 Foetal and juvenile sex ratio

Biased foetal and juvenile sex ratios are commonly observed in mammals
(Clutton-Brock and Iason, 1986) and are also reported for a few cetacean species
(Aguilar, 1991; Read and Hohn, 1995; Lockyer, 1995a; Clapham, 1996). The theory that
under certain conditions natural selection favours parental ability to adjust the sex ratio
of their offspring was first put forward by Trivers and Willard (1973). Maternal
condition as well as parental investment is reflected in the fitness of their offspring and
males in good condition may gain access to more females and thus pass on their genes to
more offspring than females in similar condition (Trivers and Willard, 1973). Breeding
success of males of polygynous species generally depends on their fighting ability (male-
male competition over females) and therefore body size (Clutton-Brock et al., 1984;
Clutton-Brock and Iason, 1986) (see Chapter 4). This in turn is a result of growth and
nutrition during the first months and years of their lives (Clutton-Brock et al., 1984;
1985). Nutrition has a weaker influence on growth in females than in males and there is
no evidence that this trend is reversed in species where females are larger than males
(Clutton-Brock et al., 1984; 1985). Clutton-Brock et al. (1985) and Clapham (1996)
suggest that different selection pressures operate on males and females concerning body
size and larger female size may have evolved to ensure reproductive success, as bigger
females are better mothers (Ralls, 1976). Accordingly a female in good condition should
invest in male offspring in order to leave more surviving offspring, while a female in
poor condition should invest in female offspring (Trivers and Willard, 1973). Existing
data from mammals and subsequent research support this theory (Clutton-Brock et al.,
1984; 1985; Clutton-Brock and Iason, 1986; Wiley and Clapham, 1993). Other factors
that may lead to a biased sex ratio include competition between parents and offspring,
5-17
the age, fecundity and nutrition of the mother, stress, habitat quality, population
demographics and climatic variation (Clutton-Brock and Iason, 1986).
Data about the effects of parental investment on the fitness of the offspring and
the costs of producing and rearing the two sexes is still scanty. In red deer, for example,
nutrition may affect the fitness of sons more, whereas social assistance may be more
important for the fitness of daughters (Clutton-Brock and Iason, 1986). In many sexually
dimorphic species food shortage may have a greater effect on male than on female
offspring as they have faster growth rates associated with higher metabolic rates (Ralls et
al., 1980; Clutton-Brock and Iason, 1986). The trends found in mammal populations will
almost certainly not conform to any single adaptive hypothesis, but will be the result of a
number of factors.

In the present study, length and age at ASM were determined based on the
examination of ovarian corpora. Using these results annual ovulation rates and
maximum lifetime reproductive output were calculated. Ovarian symmetry and
indicators of a seasonal reproductive cycle in both species were examined. The lengths
of the gestation and lactation periods were determined and conclusions were drawn
about the reproductive strategies employed by females of either species of Kogia.
5.2 Materials and Methods
5.2.1 Sample
Reproductive organs from 25 female K. breviceps and 26 female K. sima from
South Africa were examined to determine the reproductive status of the individual
animals.
5.2.2 Determination of past reproductive history

Ovaries were weighed, sectioned at 1mm intervals and examined
macroscopically to determine the total number of CL’s and CA’s for each animal. Since
corpora atretica result from non-ovulatory events (Best, 1967; Perrin and Donovan,
1984) these were not included in the corpora count. Although CA’s in Kogia are easily
5-18
visible macroscopically, corpora atretica can apparently be confused with old shrunken
CA’s in this genus (Beckmen, 1986), although Ross (1979; 1984) did not report this.
Since the fixation of the material was too poor to allow detailed histological examination
and, as CA’s are relatively larger than corpora atretica (Beckmen, 1986), I am confident
that corpora atretica were not mistaken for CA’s. Where possible the total number of
corpora in the left ovary versus the total number of corpora in the right ovary was also
recorded. The length, height and width of the CL’s and the largest CA were measured
using vernier callipers and a corpus index (mm3) was calculated for each (after
Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a).
The reproductive condition of the females (i.e. lactating and/or pregnant) at the
time of stranding was recorded as was the total length, weight and sex of the foetuses.
Lactating females and calves that stranded together were considered cow/calf pairs
(sensu Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a). If the larger female was not lactating, but both
animals stranded in the same location on the same date or a few days apart, they were
considered possible cow/calf pairs. The same was assumed in the case of some refloated
animals where definite relationships could not be established.
5.2.3 Examination of seasonality

To examine the seasonality of mating and calving in K. breviceps three foetuses
and 11 juveniles from Australia were included in the sample as they originate from the
same hemisphere and may thus reflect the same seasonality (see Appendix C). Although
age estimates were only available for eight of the 11 juveniles the other three were
included as their lengths fell within the range for animals up to and including two years
of age as indicated by the growth curve (i.e. 210cm) (see Chapter 3). Similarly four
South African juveniles with no age estimate were included. For K. sima no Australian
foetuses or juveniles were included and age estimates were only available for three
South African juveniles. However, the total lengths of the remaining four juveniles fell
within the range for animals up to and including two years (i.e. 160cm) and were thus
included in the analysis.
5-19
5.3 Results
5.3.1 Female Reproduction

The colour of the ovaries of both species changed from beige or white in
immature ovaries (i.e. ovaries without Graafian follicles or corpora) to dark grey, dark
brown or black in mature ovaries (Figure 5.1).
K. breviceps
To test whether or not ovulations occurred equally in both ovaries a paired t-test
was carried out on data available for 13 K. breviceps females stranded along the South
African coastline and for two taken from the literature (Harrison et al., 1972; Jenness
and Odell, 1978) (Table 5.1). No significant difference was found between the
accumulation rate of the left (total: 79 corpora) and of the right (total: 66 corpora) ovary
at the 5% level (p=0.29), which indicates that ovulations occur equally in both ovaries.
On the basis of corpora present in the ovaries, 17 females out of 23 examined
were mature and six females were immature (Figure 5.2, Table 5.2). A marked increase
in the number of corpora present in the ovaries occurred at a body length of around
260cm and about seven GLGs (Figure 5.2). No female had only one corpus present in
her ovaries, but three females measuring 262cm, 263cm and 266cm with seven GLGs,
7.73GLGs and seven GLGs, respectively, all had two corpora (Figure 5.2). The onset of
sexual maturity in female K. breviceps is therefore estimated to be at about 262cm and
seven GLGs. However, considering that the ovulation rate is one per year in this species
(see below) and both females already had two corpora present in the ovaries, sexual
maturity occurs most likely at around five years. The youngest female with corpora in
her ovaries was estimated to be 6.29 years and had 4 corpora present. The maximum
number of corpora recorded was 16 for two females (SAM 81/22 and SAM 86/17),
which measured 301cm and 321cm and had GLG counts of 22 and 19, respectively.
A concurrent increase in combined ovarian weight was observed at a total body
length of about 260cm and at about six GLGs (Figure 5.3). The highest combined ovary
weight in an immature female was 12.2g (L: 256.5cm, GLGs: 3.4) and the lowest
5-20
Figure 5.1: Ovaries of Kogia. A) Immature ovari es. 8) Mature ovaries.

CL: Corpus luteum. CA: Corpus albical1s. C) Mature ovaries. F: Follicles.
5-21
a)
20
n=22
18
Total number of corpora
16
14
12
10
8 (3)
6
4 (3)
2
0
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Body length (cm)
b)
20
n=17
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
(2) (2)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age estimate
(GLG's)
Figure 5.2: Attainment of sexual maturity, in relation to (a) length

and (b) estimated age, and ovulation rate in female Kogia breviceps.
The solid line (b) represents the regression (y=-2.7+0.9x) between
the number of corpora and the age for mature females (r2=0.86).
5-22
a)
60
n=22
Combined ovary weight (g)
50
40
30
20
10
Immature
Mature
0
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Body length (cm)
b)
60
n=17
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age estimate
(GLG's)
Figure 5.3: Increase of combined ovary weight with (a)

body length and (b) estimated age in female
Kogia breviceps.
5-23
combined ovary weight for a mature female with seven corpora was 17.42g (L: 305.5cm,
GLGs: 12.63), which indicates that sexual maturity occurs between 12g and 17g of
combined ovary weight. One female (SAM 82/20), although mature (with three corpora
in her ovaries), had a combined ovary weight of only 13.8g, but one of the ovaries was
much smaller than the other one.
Table 5.1: Accumulation of corpora in the left and the right ovary of female Kogia
breviceps. No significant difference was found between the accumulation rate of the
left and of the right ovary at the 5% level (p = 0.29), indicating ovulations occur
equally in both ovaries.
Animal No. Number of corpora in the Number of corpora in the
left ovary right ovary
94/09 1 1
92/14 4 3
86/17 9 7
84/24 3 4
83/20 8 2
82/20 0 3
82/04 7 6
81/22 10 6
78/25 2 2
78/19 2 1
N1078 0 2
N178 8 3
N176 2 5
Jenness and Odell,
1978 16 13
Harrison
et al., 1972 7 8
n=15 total=79 total=66
x ± SE 5.3 (±4.5) 4.4 (±3.22)
The heaviest immature K. breviceps female weighed 272.16kg (L: 256.5cm,

GLGs: 3.4) (Table 5.2). The lightest mature female was 301kg (L: 266cm, GLGs: 7)
(Table 5.2). Therefore the weight at the onset of sexual maturity was between 272.2kg
and 301kg for female K. breviceps (Table 5.2).
5-24
breviceps females. Determination of maturity was based on histological examination
of the reproductive organs and only specimens for which the state of maturity could
be confirmed histologically were included here (i.e. calves were excluded).
Immature Mature
n range n range
Age (GLGs) 4 1.25-3.4 13 6.29-22.0
Length (cm) 6 184.0-256.6 17 262.0-321.0
Mass (kg) 4 83.5-272.16 7 301.0-480.0
A regression for all mature females of estimated age against total number of
corpora is described by the regression equation y = -2.7+0.9x (where y is the total
number of corpora and x is the age estimate (GLGs)) and yields an ovulation rate of 0.9
per year (Figure 5.2). This indicates that, on average, ovulations occur about every 13.3
months.
No post-reproductive females were observed based on macroscopic examination
of the ovaries. The two oldest females both had 16 corpora in their ovaries and were 19
and 22 years old, respectively (Figure 5.2b), indicating that both females probably
ovulated annually after reaching sexual maturity. The oldest female that was pregnant
(PEM N178) had an estimated age of 16.5GLGs (Table 5.3).
Data on the length at birth in this species were examined in Chapter 3. Using
Kasuya’s (1977) formula ( t g − t 0 = x/(0.001802x + 0.1234); where x=mean neonatal
length in cm, and t g − t 0 : the linear foetal growth period i.e. a minimum estimate of
gestation) the gestation length calculated based on a neonate length of 120cm is 353.3
days or 11.8 months.
The monthly occurrence of foetuses and juveniles up to and including the age of
two GLGs suggests a reproductive season with conceptions occurring from April to
September and births possibly occurring from March to August (Figure 5.4). The
Australian specimens included in this analysis showed the same trend. These results
would suggest a gestation period of approximately 11 months. This in combination with
a high percentage of simultaneously pregnant and lactating females (24.1%) and the
ovulation rate suggests annual reproduction for K. breviceps.
The results for the largest corpus (CL or CA) plotted versus month did not
support the trend in seasonality seen in Figure 5.4, although the largest corpus still fell
into the mating season (September) (Figure 5.5a). When the CL index was plotted
5-25
against the length of the foetus or calf it appeared to decrease with increasing length of
the offspring. However, a range of CL indices was observed for foetuses between
17.9cm and 49cm (Figure 5.5b).
The longest calf that stranded with a lactating cow measured 211cm (Table 5.3),
which would coincide with about two GLGs if extrapolated from the growth curve (see
Chapter 3). A 202cm long calf, which also stranded with a lactating female, had an age
estimate of two GLGs (Table 5.3), which indicates that lactation can last up to two years.
However, the shortest calf that stranded with a cow that was not lactating measured
180cm (Table 5.3). This would indicate that it was around one year old (extrapolated
from the growth curve) (see Chapter 3). Another cow, which only showed traces of milk,
was accompanied by a 191cm long calf that had an age estimate of just under one GLG
(Table 5.3). These data indicate that weaning may start after a year of lactation, but that
lactation may continue for two years.
The foetal sex ratio of the 12 K. breviceps foetuses present was 1:1.4 for females
(n=5) to males (n=7), respectively. The juvenile sex ratio for 19 calves up to and
including two years of age (≤210cm) was 1:2.2 for females (n=6) to males (n=13),
respectively. However, neither the foetal nor the juvenile sex ratio were significantly
different from parity (χ2=0.33 and 2.58, respectively; p>0.05).
Table 5.3: Records of female Kogia breviceps stranded along the Southern African
coastline with a foetus or calf. Information on the animals’ length, age and sex was
included whenever available.
a) Assumed cow/calf pairs

No. of Length Age of Sex Length of Sex of Comments
cow/calf of cow/ cow/ of foetus foetus
calf Calf calf (cm)
(cm)
N41 269.5 -
N40 211 - - 19.5 F cow lactating
N138 305 9
- - - - 113.5 M -
N277 266 7
N278 204 - F 31 - -
78/25 - 6.29
- - - - 27 F -
82/04 288 14 cow lactating
* ca 150 - - 49 F
5-26
N853 297 - cow lactating

N854 202 - M - -
82/27 300 4.4
- - - - 65 -
83/20 301 14.5 traces of milk
83/21 191 - M 21 F
N1078 262 7 cow lactating
N1079 194 - M 48 M
N1707 286 -
- - - - 27.5 M? -
92/14 300 7 cow lact., with
* - - - 38 F 2 smaller
indiv.
b) Possible cow/calf pairs

No. of Length Age Sex of Length of Sex of Comments
cow/ of cow/ of calf foetus foetus
calf calf cow/ (cm)
(cm) calf
- * - with much
68/13 194.3 0.71 M - - larger
indiv.(cow?)
N178 309.5 16.5
N179 197 - M 17.9 M -
N176 305.5 12.63
177 202 1.33 M 23 M -
82/20 299 - -
82/21 215+ 2.29 M - -
N1174 290 - -
* - - - - -
N1862 320 - -
N1863 213 1.25 M - -
94/09 263 7.73
* 180 - - 28.6 M -
96/16 281.5 9
96/17 184 1.25 F 23 M -
*
= animal refloated; age of calf= complete GLGs plus increment.
5-27
250
Foetus: n=14
Juvenile: n=18
200 Australian specimen: n=16
Foetus plotted 12 months
out of shift
Length (cm)
150
Length at birth
100
50
0
J FMAM J J A S O ND J F MAM J J A S O N D J
Month
200
Foetus: n=5
Juvenile: n=10
Australian specimen: n=3
150 Foetus plotted 12 months
out of shift
Weight (kg)
100
50 Weight at birth
(2)
0
J F MAM J J A S O N D J F MAM J J A S O
Month
Figure 5.4: Occurence of Kogia breviceps foetuses (filled circles) and

juveniles (up to and including the age of two)(filled triangles)
throughout the year. Open circles are original data plotted 12 months
out of shift. All juveniles were plotted 12 months out of shift. Three of
the Australian specimens included (indicated as squares) were
foetuses and 11 were juveniles, although weights were only available
for two Australian foetuses and one juvenile.
5-28
a)
50000
n=16
40000
Corpus index (mm3)
30000
20000
10000
Month
b)
50000
n=11
40000
Corpus index (mm )
3
30000
20000
10000
0 50 100 150 200 250

Foetal/calf length (cm)
Figure 5.5: Corpus index (in mm3) of the largest corpus (CL or CA)
in relation to month (a) and foetal or calf length (b) in Kogia breviceps.
5-29
K. sima
There was a significant difference at the 5% level in the rate at which corpora
accumulated in the ovaries of nine female K. sima from South Africa (p=0.0159), with
the left ovary (total: 22corpora) being significantly more active than the right one (total:
9 corpora) (Table 5.4).
Table 5.4: Accumulation of corpora in the left and the right ovary in female Kogia
sima.
Animal No. Number of corpora in Number of corpora in the
the left ovary right ovary
88/20 1 0
88/02 1 2
81/03 1 0
76/03 4 1
N832 3 0
N829 3 3
N678 4 1
N243 2 1
N145 3 1
n=9 total=22 total=9
x ±SE 2.4 (±1.2) 1.0 (±1.0)
Based on examination of the ovaries, 15 females were mature and 10 immature

(Figure 5.6, Table 5.5). The onset of sexual maturity in K. sima females is somewhat
clearer than in K. breviceps. A marked increase in the total number of corpora occurred
just below a total body length of 220cm and around five GLGs (Figure 5.6). The shortest
female with only one corpus was 215cm long (GLGs: 4.5) (Figure 5.6). Two other
females with one corpus in the ovaries measured 231cm and 255cm and had 6.12 and
five GLGs, respectively. No age estimate was available for a 220cm long female with
one corpus. Therefore the onset of sexual maturity for K. sima females seems to occur at
about 215cm and around five GLGs (Figure 5.6). The youngest mature female had a
GLG reading of 4.25, but already three corpora present in her ovaries. The highest
number of corpora recorded for K. sima was nine in a 236cm long female (PEM N1322,
GLGs: 14).
Two outliers were observed: a 265cm long female (PEM N682) with no corpora
in her ovaries, for which no age estimate was available, and a 250cm long female (PEM
5-30
N440) with one corpus and an age estimate of 8.56GLGs (Figure 5.6a,b, respectively).
As these two females seem to have an unusually low corpora count for their length and
age it is suggested that they possibly suffered from some impairment of reproductive
ability.
The increase in combined ovarian weight with the onset of maturity was not as
clear as previously observed for K. breviceps, although there was a general trend of
increasing combined ovary weight with increasing length and age (Figure 5.7). The
highest combined ovary weight for an immature female was 11.63g (L: 189cm, no age
estimate available) and the lowest combined ovary weight for a mature female with one
corpus was 3.52g (L: 255cm, GLGs: 5), although in the latter case one ovary appeared
extremely small and was possibly infertile. There were a number of outliers that should
be mentioned. Two mature females (SAM 78/17 and PEM N829), based on the presence
of corpora in their ovaries, showed very low combined ovary weights of 3.52g and
4.57g, respectively for their length (L: 255cm and 238cm, GLGs: five and no age
estimate available, respectively). In contrast, one immature female (PEM N207) had a
remarkably high combined ovary weight of 11.63g for her length (L: 189cm, GLG: no
age estimate available) (Figure 5.7a). Another female (PEM N682), which was immature
based on ovarian examination, should have been mature according to her combined
ovary weight of 11.35g and length of 265cm, no age estimate was available for this
female (Figure 5.7a). Furthermore, a range of combined ovary weights was observed for
four animals aged around five GLGs (Figure 5.7b). These ranged from 6.63g to 14.85g
for animals between 4.25 and 5GLGs. However, the two higher combined ovary weights
can be attributed to a large CL present in each case, which resulted in the ovary with the
CL being about twice as heavy as the ovary without the CL. The mature female (SAM
78/17) already mentioned as having a relatively low combined ovary weight (3.52g) for
her length also had a relatively low combined ovary weight for her age (GLGs: 5)
(Figure 5.7b). From Figures 5.6 and 5.7 it appears that at least two females (PEM N682
and PEM N440) may have had a somewhat impaired reproductive ability.
The heaviest immature K. sima female weighed 155.58kg (L: 206cm, GLGs:
3.27), whereas the lightest mature female weighed 176.9kg (L: 215cm, GLGs: 4.5)
(Table 5.5). There were, however, two mature females for which no age estimate was
available, which weighed 169kg and 175kg and measured 236cm and 238cm,
respectively. Thus maturity probably occurs between 155.6kg and 169kg in female K.
sima (Table 5.5) (see Chapter 3).
5-31
a)
10
n=25
(2) (2) (N682)

0
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Body length (cm)
b)
10
n=16
4
(2)
2
(2)
(2)(2)(2) (2) (N440)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age estimate
(GLG's)
Figure 5.6: Attainment of sexual maturity, in relation to (a) length

and (b) estimated age, and ovulation rate in female Kogia sima.
The solid line (b) represents the regression (y=-2.0+0.7x) between
the number of corpora and the age for mature females (r2=0.65).
5-32
a)
25
n=25
20
15
(N682)
10
5 Immature
(N829) Mature
(78/17)
0
140 160 180 200 220 240 260 280 300 320 340
Body length (cm)
b)
25
n=16
20
15
10
0
0 5 10 15 20 25
Age estimate
(GLGs)
Figure 5.7: Increase of combined ovary weight with (a)

body length and (b) estimated age in female
Kogia sima.
5-33
females. Determination of maturity was based on histological examination of the
reproductive organs and only specimens for which the state of maturity could be
confirmed were included (i.e. calves were excluded).
Immature Mature
n Range n range
Age (GLGs) 6 0.8-3.27 10 4.25-14.0
*
Length (cm) 10 147.0-222.0 15 215.0-264.0
Mass (kg) 8 59.42-155.58 9 169.0-264.0
*
One outlier, a 265 cm long female, was omitted here as she appeared to be
reproductively abnormal.
A regression of estimated age against total number of corpora described by the

equation y = -2.0+0.7x (where y: total number of corpora and x: age estimate (GLGs))
was fitted to all mature K. sima females and yielded an ovulation rate of 0.7 per year,
which means that ovulations occur about every 17.1 months (or roughly one and a half
years) (Figure 5.6).
As in K. breviceps no post-reproductive females were observed. The oldest
pregnant female was also the oldest female in the sample (PEM N1322) and had an age
estimate of 14GLGs (Table 5.5). This may indicate that in K. sima females usually do
not enter a long post-reproductive period, but reproduce throughout their lives.
Using Kasuya’s (1977) formula the estimated gestation length, based on a
neonate length of 103cm (see Chapter 3) is 333.3 days or 11.1 months.
For K. sima a clearer picture of the reproductive seasonality emerged as both
conceptions and births occurred between December and March (Figure 5.8a), although
the data set is smaller than for K. breviceps. This would indicate a gestation length of 12
months. Although the ovulation rate suggests that ovulations occur roughly every one
and a half years, 11.5% of mature females that stranded along the Southern African coast
were found to be simultaneously lactating and pregnant (see Chapter 7). These data
indicate that K. sima may also show annual reproduction, if the conditions are right,
although that may be facultative and some animals may only reproduce every two years.
This is further supported by one foetus, which was apparently conceived in December,
suggesting that in K. sima a post-partum oestrus may occur in some animals, some of the
time.
As found for K. breviceps the results for the largest corpus plotted versus month
did not support the trend in seasonality seen in Figure 5.8, and the largest corpus just fell
5-34
250
Foetus: n=7
Juvenile: n=13
200
Foetus plotted 12 months
out of shift
Body length (cm)
150 (2)
100 Length at birth

(2)
50
Month
160
Foetus: n=3
140 Juvenile: n=8
120
Body weight (kg)
100
80
60
40
20 Weight at birth
0
Month
Figure 5.8: Occurence of Kogia sima foetuses (filled circles) and
juveniles (up to and including the age of one)(filled triangles)
throughout the year. Open circles are original data plotted
12 months out of shift. All juveniles were plotted 12 months
out of shift.
5-35
a)
12000
n=8
10000
Corpus index (mm3)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
Month
b)
12000
n=6
10000
Corpus index (mm3)
8000
6000
4000
2000
0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160
Foetal/calf length (cm)
Figure 5.9: Corpus index (in mm3) of the largest corpus (CL or CA)
in relation to month (a) and foetal or calf length (b) in Kogia sima.
5-36
outside the mating season (April) (Figure 5.9a). Similarly when the corpus index was
plotted against the length of the foetus or calf no real trend could be determined (Figure
5.9b).
The longest calf that stranded with a lactating female measured 152.4cm and had
a GLG reading of 0.94 (Table 5.6), which suggests that lactation can last at least one
year. Another calf, measuring approximately 130cm (no age estimate was available)
stranded with a non-lactating female (Table 5.6), suggesting that weaning can start as
early as six months, as extrapolated from the growth curve (see Chapter 3).
The sex ratio for the five K. sima foetuses present was 1:1.5 for females (n=2) to
males (n=3), respectively. For seven juveniles up to and including two years of age
(≤160) the ratio was 1.33:1 for females (n=4) to males (n=3), respectively. However,
neither the foetal nor the juvenile sex ratio were significantly different from parity
(χ2=0.2 and 0.14, respectively; p>0.05).
Table 5.6: Records of female Kogia sima stranded along the Southern African
coastline with a foetus or calf. Information on the animals length, age and sex was
included whenever available.
a) Assumed cow/calf pairs
No. of Length Age of Sex of Sex of Length Comments
cow/ of cow/ cow/ calf foetus of
calf calf calf foetus
(cm)
N101 231.2 -
N102 151.9 - M - - cow lactating
N103 230.5 -
N139 ca244 -
N140 135.9 0.24 F - - cow lactating
N145 235 -
N146 152.4 0.94 F F 7.2 cow lactating
N440 250/ 8.56
- - - - M 108 -
N317 220/ 5.75
N318 147+ - F - - cow lactating
81/03 215 4.5
- - - - M 11.1 -
N678 241 -
N829 238 -
N830 103 0 F - - cow lactating
5-37
N832 232 -
* - - - - - cow lactating
N1322 236 14
- - - - - 9.1 -
88/02 225.5 4.25
- - - - M 57.5 -
b) Possible cow/calf pairs

No. of Length Age of Sex of Sex of Length Comments
cow of cow/ cow/ calf foetus of
calf calf foetus
(cm) (cm)
N185 240 -
N185a ca130 - - - 22.5 -
N243 224 4.53
N244 161 0.8 F F 32.5 -
*
= refloated; age of calf= complete GLG’s plus increment
5.4 Discussion

The morphological characteristics of the ovaries and corpora of the two Kogia
species as described by Beckmen (1986) and Ross (1979) were in agreement with the
findings for the present study. In addition, the ovaries of both K. breviceps and K. sima
get darker in colour with age from a beige-pink over dark-brown to black as reported by
Beckmen (1986). There are conflicting results in the literature concerning whether the
CL’s of the two Kogia species are pedunculate (Harrison et al., 1972; Ross, 1979) or not
(Beckmen, 1986). Re-examination of Ross’ (1979) material with additional material
revealed that although the CL’s protrude from the surface of the ovary, they are not truly
pedunculate.
In general the CL of pregnancy does not change size throughout gestation
(Matthews, 1938; Kasuya et al., 1974; Harrison et al., 1981; Marsh and Kasuya, 1984;
Perrin and Donovan, 1984; Dans et al., 1997), but may increase slightly in early
pregnancy until the foetus has reached a certain length and then regresses again slightly
(Sergeant, 1962; Best, 1967; Miyazaki, 1984). However, Harrison et al. (1981) observe
wide individual variation in the CL volume (or index) against foetal length and similar
results are reported in the present study for both species of Kogia.
5-38
5.4.2 Ovarian symmetry

Both ovaries are equally functional in K. breviceps, but in K. sima the left ovary
is more active than the right one. This is an interesting result in view of the recent
controversy surrounding the phylogeny of Cetacea (see Chapter 1). Ohsumi (1964)
suggests that one criterion for the classification of cetacea could be the type of
accumulation of corpora in the ovaries. Accordingly, the results from the present study
show that K. breviceps would be classed as having a Type I accumulation rate like the
sperm whale P. macrocephalus and the mysticetes, which is in agreement with previous
findings (Ohsumi, 1964; Harrison et al., 1972). However, K. sima, although ovulating
from both ovaries, would be classed as having a Type II or III accumulation rate. An
equal accumulation pattern between the two ovaries is generally regarded as more
“primitive” and accumulation predominantly in one ovary as more derived (J. E.
Heyning, pers. com.). A similar trend was found in the evolution of the nasal passages of
cetaceans from the primitive condition in mysticetes (double nares, nasal passage not
confluent) to the intermediate condition in Physeteridae and Kogiidae (single blowhole,
nasal passages not confluent) (Schenkkan and Purves, 1973; Heyning and Mead, 1990)
to the most derived state in all other odontocetes (single blowhole, nasal passages
confluent) (Heyning, 1997). Thus the results for ovarian symmetry in the two species of
Kogia may reflect a possible evolutionary history from the mysticetes to the odontocetes
as mysticetes, Physeter and K. breviceps ovulate from both ovaries equally and K. sima
and delphinids ovulate predominantly from the left ovary (Ohsumi, 1964). In addition, it
is interesting to note that the Ziphiids also show a Type I accumulation rate like the
mysticetes, and K. breviceps and Physeter (Ohsumi, 1964). However, sample sizes in the
present study are still small and additional samples would help clarify this issue.
5.4.3.1 Ovarian weight
The onset of sexual maturity in K. breviceps occurred between combined ovary

weights of 12.2g and 17.4g. Ovarian weight was not a good indicator of ASM in K. sima
as it varied substantially depending on the condition of the latest CL. It is unlikely that
inaccuracies in age estimation played a role here since a good relationship between
increasing age and increasing number of corpora was found and the age determination
5-39
proved to be reliable (see Chapter 3). The lowest combined ovary weight of 3.52g for a
female with one seemingly infertile ovary or 4.57g for a mature female with two
functional ovaries and six CA’s in K. sima is surprising. However, combined ovary
weights as low as 2.0g, 3.0g, 3.3g and 4.2g for mature females of spotted dolphin S.
attenuata, Hector’s dolphin C. hectorii (Slooten, 1991), Tucuxi Sotalia fluviatilis
(Harrison and Brownell, 1971), and the vaquita P. sinus (Hohn et al., 1996) have been
reported. The abovementioned species are all smaller in body size than K. sima and
scaling almost certainly has an affect on ovary weight as well. Marsh and Kasuya (1984)
found an overall increase of ovarian weights with increasing length and age in short-
finned pilot whales G. macrorhynchus, but observed a considerable variation of ovary
weights for animals of the same age or length. A large overlap in ovarian weights
between immature and mature animals was also reported for sperm whales P.
macrocephalus (Best, 1967), although the effects a large CL may have on the weight of
the ovary were removed by placing pregnant females in a different category. The
macroscopic (or histological) examination of the ovaries for corpora remains the most
reliable indicator for the onset of sexual maturity in cetaceans.
5.4.3.2 Body length
The length at ASM of 262cm for K. breviceps and 215cm for K. sima agrees
well with the results of 270-280cm and 210-220cm, respectively, reported previously for
the South African population (Ross, 1979). Furthermore, they indicate that sexual
maturity occurs at 85.62% and 86% of asymptotic body length in K. breviceps and K.
sima, respectively, which is in good agreement with the mean of 85.1% proposed by
Laws (1956) for all female cetaceans. Odell et al. (1984) report that the smallest adult K.
breviceps female examined measured 260cm, but subsequent data presented by Credle
(1988) include a 252cm long lactating female. The shortest mature K. sima female in her
dataset was a 218cm long lactating female. The fact that both these females were
lactating suggests that the actual length at first ovulation for animals from the south-
eastern United States may be somewhat shorter than that from South Africa. Similarly,
Reyes and van Waerebeek (1992) report on a 260.5cm long female K. breviceps from
Peru, which was sexually mature. For striped dolphins S. coeruleoalba factors affecting
size differences between parts of the population inhabiting different areas of the
Mediterranean include stronger seasonality and lower population density, leading to
5-40
larger individuals (Calzada and Aguilar, 1995). As already mentioned in Chapter 3

differences in body sizes between different populations of the same species have also
been attributed to food quality and quantity (Bryden, 1972; Read and Gaskin, 1990;
Bloch et al., 1993; Di-Méglio et al., 1996; Read and Tolley, 1997).
5.4.3.3 Age
The estimate of age at ASM from the present study may be somewhat imprecise
due to the small number of first time ovulators available (DeMaster, 1984; Read, 1990a).
However, estimates for age at ASM have not been attempted before for any population
of either species of Kogia. The relatively low age estimate at ASM of five GLGs for
both K. breviceps and K. sima is somewhat surprising for odontocetes of a comparatively
large body size. Subsequent studies on a small sample of K. breviceps females stranded
in New Zealand, however, have determined that animals between five and seven GLGs
were mature (Tuohy et al., 2001), which would support the present findings. Among the
odontocetes, similarly low ages at sexual maturity are usually only found in the
porpoises (Perrin and Reilly, 1984). Mean age at sexual maturity in female harbour
porpoises P. phocoena was estimated to be between 3.15-3.44 years depending on the
method used (Read, 1990a). In the vaquita P. sinus sexual maturity occurs between three
and six years (Hohn et al., 1996). But even among the mysticetes, which reach sexual
maturity on average around eight to 10 years (Lockyer, 1984), there are some exceptions
to be found. The average age at which the humpback whale M. novaengliae reaches
sexual maturity is estimated to be five years (Clapham and Mayo, 1990; Clapham,
1992). The implications of these relatively low ages at ASM in both Kogia species in
relation to other odontocetes will be discussed in detail below and an explanation will be
offered in Chapter 9.
5.4.3.4 Body weight
Similarly to male Kogia, there are no previous records for body weights at ASM
for females of either species. Thus the present data of ASM between 272.16kg and
301kg for female K. breviceps and 155.58kg and 169kg for female K. sima present the
first record for the two species. In addition, these data indicate that sexual maturity
occurs at higher body weights in females than in males for both species (see Chapters 3
5-41
and 4).
5.4.4 Ovulation rate and reproductive cycle
5.4.4.1 Ovulation rate
The high correlations (r2=0.86 for K. breviceps and 0.65 for K. sima,
respectively) of corpora counts with age estimate suggest that in both Kogia species
corpora albicantia persist throughout life as they do in most other cetaceans (Perrin and
Reilly, 1984; Read, 1990a), which supports the previous findings for Kogia (Harrison et
al., 1972; Ross, 1979).
The annual ovulation rate of 0.9 calculated for mature K. breviceps in
combination with the seasonal birth and mating season observed shows that females
ovulate annually. The deviation from parity is probably due to some females failing to
conceive in one year and subsequently having to wait until the following year’s mating
season. Although the majority of cetaceans, both mysticetes and odontocetes, have a
reproductive cycle of two to three years (Best et al., 1984; Brownell, 1984; Gaskin et al.,
1984; Lockyer, 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984), annual reproductive cycles have been
reported for other odontocetes like the harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Gaskin et al.,
1984; Read and Gaskin, 1990; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994; Read and Hohn, 1995), Dall’s
porpoise P. dalli (Kasuya, 1978; Ferrero and Walker, 1999), minke whale B.
acutorostrata (Masaki, 1979; Lockyer, 1984), and in some humpback whales M.
novaeangliae (Clapham and Mayo, 1990; Straley et al., 1994). There is also some
evidence, although scanty, that the franciscana P. blainvillei shows annual reproductive
cycles, with a possible post-partum oestrus (Brownell, 1984). A post-partum oestrus and
pre-implantation pregnancy has been suggested for the harbour porpoise P. phocoena
(Gaskin et al., 1984; Read, 1990b; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994). Most adult harbour
porpoise females spend much of the year simultaneously pregnant and lactating, nursing
the current calf and carrying next years’ offspring (Read and Hohn, 1995). Annual
ovulation rates reported for other cetaceans with annual reproduction are close to the one
reported here for K. breviceps and include 0.91 for the Dall’s porpoise P. dalli (Ferrero
and Walker, 1999) and 0.96 (Masaki, 1979) and 0.81 (Best, 1982) for the minke whale
B. acutorostrata. But even in species that usually exhibit a two-year reproductive cycle,
like the fin whale B. physalus and the common dolphin Delphinus delphis, some females
5-42
have been reported to be simultaneously lactating and pregnant (Lockyer, 1987;

Mendolia, 1989). Studies of the humpback whale M. novaengliae have shown that,
although the average reproductive interval is two years, there is considerable individual
variability, ranging from one to five years (Clapham and Mayo, 1990) and often
individuals show successful annual reproduction (Straley et al., 1994). Although it is
likely that postpartum ovulation is common in humpback whales, possibly only a certain
percentage of mature females can maintain a pregnancy every year as sufficient prey
must be found to sustain it (Wiley and Clapham, 1993; Straley et al., 1994).
The annual ovulation rate for K. sima females would indicate that the
reproductive cycle lasts roughly one and a half years. However, the data on birth and
mating season indicate that reproduction is annual in most females. The annual ovulation
rates of 0.66 (Read, 1990a) and 0.68 (Read and Hohn, 1995) reported for harbour
porpoises are close to the one reported here for K. sima (0.7) and is typical of the annual
reproduction of P. phocoena (Read, 1990a). As a number of K. sima in the present study
were also found to be simultaneously pregnant and lactating, K. sima may also exhibit
annual ovulation, but depending on environmental conditions as well as the constitution
of the female, some females probably may only reproduce every other year at least some
of the time. This would explain the deviation from an annual ovulation rate of 1. The
deviation from unity in the harbour porpoise data may have resulted from younger
females ovulating more than once a year (Read, 1990a), but no evidence for that was
found for K. sima in the present study.
The individual variation of the accumulation rate of corpora in the present study
is common in cetaceans and is a reflection of differences in the annual ovulation rate
between individuals as well as variation in the attainment of sexual maturity (Perrin et
al., 1976; Kasuya and Marsh, 1984; Read and Hohn, 1995). Unfortunately the present
sample was too small to attempt to fit a non-linear curve to the data or correct for
individual variation in age at ASM (Read and Hohn, 1995).
The two K. breviceps females with the highest corpora count of 16 CA had age
estimates of 19 and 22GLGs. The highest number of corpora reported for a female K.
breviceps in the literature was 29 for an animal stranded in Florida; the animal (L:
315cm) was lactating and accompanied by a calf (Jenness and Odell, 1978). As ASM is
reached at about five years of age, this female could have been at least 34 years old as
there is no evidence for a number of spontaneous, infertile ovulations at the onset of
sexual maturity and assuming an annual ovulation rate. Since no post-reproductive
5-43
females were observed in the present study, it appears that females remain
reproductively active throughout their entire life. If a post-reproductive phase should
occur it is unlikely to last very long.
In K. sima the oldest female examined (GLGs: 14) was also pregnant and no
post-reproductive females were observed in the sample, which would also indicate the
absence of a long post-reproductive period. This in turn may reflect certain social
structures. Stranding data and observations at sea suggest that females are almost
invariably solitary or accompanied by a calf (see Chapters 1 and 7). This would indicate
that female Kogia do not have cohesive, stable kinship female groups as are observed in
species with a high life expectancy for post-reproductive females, like the short-finned
pilot whale G. macrorhynchus and the sperm whale P. macrocephalus (Marsh and
Kasuya, 1986). An increased duration of lactation with maternal age and a simultaneous
drop in pregnancy rate in these two species (Best, 1968; Kasuya and Marsh, 1984)
reflects an increasing investment in calf-rearing and a decreasing investment in calf-
bearing with age (Marsh and Kasuya, 1986). A long post-reproductive period for
females is thought to have evolved in order to ensure survival of offspring, which is
probably closely related to the post-reproductive female (Marsh and Kasuya, 1986).
Although no communal nursing, which would provide definite evidence of an important
role for older females who spend an increasing proportion of their lives lactating (Marsh
and Kasuya, 1986), has yet been observed in any cetacean species, alloparental care in
the form of babysitting has been observed in sperm whales P. macrocephalus
(Whitehead, 1996). Thus the absence of post-reproductive females support the notion
that Kogia females do not live in stable, closely related female groups. Harbour
porpoises P. phocoena also show an absence of a long post-reproductive period in old
females (Sørensen and Kinze, 1994) and the group size suggests no stable, cohesive
female groups in this species (Carwardine, 1995).
The maximum reported ages for a K. breviceps and K. sima female in the present
sample were 22.4GLGs and 21.5GLGs, respectively (see Chapter 3). With age at ASM
estimated at around 5GLGs for both K. breviceps and K. sima, the maximum
reproductive lifespan would be 17.4yrs and 16.5yrs, respectively, resulting in 16 and 12
offspring per lifetime using the annual ovulation rates calculated above. However, it is
unlikely that each of the ovulations results in a successful pregnancy and rearing of the
calf. Even harbour porpoises P. phocoena with an annual ovulation have probably not
more than a few offspring per lifetime (Read, 1990a). Data presented for the harbour
5-44
porpoise in the western North Atlantic indicated a reproductive lifespan of around 13

years and a maximum number of offspring of four to seven (Gaskin et al., 1984; Read,
1990a; 1990b; Read and Hohn, 1995). However, care should be taken when comparing
these species, since they have different ovulation rates. The different ovulation rates of
K. breviceps and K. sima reflect the different reproductive strategies employed by the
two species, which will be discussed in detail below.
If possible a full histological examination (opposed to a macroscopical one) of
the ovaries should be carried out in order to ensure an accurate assessment of the number
of corpora. However, considering that samples for either species of Kogia will almost
invariably originate from stranded animals, which are often decayed to a certain degree,
the material may be unsuitable for histological examination. The results obtained in the
present study show satisfactory results based on macroscopic examinations.
5.4.4.2 Gestation
Although the two estimates for length of gestation based on Kasuya’s (1977)
formula and foetal and calf lengths throughout the year give slightly different results,
gestation lengths for both Kogia species lie between 11 and 12 months. More data,
especially on neonatal length, are needed to define the gestation period more accurately.
An estimated gestation length of 11 months for K. breviceps based on foetal and calf
lengths throughout the year is in agreement with one of Ross’ (1979) estimates (using
the same method) for the population off South Africa and suggests that his alternative
estimate of seven months is not realistic. No previous estimates of gestation length were
available for comparison for K. sima, but the estimate of 11 to 12 months is in agreement
with the general length of gestation in odontocetes (Perrin and Reilly, 1984).
5.4.4.3 Lactation and weaning
Evidence from the present study indicates that weaning may start after one year
of lactation in K. breviceps, but as early as six months in K. sima. Data for a 136cm long
K. sima from South Africa (Ross, 1979) and a 131.5cm and 140cm long K. sima from
Peru (Reyes and Van Waerebeek, 1992) and Sri Lanka (Chantrapornsyl et al., 1991),
respectively, all with evidence of solid food in their stomachs support these findings.
However, the present data also suggest that lactation can last up to two years in either
5-45
species, which supports the suggestion that, although both Kogia species may be able to
conceive in successive years (Ross, 1979), this may not be the norm (Figure 5.10).
The few estimates available suggest that great energetic demands are placed on
the mother during lactation (Evans, 1987; Lockyer, 1987; 1995b). Cockcroft and Ross
(1990b) estimated that a female bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus required 8.3% of her
body mass in food per day (the equivalent of 37000kJ) during lactation, while only
needing 5.2% after weaning of the calf. Thus a lactating female needs sufficient fat
reserves and must decrease her own energy requirements or increase food consumption
to meet these demands (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990b). Lockyer’s results (1987) from a
study on fin whales B. physalus support the idea that fat deposits play an important role
as lactating females are the leanest females, while pregnant females are very fat.
Similarly body fat decreases in lactating harbour porpoises (Lockyer, 1995b). Thus body
condition, food abundance, and fertility are intimately linked. It is possible that the
prevailing food conditions from consecutive seasons combined could ensure successful
reproduction even in a year when food abundance is low (Lockyer, 1987). The energetic
requirements resulting from annual reproduction and thus simultaneous lactation and
pregnancy will be discussed in more detail as part of the reproductive strategy of the two
Kogia species below.
Slijper (1966) remarks that the milk of belugas D. leucas is unusually high in
water content (66%) and low in fat (22%), which he put down to experimental error as
both the fat and water content in other species ranged between 40-50%. Jenness and
Odell (1978) present data for the composition of K. breviceps milk, which is also
unusually low in fat (almost 50% that of other cetacean species). Although individual
variation of milk composition is great (Jenness and Odell, 1978), another possible
explanation in view of the annual ovulation rate may be that these differences are real
and were selected for to compensate for the energetic demands of simultaneous
pregnancy and lactation. Further comparative investigation, especially with other
odontocetes with an annual ovulation rate like the harbour porpoise P. phocoena, is
needed to clarify this. Different diets almost certainly account for some of the
differences seen in the fat content of cetacean milk as another teuthophagous species, the
sperm whale P. macrocephalus, also showed a lower milk fat content than other
cetaceans (Best et al., 1984). Cockcroft and Ross (1990b) also report an unusually low
fat content in bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus milk of 14 to 19% compared to over 29%
for other dolphin species and suggest that this may be a result of the longer lactation time
5-46
Lactation 2(b)
Pregnancy 2 (b)
Mating
Lactation 2(a)
Pregnancy 2(a)
Mating
Lactation 1
Pregnancy 1
Mating
5-47
J F MAM J J A S O N D J F MAM J J A S O N D J F MAM J J A S O N D J F MAM J J A S O N D J
Month
Figure 5.10: Proposed reproductive chronolology in Kogia. In pregnancy 2a mating occurs in the month post partum.
Some animals may miss this pregnancy and only mate in the next season (=pregnancy 2b).
The seasonality of the reproductive events is modelled on the data for Kogia breviceps.
While Kogia breviceps may enter more often into pregnancy 2a, Kogia sima may enter more often
into pregnancy 2b.

of 18 to 24 months (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a).

In contrast to the two Kogia species, the closest relative, the sperm whale P.
macrocephalus, has a long lactation period that takes up about 40% of the females’
reproductive cycle (Gaskin, 1982). Consequently the annual number of receptive
females is low and males have to compete for access to females (Gaskin, 1982). Again
this is almost the opposite scenario to K. breviceps where lactation seems surprisingly
short and most females appear to ovulate every year.
The separation of a calf from its mother is not necessarily triggered by the onset
of a new pregnancy. In bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus, the siblings even remained with
the mother after the birth of the new calf in some instances (Wells et al., 1987). There is
also some evidence from sightings of mother/calf/juvenile groups that the young of
harbour porpoises P. phocoena stay with the mother until the next calf is born, and
possibly for another month or so after that (Gaskin et al., 1984). However, based on the
stranding record there is no evidence of that in either species of Kogia, which may be a
result of the sufficient independence of the calf to not follow a stranding cow inshore.
Alternatively, it may indicate that calves leave the mother when the next offspring is
born. The available data do not allow any further conclusions to be drawn.
5.4.4.4 Simultaneous lactation and pregnancy
The high percentage of mature females of K. breviceps (24.1%) and K. sima

(11.5%) simultaneously lactating and pregnant indicates that a large percentage of
females may fall pregnant in consecutive years. However, the lower percentage of this
condition for K. sima suggests that it may not present the normal reproductive strategy
employed by this species (Figure 5.10) and this is supported by the ovulation rate.
Simultaneous lactation and pregnancy is commonly found only in a small percentage of
the total sample of adult females. For example, out of all adult females examined
(n=536) of Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP) spinner dolphins S. longirostris 0.75% were
simultaneously lactating and pregnant (calculated from Perrin et al., 1977), in striped
dolphins S. coeruleoalba the percentage was 1.9 (n=699) (Miyazaki, 1984), in ETP
spotted dolphins S. attenuata the percentage was 4.13 (n=1114) (calculated from Perrin
et al., 1976), in dusky dolphins L. obscurus the percentage was 9.8 (calculated from van
Waerebeek and Read, 1994), and in the northern form of short-finned pilot whales G.
macrorhynchus the percentage was 9.6 (Kasuya and Tai, 1993). In contrast, only three
5-48
mature females of the southern form were found simultaneously lactating and pregnant
(Marsh and Kasuya, 1984) and only one female showed that condition in bottlenose
dolphins T. truncatus from South Africa (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a). No
simultaneously lactating and pregnant females were reported for Hector’s dolphins C.
hectori (Slooten, 1991) or for the vaquita P. sinus (Hohn et al., 1996), while the
relatively high percentage of 15.5 (n=57; calculated from Sørensen and Kinze, 1994) of
simultaneously lactating and pregnant female harbour porpoises P. phocoena reflects the
annual reproduction found in this species (Read, 1990b; Read and Hohn, 1995).
Simultaneous lactation and pregnancy, suggesting reproduction in successive years, has
been reported before for Kogia (Hale, 1947; 1962; Ross, 1979; 1984; Odell et al., 1984;
Beckmen, 1986). Although this is unusual for marine mammals it has also been
suggested for the harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Gaskin et al., 1984; Read, 1990b),
Dall’s porpoise P. dalli (Kasuya et al., 1974; Ferrero and Walker, 1999) and the harp
seal Pagophilus groenlandicus (Sergeant, 1966; Bowen et al., 1981). It implies that a
post-partum oestrus may occur (Gaskin et al., 1984; Read, 1990b), although no
supporting evidence for that was found in either species of Kogia. Most adult female
harbour porpoises spend much of the year simultaneously lactating and pregnant (Read,
1990b) and as a response to these elevated energy requirements consume larger amounts
of prey (Recchia and Read, 1989) (see Chapter 6).
In comparison to the South African data the percentage of K. breviceps that
stranded on the south-eastern coast of the United States simultaneously lactating and
pregnant was only 8.05% and no K. sima females were found in this condition (data
from (Credle, 1988)). The different oceanographic conditions experienced by the two
populations could explain the observed differences in reproduction.
The percentages of Kogia females simultaneously lactating and pregnant may
not be a true representation of the whole population as females accompanied by a calf
may come closer inshore to feed (see Chapter 6) and thus may be more likely to strand
(Ross, 1979). Therefore the possibility that this result is an artefact of the sample cannot
be excluded.
In the present study 6.9% of mature K. breviceps females were lactating and 24%
were pregnant, in comparison to 39.1% and 16.1% females, respectively, stranded along
the south-eastern United States. For K. sima 23% of South African animals were in
either condition, compared to adult females stranded on the south-eastern United States
coast, of which 40% were lactating and 30% were pregnant. These data suggest a longer
5-49
period of lactation and possibly a longer reproductive cycle for the Kogia populations off
the south-eastern United States and would support the earlier statement that different
oceanographic conditions could result in different Kogia populations exhibiting differing
reproductive strategies.
The occurrence of mother/calf pair strandings is similar in South Africa and the
south-eastern United States: for K. breviceps it was 51.7% and 41.6%, respectively, and
for K. sima it was 38.5% and 50%, respectively. In these calculations both assumed
cow/calf pairs (the animals stranded together and the cow was lactating) and possible
cow/calf pairs (the animals stranded together, but no definite relationship could be
established as the mother was not reported to be lactating and no uteri were available for
examination) were included. In the latter case researchers commonly assume that the
stranded couples have a cow-calf relationship and these data were therefore included in
the calculation.
5.4.4.5 Resting phase
The fact that a high percentage of females of both Kogia species were found
simultaneously pregnant and lactating suggests that a resting period, which is part of the
reproductive cycle of many mysticetes and odontocetes (Best, 1968; Lockyer, 1984;
Perrin and Reilly, 1984), may be rare. However, females that fail to fall pregnant in the
mating season of one year will have to wait 12 months for the next mating season as will
females that fail to maintain a foetus. Consequently, if conditions are such that females
can not maintain pregnancies in successive years an interval of up to 12 months will
occur and it is then likely that the female will be in good condition for the following
mating season (Figure 5.10). This interval may be regarded as equal to the resting period
of other cetaceans, although somewhat more flexible. Similar data have been reported
for the harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Read and Gaskin, 1990). Based on the data on
ovulation rate from either Kogia species this scenario is more often observed in K. sima
than in K. breviceps.
5.4.5 Seasonality
Seasonality is the most obvious effect of the environment on reproduction
(Bronson, 1989) and the mating season and gestation time of mammals have probably
5-50
evolved to place parturition in a season that maximises the survival of the offspring
(Kasuya, 1995). All physiological processes in mammals, including reproduction, are
limited by the amount of food available (Bronson, 1989), and in an environment that is
characterised by seasonal variation in climate and food availability natural selection will
favour reproduction during the season that maximises the potential for success (Barlow,
1984; Bronson, 1989; Kasuya, 1995). Early and late lactation are the energetically most
demanding periods for the cow and thus should coincide with a time when levels of
resources are optimal (Bronson, 1989; Urian et al., 1996).
The only available reference to seasonal reproduction in Kogia stems from
Sylvestre (1983), who concludes that calving and mating off Florida may take place in
winter to early spring for K. breviceps based on one cow-calf pair stranded in mid-
March. Additional unpublished data of neonates and calves of the two Kogia species
stranded in the south-eastern United States (Credle, 1988) suggest that the seasonality of
births may be different in the Florida populations of K. breviceps and K. sima than in the
populations off South Africa, but further investigations are needed in this respect. Ross
(1979) suggests a mating and calving season of seven months each for K. breviceps off
South Africa, both lasting from autumn to spring. This is supported by the results from
the present study.
The gestation period of K. breviceps in the present study was estimated at about
11 months and the data indicate that the mating season would follow immediately after
the calving season. In contrast, both the mating and calving period occur at the same
time in K. sima. The calving seasons of the two species show a small overlap in March.
While K. breviceps gives birth in autumn and winter and over a longer period of six
months, K. sima appears to be restricted to a shorter period of four months during
summer, although the data for the latter are rather scanty. The shorter, more restricted
mating and calving period, which occurs at a time when water temperatures are the
highest, may indicate that K. sima needs higher water temperatures to meet the
thermoregulatory requirements of the newborn calf, whereas K. breviceps may be able to
cope with slightly lower temperatures as reflected by the general temperature
requirements of the two species (see Chapter 7). An annual peak of births appeared to be
associated with high water temperatures in bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus (Wells et al.,
1987). Although the two Kogia species appear to occupy a similar habitat over the
continental shelf edge and slope (Ross, 1979; 1984; Davis et al., 1998) (see Chapters 1
and 7) and feed on the same prey (Ross, 1979; Candela, 1987) (see Chapter 6) the above
5-51
results indicate that the mating seasons overlap only little. Furthermore, the diet of both
species indicates that they may partition the same ecological niche (see Chapter 6). If
several populations use the same food resource they should evolve mechanisms to
reproduce at different times of the year and thus avoid high energetic demands of
lactation when the main resource is being heavily utilised (Bronson, 1989; Urian et al.,
1996). Food is not the only factor determining the breeding season of a species, but out
of the many different environmental factors that interact in complex ways to influence a
mammals’ reproduction, food availability probably plays the most important role
(Bronson, 1989). Therefore the different peaks in the calving season may have evolved
to prevent direct competition between the two species at a time when energy
requirements are the highest. This correlation of the timing of reproductive seasonality in
cetaceans with water temperatures, food availability or other environmental factors has
been widely speculated (Wells et al., 1987; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994; Hohn et al.,
1996).
The occurrence of neonates of K. breviceps in March (124cm), June (120-
124cm) and August (122cm) off Florida suggests a calving season from spring to late
summer for that population (data from Credle, 1988). Similarly neonates of K. sima
reported in June (91cm, possibly aborted or early birth), July (100cm), August (105cm)
and October (105cm) off Florida suggest a calving season in summer and autumn for
this species (data from Credle, 1988). Although further analysis of the reproduction and
seasonality of the Florida populations of Kogia is necessary, these data show that the
calving season differs between species off South Africa and Australia (whose calf
lengths revealed a similar seasonal pattern) on the one hand and Florida on the other.
Different reproductive seasonalities as well as differing percentages of simultaneously
lactating and pregnant females and foetal and calf sex ratios between the South African
and Florida populations suggest that the reproductive strategies may differ between
different Kogia populations.
No clear correlation could be determined between the corpus index and either
month or foetal/calf length and thus this analysis did not help in examining the
seasonality of reproduction in either species of Kogia. Wide individual variation in the
volume of the largest corpus has been reported before (Harrison et al., 1981), although
Cockcroft and Ross (1990a) found a correlation between corpus volume index and calf
length for bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus from South Africa. However, the relatively
small sample sizes available for either species of Kogia for this analysis may explain the
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lack of any obvious trend.
5.4.6 Reproductive strategy

The gestation period of K. breviceps and K. sima was estimated at 11 and 12
months, respectively. Lactation lasts about one year in both species, but may extend to
two years. A relatively high percentage of females is simultaneously lactating and
pregnant in both species, but the accumulation rate of corpora indicates that although K.
breviceps may have an annual reproduction, at least some K. sima females may only
reproduce every two years. Both species exhibit seasonal reproduction, but while K.
breviceps appears to have a protracted mating and calving season of six months each, K.
sima exhibits a shorter mating and calving season over the period of three months with
births occurring during the warmest part of the year. The mating and calving seasons
were found to overlap slightly between the two Kogia species off South Africa.
Close similarities in life history strategies have been observed between two
species of the same genus before (Hohn et al., 1996). The life history of the vaquita P.
sinus is very similar to that of the harbour porpoise P. phocoena with the exception of an
annual ovulation found in the latter (Hohn et al., 1996).
Researchers have had difficulties in explaining how the energetic requirements
of annual reproduction in cetaceans could be met (Gaskin, 1982; Straley et al., 1994;
Read and Hohn, 1995). As an indicator of body condition blubber mass is thought to be
a reflection of a cetaceans energy reserves and thus provide information about an
individual’s probability of future survival and reproduction (Read, 1990c). Although
differing results were obtained, two independent studies that assessed body condition of
harbour porpoises P. phocoena (Read, 1990c; Lockyer, 1995b) revealed that the
variation of blubber parameters (such as thickness, mass and lipid content), and therefore
body condition, among different reproductive classes reflect the relative energetic costs
of reproduction (Read, 1990c). Accordingly, lactating harbour porpoises had less
blubber mass or lipid content than pregnant females (Read, 1990c; Lockyer, 1995b) and
Chittleborough’s (1965) data from humpback whale M. novaeangliae catches indicate
that mature females with near term foetuses yielded more oil than other mature females.
The current thought is that under good conditions (meaning abundant food resources)
reproduction in successive years will be favoured, whereas in poor years the pregnancy
will be missed and reproduction may only occur every other year (Gaskin, 1982;
5-53
Lockyer, 1987; Straley et al., 1994). Furthermore, female harbour porpoises from the
Bay of Fundy population may be able to compensate for the energetic requirements of
lactation by an increased energy intake as the annual variation between herring
consumption and body condition was found to co-vary (Read, 1990c). In this context the
differences in reproductive rates between two populations of harbour porpoises from
California and the Bay of Fundy were ascribed to differing prey availabilities (Read and
Hohn, 1995). Considering that a truly annual strategy may endanger the survival of the
female, Gaskin (1982) proposed that the mean number of calves produced per lifetime in
this species is unlikely to exceed four. Apart from the harbour porpoise, annual
reproduction has been reported in the Dall’s porpoise P. dalli (Ferrero and Walker,
1999), the minke whale B. acutorostrata (Masaki, 1979; Best, 1982; Lockyer, 1984)
and, occasionally, in the humpback whale M. novaeangliae (Clapham and Mayo, 1990;
Straley et al., 1994). This aspect will be discussed further in Chapter 9 under the aspect
of life histories in cetaceans.
A surprising fact in the reproductive strategy of both Kogia species is that sexual
maturity is attained at a relatively early age. In odontocetes this is usually only found in
phocoenids (Gaskin et al., 1984) and small dolphins (Perrin and Reilly, 1984), with a
relatively short lifespan of around 15 to 20 years (Gaskin et al., 1984; Perrin and Reilly,
1984; Slooten, 1991; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994; Read and Hohn, 1995; Hohn et al.,
1996). In both Kogia species the lifespan is similarly short (K. breviceps: 22.4yrs; K.
sima: 21.5yrs; see Chapter 3). It was suggested that although harbour porpoises can live
up to 24 years such a high age is rarely found in this species due to a combination of
natural and incidental mortality (Hohn and Brownell, 1990; Read and Hohn, 1995;
Lockyer, 1995a). The same may be true for either species of Kogia as the low age at
ASM may have evolved as a result of predation pressure (see Chapter 9). Similarly, a
decrease of age at ASM resulting from exploitation has been reported for a number of
delphinids (Perrin and Henderson, 1984; Kasuya, 1985) and a higher number of
simultaneously lactating and pregnant females was also reported in these populations
(Perrin et al., 1976; Perrin et al., 1977). As no data of ovulation rates are available from
any other populations of K. breviceps and no obvious exploitation of the animals
themselves or of their main prey occurs, these data are thought to represent the norm
rather than elevated ovulation rates in response to exploitation. This trend will be
examined in more detail in Chapter 9.
A high number of ovulations does not necessarily mean that a large number of
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offspring is produced per lifetime. Even harbour porpoises with an annual ovulation may
only produce between four and seven offspring per lifetime (Gaskin et al., 1984; Read,
1990a). The highest number of corpora recorded for a K. breviceps female is 29 reported
for a 315cm long animal (Jenness and Odell, 1978). Assuming annual ovulation of 0.9 as
observed for K. breviceps in the present study and given that the age at ASM is also five
this would indicate an estimated age of at least 31.1 years. However, the ovulation rate
reported for K. breviceps here is not necessarily applicable to animals from the Florida
population as differences in the length of the reproductive cycle between two
populations of the same species have been reported before for harbour porpoises from
the Gulf of Maine (Read and Hohn, 1995) and from California (Hohn and Brownell,
1990). The differences in the length of the reproductive cycle between populations of
harbour porpoises at least in part reflect variations in prey resource levels (Gaskin et al.,
1984; Read and Hohn, 1995).
5.4.7 Mating system

In Chapter 4 it was suggested that either a roving male strategy or harem strategy
may be employed by males of the two Kogia species. The difference between the two
strategies is largely determined by the dispersal of the females (Best and Butterworth,
1980; Krebs and Davies, 1981; Whitehead, 1990; Sandell and Liberg, 1992; Magnusson
and Kasuya, 1997; Whitehead, 1998). Where females range widely or live solitarily or in
small groups, males may employ a roving strategy in search of receptive females
(Connor et al., 2000). A harem strategy is expected when a male can defend resources
(Clapham, 1996) or when females are more gregarious, thus inhabiting fewer, larger
groups, which would result in longer travel times between groups for the males and in
turn result in residence (Whitehead, 1998). Beckmen (1986) observed that both Kogia
species show extensive bursa ovarica and well developed fimbriae in their reproductive
tracts, which is unusual for odontocetes. She theorised that since Kogia are solitary and
thus may have the need for each mating to be successful these structures may have
evolved to ensure that no ova are lost into the body cavity. The small group size in both
species (see Chapters 1, 4 and 7) would support such a theory and suggests that males
employ a roving strategy rather than are able to defend a harem.
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5.4.8 Foetal and juvenile sex ratio

Little research has been carried out on foetal and juvenile sex ratios in cetaceans,
but differences in juvenile mortality between odontocetes and mysticetes may reflect
differences in the length of the period of maternal care between the two groups (Ralls et
al., 1980). Although the foetal sex ratio in K. breviceps is slightly skewed towards males
and this trend is even stronger in the juvenile sex ratio, neither sex ratio differed
significantly from parity. Although a predominance of males in the juvenile sex ratio in
K. breviceps has been mentioned previously in the literature (Ross, 1979; Brabyn, 1991;
Baird et al., 1996), no further possible implications of this were discussed. Since both
the foetal as well as the juvenile sex ratio in K. breviceps show are slightly skewed
towards males this may be a reflection of a higher percentage of males in the population
or may indicate that male calves and juveniles are more likely to strand. Possible
explanations for this are differential juvenile mortality rates between the sexes as was
suggested for the striped dolphin S. coeruleoalba (Aguilar, 1991), the sperm whale P.
macrocephalus (Ralls et al., 1980), and the harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Lockyer,
1995b). Greater susceptibility of males to nutritional stress, greater tendencies of males
to emigrate, and male-male competition may all contribute to higher mortality rates in
males and more than one of these factors may apply to a single species (Ralls et al.,
1980). The general mammalian pattern shows more male than female dispersal, and
emigration exposes the individual to nutritional stress, high risks of predation, and risks
from strange conspecifics (Ralls et al., 1980). Males are more susceptible to nutritional
stress than females (Ralls et al., 1980; Clutton-Brock and Iason, 1986) and therefore the
inexperience of calves in finding food after separation from the mother may result in
increased male juvenile mortality (Read and Hohn, 1995; Lockyer, 1995a, b).
Additionally, when home ranges overlap and offspring come into competition with the
parents the sex ratio should favour the sex that disperses (Clutton-Brock and Iason,
1986).
In contrast to the data from the present study calves of K. breviceps stranded
along the south-eastern United States showed a sex ratio of 1.32:1 for females and males,
respectively, while it was 1.5:1 for females and males of K. sima (data from Credle,
1988), which, in contrast to the South African data, seems to reflect a slight
predominance of females. However, it is unclear how old these “calves” were as no age
determination was carried out on that sample and it appears that only animals that
5-56
stranded with a mature female were classified as calves. Therefore it is possible that a
comparison of animals for which age estimates are available may give different results,
as only older juvenile males may suffer higher mortality (due to fights or nutritional
stress). This example illustrates the potential that comparative studies between
geographical regions have, in particular in such interesting species as Kogia where
sample sizes could be vastly increased by comparative studies. But it also emphasizes
the downfalls if methods are not standardized between studies or made sufficiently clear.
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Chapter 6: Diet
Chapter 6: Diet

Knowledge of the diet of a species is relevant to many different aspects of a
species’ ecology. Aside from demonstrating what an animal depends on as its major
food source, it also gives an indication about the animal’s distribution, foraging
behaviour and, in the case of marine mammals, diving depth. In addition, it contributes
to knowledge about the ecology, seasonal fluctuation, and distribution of the food
source. Extensions of such analyses in the case of marine top predators can potentially
provide information on the biomass of the prey populations, competition between
different predators, and the interactions of predators with other species such as
commercial fish species (Santos et al., 2001). Ultimately, qualitative and quantitative
data on the diet of such species may be used in dynamic models on trophic relationships
in communities and ecosystems (Payne et al., 1992; Santos et al., 2001). As different
types of marine predators provide different opportunities and problems, the extent to
which diet analysis can answer specific questions very much depends on the species
under examination (Santos et al., 2001). Piecing together results from different analyses
and different species contributes towards an understanding of some of the factors
affecting the ecology of both predator and prey (Santos et al., 2001).
A variety of methods have been used to study the diet of marine mammals.
Limitations on observations are presented by the aquatic life style of these animals,
except where the water is clear (Barros and Clarke, 2002). The traditional method to
study the diet of marine mammals has been the analysis of food remains present in the
stomachs of stranded animals or, to a lesser extent, the vomit and faeces of live animals
(Barros and Clarke, 2002). A review of these methods is given below, with the emphasis
on stomach content analysis. For a recent review on the diet and dietary studies of
marine mammals see Barros and Clarke (2002).
6.1.1 Stomach content analysis

Stomach content analysis has traditionally been the main method to study the
diet of marine mammals. This method relies on finding and identifying hard structures
representing the prey. These are fish bones, mainly otoliths (or ear stones) and jaws of
cephalopods, also referred to as “beaks” due to their resemblance to parrot beaks (Barros
and Clarke, 2002). Both the shape and size of otoliths and cephalopod beaks are species-
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Chapter 6: Diet
specific and thus represent good material for the identification of prey items.
Stranded animals are a good source of data, especially as many stranded
cetaceans present rarer and little known species for which information on diet may be
otherwise unobtainable (Ross, 1984). Initially it was thought that data from stranded
animals may be biased towards inshore prey species due to the fact that the cetaceans
must have passed through shallow water to reach the beach (Ross, 1984; Clarke, 1986a).
However, Ross (1979b) compared data from stranded animals with those from animals
caught offshore and concluded that there was no bias, and thus stranded animals gave a
correct indication of the normal diet of the species. Similarly, Gannon (1997a) reports a
similar prey assemblage in the stomach of both stranded and by-caught long-finned pilot
whales Globicephala melas in the western North Atlantic. Although differences in the
amount of fish consumed are found between stomach contents from stranded versus
stomach contents from caught odontocetes, there are no differences for the percentage of
cephalopods in the diet (Sekiguchi et al., 1992). This indicates that the dietary
importance of cephalopods may be overestimated, as their beaks are retained and
identifiable for longer periods than fish otoliths (Clarke and MacLeod, 1982). However,
if stranded animals are sick, which is often the case, their stomachs may either be empty
or the diet may not be representative of the normal diet of the species (Ross, 1984). Few
studies have had the opportunity to obtain quantitative data from more than a few
specimens of any species (Clarke, 1996b) or from more than just a small area of the
species’ range (Pauly et al., 1998). Therefore such data may not be applicable to their
entire distribution range (Pauly et al., 1998).
The second source of data is animals by-caught in fishing gear (Gannon et al.,
1997a;b), caught in commercial operations (Desportes and Mouritsen, 1993), or those
that were historically commercially hunted, such as sperm whales (Clarke, 1980). As a
result of commercial exploitation and the large quantities of beaks that accumulate in
their stomachs, more is known about the diet of sperm whales than of any other
teuthophagous cetacean species (Clarke, 1980; 1986a; Clarke and MacLeod, 1982).
Few prey items, in particular cephalopods, are found in a sufficiently undigested
state to be identified. The digestion process affects fish bones, eye lenses and squid pens
less than the flesh of the food, but not much research has been done into identifying
these remains to species level, or how to use them in diet analysis (Clarke, 1980).
Digestion has even less of an effect on the beaks of cephalopods and otoliths of fish
(Clarke, 1980). Cephalopod flesh is digested more rapidly than fish muscle (Santos et
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Chapter 6: Diet
al., 2001), and thus the identification of prey items relies on the remaining beaks that
accumulate in stomachs. Cephalopod beaks are generally more resistant to erosion from
digestion than are fish otoliths (Tollit et al., 1997), and for studies on mainly piscivorous
species otolith erosion is one of the most important sources of error in quantifying diet
(Bowen, 2000). However, there is wide interspecific variation in the susceptibility of fish
otoliths to erosion, depending on fish size and the robustness of the otoliths (Tollit et al.,
1997; Bowen, 2000). To some extent these biases can be taken into consideration using
data from captive feeding experiments on pinnipeds (Tollit et al., 1997; Bowen, 2000).
However, digestive processes depend on a variety of factors: meal size, condition at
which the animal is held (including the amount of exercise the animal gets), prey size,
predator species, and the effectiveness of hard part recovery (Bowen, 2000). In addition,
many otoliths and bones of fish are digested and/or expelled from the stomach before the
beaks, either by vomiting or defecating (Clarke, 1980). Retention times have been
calculated for the sperm whale (Clarke, 1980) and captive bottlenose dolphins (Ross,
1979b). In the latter, experiments on captive animals indicate that beaks can be retained
for three days or more without showing signs of erosion and different sized beaks do not
appear to be egested differentially (Ross, 1979b). Due to the fact that food organisms
dissolve at different rates and may have been ingested at different times prior to
collection, stomach contents will rarely reflect the true proportion of the taxa, unless only
samples showing little signs of digestion are used (Ross, 1979b).
Some of the earliest works to identify cephalopod beaks from the stomach
contents of cetaceans were carried out by Clarke (1962). The identification of prey
remains from stomachs is facilitated by various reference works (Clarke, 1986b; Smale
et al., 1995), but usually only certain geographic areas are covered. Thus access to good
reference material is essential for the identification of prey remains. Although some
beaks of cephalopods remain unidentified in almost any oceanic region, they are often
those of rarer species, and the difficulties reflect taxonomic problems due to the
inadequacy of sampling cephalopods from oceanic waters (Santos et al., 2001).
Regression equations developed for both fish and cephalopod species allow back
calculation from otolith or beak size to determine the weight and length of prey and thus
allow an estimation of both the number and size of prey consumed (Ross, 1979b; Clarke,
1986b). It is generally assumed that the relative frequency and size of prey estimated
from the otoliths and cephalopod beaks found in the stomach are an accurate
representation of the prey consumed. However, there are three types of bias: a) not all
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Chapter 6: Diet
prey are likely to be identified, b) not all individuals in a prey category may be detected
(i.e. only parts of the prey may be consumed), and c) size-reduction in hard parts
(particularly otoliths) as a result of digestion may lead to underestimation of prey body
size (Santos et al., 2001). Additional prey items found in the stomachs of animals, such
as crustaceans, may be difficult to incorporate into quantitative analyses and thus may
only provide qualitative information (Santos et al., 2001). For a review on the sources of
error in estimating the importance of cephalopods in the diet of marine mammals see
Santos et al. (2001).
6.1.2 Alternative methods to study diet in marine mammals

Aside from stomach contents, faeces are often used as a source of data on the diet
of marine mammals (Klages and Bester, 1998; Smith and Whitehead, 2000). In
pinnipeds this method is increasingly used as faeces are easier to collect for this group of
marine mammals than for cetaceans, are less expensive to collect, and are less affected
by differential rates of digestion than are estimates from stomach contents (Bowen,
2000).
In contrast to direct methods on the analysis of diet in cetaceans such as scat and
stomach content analysis, indirect methods such as stable isotope analysis and fatty acid
analysis from blubber samples have been explored (Ostrom et al., 1993; Pauly et al.,
1998; Walker and Macko, 1999; Hooker et al., 2001). These methods are a good source
of information in the absence of stomach contents and when feeding is difficult to
observe, and are less invasive in nature (Ostrom et al., 1993; Hooker et al., 2001). In
addition, stable isotope analysis can provide historic data, which may be otherwise
unobtainable (Walker et al., 1999) or aid in tracing migration patterns (Best and Schell,
1996). However, while stomach content analysis often provides more of a “snapshot” of
the diet of a species at that moment in time, stable isotope analysis and fatty acid
analysis provide a record of diet over longer time periods and can only be used to assess
differences in diet between species (Hooker et al., 2001). In addition, both methods can
only allow diet to be interpreted through a comparison in pattern with their prey (Hooker
et al., 2001). Differences in feeding patterns (i.e. at different trophic levels) between
adults and juveniles can be detected (Lawson and Hobson, 2000), and temporal changes
in diet throughout an animal’s life can be traced in this way (Hobson and Sease, 1998).
In stable isotope analysis the carbon isotope signatures can be used to study the energy
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Chapter 6: Diet
transfer between a consumer and its food, while the nitrogen signatures reflect diet and
trophic level of the animal studied (Walker and Macko, 1999). Studies indicate that the
pygmy sperm whale K. breviceps is on the same trophic level as the common dolphin
Delphinus delphis (both with a mean δ15N signature of 12.4 %o), with the manatee
Trichechus manatus showing levels below that (7.8%) and the sea otter Enhydra lutris
being above that (14.5%) (Walker and Macko, 1999). A separate study indicates the
highest level in the white-beaked dolphin Lagenorhynchus albirostris (16.2%; trophic
level=3.4) and the lowest in the blue whale Balaenoptera musculus (9.6%; trophic
level=1.2) (Ostrom et al., 1993). The value for K. breviceps (11.9%; trophic level=2.0) is
intermediate between that of the minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata (12.3%;
trophic level=2.1) and the sperm whale Physeter macrocephalus (11.1%; trophic
level=1.7) (Ostrom et al., 1993), and is similar to the result obtained by Walker and
Macko (1999). In contrast, trophic levels calculated for marine mammals by Pauly et al.
(Pauly et al., 1998) range from 3.2-3.4 in baleen whales, over 3.8- 4.4 in most species of
odontocetes, to 4.5-4.6 in killer whales Orcinus orca. The trophic level of K. breviceps is
with 4.4 slightly higher than that of K. sima (4.3) (Pauly et al., 1998). Both species are
thus located near the upper trophic levels for odontocetes and only True’s beaked whale
Mesoplodon mirus and the killer whale have higher trophic levels (Pauly et al., 1998).
However, it is unclear why the levels from the former study are so much lower than that
from the latter (Pauly et al., 1998).
6.1.3 Cephalopods as prey

Cephalopods are an important part of the diet of many odontocetes, but have
been less well studied than fish and crustaceans. As a result many remains in stomachs
have not been identified properly. At least 50 species of odontocetes include
cephalopods in their diet and they form the main food in at least 28 odontocetes (Clarke,
1986a; 1996b). The Ziphidae, Physeteridae and Kogiidae include the main cephalopod
eaters (Clarke, 1986a; 1996b), while all but two species of the family Delphinidae
include cephalopods in their diet (Clarke, 1996b). No Balaenidae eat cephalopods, two
species of balaenopterids eat squid intentionally at times, namely the minke whale B.
acutorostrata and the sei whale B. borealis, while blue whales B. musculus and fin
whales B. physalus probably only include them in their diet accidentally (Clarke, 1986a;
1996b).
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Chapter 6: Diet
Although cephalopods form a large part of the marine ecosystem and as such are
important in the diets of many marine birds (Randall et al., 1981), fish (Smale, 1996),
and seals (Klages and Bester, 1998; de Bruyn et al., 2003), this part of the study will
concentrate on cephalopods (and to a lesser extent fish) in the diet of cetaceans that are
primarily teuthophagous.
There are almost 1000 species of cephalopods with a great variety of life
histories and nutritional values (Clarke, 1986a). There are 28 families of cephalopods
represented in the diet of cetaceans, with the most important being the oceanic
Ommastrephidae, Histioteuthidae and the Cranchidae (Clarke, 1996b). Over the
continental shelf the neritic Loliginidae appear most important (Clarke, 1996b).
Members of the other 22 families of cephalopods occur opportunistically in the diet of
cetaceans and it is assumed that less than 60 cephalopod species occur regularly in the
diet of cetaceans (Clarke, 1996b). Knowledge of life history, distribution and habitat of
cephalopods that occur in the diet of cetaceans can increase understanding of cetacean
distribution, migration, feeding depths, feeding methods, and functional morphology.
Besides increasing the understanding of cetacean biology, such work provides valuable
information on cephalopod biology, since many species are rarely caught by nets and
other sampling devices (Clarke, 1986a). While the species composition and distribution
of the coastal cephalopod fauna along some coastlines is well known due to exploitation
by commercial fisheries or surveys from bottom trawls (dos Santos and Haimovici,
2001; Wang et al., 2002), it is not well studied in other parts. Often less is known about
the cephalopod species inhabiting the upper continental slope and oceanic waters as no
surveys targeting cephalopods are performed there and only long line fishing for large
pelagic fish occurs (dos Santos and Haimovici, 2001). Our current knowledge of
cephalopods is restricted to shelf-living, muscular, negatively buoyant species such as
Loliginidae and Octopodidae, gas-supported species like Sepiidae and Nautilidae, and
members of the Ommastrephidae, which move onto the shelf at certain seasons (Clarke,
1996a). However, the species inhabiting the continental shelves comprise only about
15% of all cephalopod genera and live in water less than 300m deep (Clarke, 1996a).
The rest of the cephalopod genera are spread in the upper 2000m and across the bottom
of the deep ocean (Clarke, 1996a). Over 40% of these species are neutrally buoyant
(through oil or chemical means) and thus may have very different lifestyles to the
shallow water forms (Clarke, 1996a). Improvement of our knowledge on the ecology of
these species is hindered by the poor direct sampling methods and rests largely on
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Chapter 6: Diet
sampling from the stomachs of predators (Clarke, 1996a; 1996b; dos Santos and
Haimovici, 2001).
Knowledge of nutritive potential and differences in composition between
cephalopods, fish, and crustaceans can also increase our understanding of trophic
relationships (Clarke, 1986a). However, the natural diet of many species of cetacean is
not yet known. Most cephalopods are easy to catch as they cannot sustain high
swimming speeds for long and many of the families favoured by cetaceans (e.g.
histioteuthids and cranchiids) are neutrally buoyant and sluggish (Clarke, 1996b). In
sperm whales, ammoniacal squid comprise 53 to 78% of the cephalopods consumed
(Clarke, 1980; 1986a; 1996b). Although these species have a lower energy content
(Clarke, 1996b), they also require less energy expenditure during the hunt than fast-
swimming species. Data obtained from a few squid species suggest that cephalopods
school and congregate to spawn (Augustyn et al., 1994), which presents a concentrated
food source for predators and many cetaceans are thought to feed on the spawning
grounds (Clarke, 1996b). Cephalopods have short life spans of less than two years and
reproduce rapidly, thus compensating for heavy predation (Clarke, 1996b).
The sizes of cephalopods found in the diet of cetaceans ranges from three
centimetres mantle length and a few grams in weight to over 20m mantle length and
probably over 500kg in weight (Clarke, 1996b). The weight of the cephalopods
consumed by sperm whales varies with region, with the greatest weights occurring in the
Antarctic (Clarke, 1980; 1986a). Species composition of cephalopods in the diet of
cetaceans varies regionally, seasonally and annually, with the greatest difference found
between cetaceans that inhabit oceanic waters compared to those living over the
continental shelf (Clarke, 1996b; dos Santos and Haimovici, 2001). In addition, there is a
positive correlation between both the size of the cetacean and the growth stage within a
cetacean species and the size of the cephalopod prey (Clarke, 1996b). As a result some
partitioning of resources has been observed, leading to reduced competition among and
within species for the food available (Clarke, 1996b). Clarke (1996b) presents an
overview of the preferred cephalopod prey by family and species of cetacean.
6.1.4 Teuthophagous odontocetes

As mentioned above many cetaceans include cephalopods in their diet (Jones,
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Chapter 6: Diet
1981; Sekiguchi et al., 1992; González et al., 1994), but few odontocetes seem to feed
predominantly on cephalopods. The most important squid-eating odontocetes are the
Ziphiidae and the two genera of the sperm whales (Clarke, 1980; 1986a; Sekiguchi et al.,
1996; MacLeod et al., 2003). In addition, Risso’s dolphins Grampus griseus (Würtz et
al., 1992; Cockcroft et al., 1993) and pilot whales (genus Globicephala) (Desportes and
Mouritsen, 1993; Gannon et al., 1997a; 1997b) feed on cephalopods to a large extent.
These species can be termed teuthophagous, although the diet may be supplemented with
fish, crustaceans and other prey to some degree. Both Kogia species are primarily
teuthophagous and a review of the knowledge of the diet of odontocetes will be
restricted to other teuthophagous species for comparative purposes.
6.1.4.1 Dentition
The reduced dentition of Kogia and other teuthophagous species has been
mentioned briefly in Chapters 1, 3 and 4 with respect to morphological distinction
between the two species and as an indicator of the mating system. Here it will be
discussed in relation to diet.
Most species of odontocetes have a large number of conical shaped teeth, which
they use to hold their prey (Norris and Møhl, 1983). The reduction in dentition can be
observed in 27 out of 67 modern odontocetes (or 43%) and consequently it has been
suggested that some species, including the sperm whale, may debilitate their prey with
sound rather than catch it with their teeth (Norris and Møhl, 1983). Norris and Møhl
(1983) in reviewing this idea state that there is no evidence that the lower jaw of the
sperm whale plays a big role in catching prey and suggest that it rather immobilizes the
prey before using a sucking motion to draw the squid into the mouth. More recently it
has been suggested that a number of odontocetes acquire food by means of suction
feeding (Heyning and Mead, 1996). However, little real supporting evidence has been
presented for that to date, with the exception of a recent study on Ziphiids (Heyning and
Mead, 1996). The presence of throat grooves, a small gape, and a reduction in the
number of teeth in these species may all present adaptations for suction feeding. The
throat grooves aid in creating suction by increasing the intraoral cavity when distended
and the small gape found in Ziphiids facilitates the intake of water more efficiently
(Heyning and Mead, 1996). Throat gooves are present in the sperm whale P.
macrocephalus and have been reported for K. sima (see Chapter 1) and a small gape is
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Chapter 6: Diet
found in both genera of sperm whales, supporting evidence for suction feeding in these
species.
Allen (1941) remarks that the overshot jaw and the almost complete loss of teeth
in the maxilla in Kogia indicate a diet other than fish, rather like crabs and cephalopods.
Gaskin (1982) interprets the small mouth and receding lower jaw as indicators that
Kogia feed near or on the ocean floor. He also comments on the reduction in the number
of teeth in primarily teuthophagous species, and a number of authors subsequently
suggest that the teeth retained in these species might serve for social interaction rather
than feeding (Heyning, 1984; MacCleod, 1998). Reduction of dentition is also suggested
to be advantageous for suction feeders (Heyning and Mead, 1996).
Echolocation coupled with suction feeding may be advantageous for foraging in
the aphotic zone and additionally suction feeding would explain the presence of intact
squid (without teeth marks) found in the stomachs of ziphiids and the big sperm whale P.
macrocephalus (Heyning and Mead, 1996).
6.1.4.2 Diet
The diets of teuthophagous odontocetes are to a large extent determined by their

geographical location, as well as the seasonal and topographical changes in the
abundance of their prey (Clarke, 1986a). Furthermore, preferences of prey species vary
depending on age and sex of the animal (Clarke, 1980; Kawakami, 1980).
Risso’s dolphins G. griseus feed mainly over the continental shelf and in oceanic
waters (Clarke, 1986b; Clarke and Pascoe, 1985; Würtz et al., 1992). Some of the
cephalopods found occur at daytime depths of over 300m, which indicates that the
species probably also feeds over steep slopes of the shelf (Clarke, 1986b; Würtz et al.,
1992). In addition, a cephalopod species found near the bottom on sea mounts in oceanic
waters has been recorded (Würtz et al., 1992). No fish remains are found in the diet
(Ross, 1984; Clarke and Pascoe, 1985; Würtz et al., 1992) and the main prey are
cephalopods of the families Ommastrephidae, Sepiidae, Histioteuthidae, Loliginidae and
Octopodidae (Evans, 1987). At least 17 species of cephalopods were identified from
stomachs of Risso’s dolphins from South Africa (Cockcroft et al., 1993). This relatively
small number of exclusively cephalopod prey species indicates that the species has a
rather specialized diet of a small variety of locally abundant cephalopods and there is a
significant difference in the prey consumed by males and females (Cockcroft et al.,
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Chapter 6: Diet
1993). Odontocetes which occur in small groups like the Risso’s dolphin, are known to
feed on cephalopods that are ammoniacal, buoyant, solitary species, which are evenly
and widely distributed (Ross, 1984; Clarke, 1986a).
Studies on long-finned pilot whales G. melas in the North Atlantic indicate that
the species feeds almost exclusively on cephalopods (Sergeant, 1962; Gannon et al.,
1997a), mainly those belonging to the Loliginidae, Ommastrephidae, Histioteuthidae,
Onychoteuthidae, Gonatidae, Cranchiidae, Brachioteuthidae, Chiroteuthidae and Sepidae
as well as octopus (Evans, 1987). However, the diet may be supplemented with some
fish (Kasuya and Tai, 1993). Prey items of animals from the North Atlantic include 12
genera of cephalopods, distributed within at least 10 families, and 15 genera of fish,
representing at least eight families (Desportes and Mouritsen, 1993). Although the
authors thought prey diversity to be large, with at least 30 taxa of fish or cephalopods in
the stomachs, the diversity in each individual stomach was low, with 48% of them
containing the remains of a single species (Desportes and Mouritsen, 1993). Feeding was
estimated to occur at a variety of water depths between 100 and 500m (Desportes and
Mouritsen, 1993).
Comparatively little information exists on the diet of short-finned pilot whales G.
macrorhynchus, which feed mainly on Loliginidae, Cranchiidae, Enoploteuthidae and
Octopoteuthidae (Evans, 1987). Animals stranded along the South African coastline feed
mainly on Loligo reynaudi (Ross, 1984).
A recent review of the diet of beaked whales worldwide shows that all beaked
whales predominantly feed on prey, which occur between 200 and 2000m water depth,
indicating that beaked whales in general feed off the continental shelf (MacLeod et al.,
2003). Beaked whales feed on a high number of different prey species and families, in
particular cephalopods (MacLeod et al., 2003). Northern bottlenose whales Hyperoodon
ampullatus feed at depths of over 800m (Hooker and Baird, 1999), and off the Faroe
Islands the prey consists mainly of squid from at least 13 different species, but is also
supplemented with fish, decapod crustaceans, starfish and sea cucumbers (Evans, 1987;
Bloch et al., 1996). The main families of squid represented in the diet are Gonatidae,
Sepiidae, Loliginidae, Enoploteuthidae, Cranchiidae, Myopsidae and Oegopsidae
(Evans, 1987). In contrast southern bottlenose whales Hyperoodon planifrons feed
mainly on cranchiids and neoteuthids (Evans, 1987), but all the species found in the diet
live in deep water, extending to depths over 500m and in some cases over 1000m
(Clarke and Goodall, 1994). Baird’s beaked whales Berardius bairdii feed to a large
6-11
Chapter 6: Diet
extent on fish and have squid of the families Gonatidae, Onychoteuthidae and
Octopoteuthidae present in their diet (Evans, 1987). Cuvier’s beaked whales Ziphius
cavirostris from both hemispheres feed predominantly on cephalopods of the families
Cranchiidae, Onychoteuthidae, Brachioteuthidae, Enoploteuthidae, Octopoteuthidae, and
Histioteuthidae (Evans, 1987). Mesoplodon species from both hemispheres feed
predominantly on cephalopods from the families Ommastrephidae, Octopoteuthidae,
Enoploteuthidae and Neoteuthidae (Evans, 1987). Strap-toothed whales Mesoplodon
layardii stranded on South African and New Zealand coasts feed mainly on oceanic
squid, most of them inhabitants of the mesopelagic zone and some of them of the
bathypelagic zone (Sekiguchi et al., 1996). In South African animals Histioteuthis sp.
and Taonius pavo were the predominant prey items, while for the New Zealand
specimens Chiroteuthidae were dominant by number and Histioteuthis miranda by mass
(Sekiguchi et al., 1996). No predominance of bioluminescent cephalopods or those with
specific buoyancy control mechanisms was observed in any species of beaked whale
(MacLeod et al., 2003).
The diet of sperm whales has been well studied due to the long commercial
exploitation of the species and its teuthophagous diet has played a major part in
advancing the knowledge of cephalopod biology and distribution in many areas of the
world (Clarke, 1980; Clarke and MacLeod, 1982; Pascoe et al., 1990). However, in early
years the identification of squid beaks had not been developed, thus only flesh remains
were identified (Gaskin and Cawthorn, 1967; Kawakami, 1976). Sperm whales feed on
medium to large mesopelagic squid, which are usually found in high concentrations over
the continental slope and ridges and preferred sperm whale habitats in the western North
Atlantic coincide with areas influenced by cooler shelf or slope water, which provides a
suitable habitat for squid (Griffin, 1999). A review of sperm whale food worldwide was
given by Kawakami in 1980, and more recently for the eastern Pacific Ocean by Smith
and Whitehead (2000). Worldwide this species feeds on about 56 species from 36
different genera of cephalopods, belonging to 19 families (Kawakami, 1980). The main
prey are cephalopods of the families Histioteuthidae, Onychoteuthidae, Octopoteuthidae,
Gonatidae, Cranchiidae, Ommastrephiidae, Architeuthidae as well as octopus
(Kawakami, 1980; Evans, 1987). Although numerically the main prey items are
histioteuthids, followed by gonatids and onychoteuthids, in terms of weight
octopoteuthid and histioteuthid squid were most important in most regions of the world
(Kawakami, 1980). In terms of mass onychoteuthids, archioteuthids and ommastrephids
6-12
Chapter 6: Diet
are important only regionally (Kawakami, 1980). A few studies demonstrate the
movements of animals due to the presence of particular cephalopod species in their diet
(Clarke, 1980; Clarke and MacLeod, 1982; Clarke and Roper, 1998; Pascoe et al., 1990).
Although diet studies in cetaceans appear largely descriptive rather than
comparative, probably due to large gaps in the knowledge of distribution and abundance
of both predator and prey, a few general observations can be made.
Studies on diet in odontocetes show that the size of prey (both in length and
mass) is positively correlated with predator size, which led Ross (1979b) to the
conclusion that odontocete species of different sizes are unlikely to compete for the same
food resources. In contrast, species, which are similar in size and particular those that are
closely related are quite likely to compete for food resources (Ross, 1979b).
Consequently, in Kogia, undue competition for food resources was thought to be
diminished as K. breviceps feeds on larger prey than K. sima. In addition, there is some
evidence of intraspecific change in prey size with growth, as the size of prey taken by
adults is bigger than that taken by juveniles in both Kogia species (Ross, 1979b). The
smaller gape size in juveniles, inexperience in hunting techniques, and a change in
feeding behaviour which occurs at sexual maturity in these species all contribute to the
difference in prey size taken (Ross, 1979b). In contrast, only a poor correlation between
the length of the dolphin and both mean length of prey and mass of prey is seen in
Risso’s dolphins G. griseus off South Africa (Cockcroft et al., 1993). However, in
general the prey length increased with dolphin length and larger cephalopod species are
important for larger dolphins (Cockcroft et al., 1993). In addition, the mean prey length
of males is greater than that of females (Cockcroft et al., 1993). Curiously strap-toothed
whales eat squid of a similar size to those eaten by smaller odontocete species, such as
spotted dolphins Stenella attenuata and dwarf sperm whales K. sima (Sekiguchi et al.,
1996).
Different groups within a cetacean species also exhibit differing prey preferences
(Desportes and Mouritsen, 1993). Energy requirements in female cetaceans are the
highest in lactating females and as a result dietary differences between these and other
members of a population are reported for a number of cetacean species (Bernard and
Hohn, 1989; Recchia and Read, 1989; Young and Cockcroft, 1994). While these are all
piscivorous species, similar results are found in teuthophagous odontocetes. Lactating
females of long-finned pilot whales G. melas consume more fish and more fish species
than any other group of mature females (Desportes and Mouritsen, 1993).
6-13
Chapter 6: Diet
If the preferred prey item is unavailable due to seasonal environmental changes,

including El Niño events, teuthophagous whales appear to diversify their diet and feed at
a different depth as was observed for long-finned pilot whales G. melas (Desportes and
Mouritsen, 1993) and sperm whales P. macrorhynchus (Smith and Whitehead, 2000).
Some correlation between the distribution and seasonal movement of long-finned pilot
whales and their main prey is reported for the populations off the Faroe Islands (Hoydal
and Lastein, 1993) and off the north-eastern United States (Payne and Heinemann,
1993), while no seasonal changes could be determined in the diet of Risso’s dolphins off
South Africa (Cockcroft et al., 1993).
Recent studies on sperm whales P. macrocephalus describe a difference between
the diet of commercially caught specimens and stranded ones in that commercially
caught specimens have more fish present in their diet (Santos et al., 1999). In the North
Atlantic the main prey species of both stranded long-finned pilot whales G. melas and
those caught in the drive fishery were Todarodes sagittatus (Desportes and Mouritsen,
1993; Sigurjónsson et al., 1993), but animals caught in the drive fishery also feed on two
fish species (blue whiting Micromesistius poutassou and greater argentine Argentina
silus) (Desportes and Mouritsen, 1993). Little difference is reported between the stomach
contents of stranded and by-caught specimens of long-finned pilot whales G. melas in
the western North Atlantic (Gannon et al., 1997b). However, as the animals were found
to opportunistically feed on mackerel around the fishing nets at the time of death, the
authors concluded that the whales might switch opportunistically to different prey (i.e.
fish) when their main prey Loligo pealei becomes temporarily unavailable (Gannon et
al., 1997a).
Few diet studies on teuthophagous odontocetes have compared the diet between
species. In southern Brazil loliginids are the most important cephalopods in the diet of
coastal marine mammals, and ommastrephids were most important in the diet of offshore
odontocetes (dos Santos and Haimovici, 2001). The diversity of prey in the stomachs is
low in coastal marine mammals, but increases in offshore species, where both the fast
moving muscular squid and the less mobile mesopelagic and epipelagic neutrally
buoyant families are represented in the diet (dos Santos and Haimovici, 2001). Clarke
and Kristensen (1980) observe that the squid eaten by northern bottlenose whales H.
ampullatus are smaller and younger than those consumed by sperm whales P.
macrocephalus in the same region. Whitehead et al. (2003) conclude that out four
species of teuthophagous, mesopelagic marine mammals those with larger ranges will
6-14
Chapter 6: Diet
encounter more types of prey and thus exhibit larger niche breadths. Consequently the
differences in niche breadth observed between species are closely related to their
movement patterns (Whitehead et al., 2003). A recent review of the diet of beaked
whales showed that they are generalist feeders of deepwater squid, fish and crustaceans
with a possible preference for benthic or benthopelagic species (MacLeod et al., 2003).
Mesoplodon species are frequently sympatric and a great deal of variation of types of
prey items is found in this genus (MacLeod et al., 2003). In addition, the sizes of the
prey (measured as mass) vary between genera (MacLeod et al., 2003). These data led
MacLeod et al. (2003) to the conclusion that a segregation of the ecological niche exists
in Mesoplodon spp. in order to reduce competition. In contrast, the genera Hyperoodon
and Ziphius feed on the same size prey and probably occupy the same niche, but
geographical and/or temporal segregation probably appears to prevent direct competition
(MacLeod et al., 2003). As Mesoplodon occupies a separate niche from Ziphius and
Hyperoodon they can locally co-exist (MacLeod et al., 2003).
6.1.5 Previous studies on diet in Kogia

In contrast to other aspects of Kogia biology the diet of the two species has been
studied in some detail in different geographical areas. Early accounts on the stomach
contents of Kogia are sparse as many of the identification procedures for the remains of
prey items had not been developed.
Clarke (1996b) reviews previous studies on the diet of Kogia and reports that 11
families of cephalopods have been represented in the diet of the two species:
Histioteuthidae, Lycoteuthidae, Chiroteuthidae, Cranchiidae, Loliginidae,
Ommastrephidae, Octopoteuthidae, Onychoteuthidae, Enoploteuthidae, Sepiidas and
Octopodidae. While the histioteuthids appear most important in both species, K.
breviceps also consume inshore loliginids, at least off South Africa, while K. sima feeds
on inshore sepiids (Clarke, 1996b). In addition, Lycoteuthidae form an important
component of the diet of Kogia off South Africa and Brazil (Ommastrephidae also being
important in the latter), and the Chiroteuthidae off the Azores (Clarke, 1996b). Sepiids
are reported in both species from Europe (Allen, 1941) and Australia (Hale, 1947; 1962;
1963). Off New Caledonia the diet of K. breviceps consists of Histioteuthis sp.,
Enoploteuthis sp., Taonius sp. and Octopoteuthidae (Bustamante et al., 2003).
Nagorsen (1985) provides a summary on the diet of K. sima, which includes
6-15
Chapter 6: Diet
cephalopods, some fish, and crustaceans, pelagic crabs and shrimp. 13 families of
cephalopod have been described from K. sima stomachs: Octopoteuthidae,
Chiroteuthidae, Onychoteuthidae, Ommastrephidae, Loliginidae, Vampyroteuthidae,
Lycoteuthidae, Cranchiidae, Sepiidae, Octopodidae, Gonatidae, Enoploteuthidae, and
Histioteuthidae (Nagorsen, 1985). Mastigoteuthidae were added to that list by Willis and
Baird (1998). In addition, Pinedo reports Brachioteuthidae from the stomach of an
animal from southern Brazil (1987).
A brief summary of crustaceans in the diet of Kogia is presented by Debrot and
Barros (1994). Amongst the more bizarre stomach contents found in Kogia are
sargassum seaweed (Raun et al., 1970) and the ligaments from a kangaroo found in an
animal from South Australia, apparently constituting the remains of bait used by
crayfish- or big-game fishermen (Hale, 1962).
One of the earliest detailed studies of Kogia diet was carried out by Fitch and
Brownell (1968), who provide a review of otoliths recovered from the stomachs of three
animals caught off Japan, but it is unclear whether they examined K. breviceps or K.
sima. Surprisingly they report 153 otoliths originating from a minimum of 92 fish
representing 18 species. For the primarily teuthophagous Kogia this is an unusually high
number of fish consumed, but may be due to the fact that these animals were caught
rather than stranded. The otoliths in the stomachs of the Kogia caught off Japan are from
representatives of seven families of fish: Argentinidae, Gonostomatidae, Macrouridae,
Myctophidae, Sternoptychidae, Congridae and Moridae; Myctophids (or lanternfishes)
comprise the greatest number of otoliths found in the stomachs of these animals.
Cephalopod beaks and crustacean remains are also reported, but not identified (Fitch and
Brownell, 1968). The analysis of the otoliths present in the stomachs suggests that these
animals dive to 300m and deeper to forage. As these data are in contradiction to other
data on the diet of Kogia, which show that they are mainly teuthophagous, these results
might mean that Kogia off Japan have a higher fish content in their diet than elsewhere.
Alternatively the possibility that a higher amount of fish can be found in the diet of
commercially caught and by-caught whales in comparison to stranded animals has been
mentioned above.
While the vast majority of reports on stomach contents of Kogia is based on the
results from a few stranded animals (Allen, 1941; Hale, 1947; 1962; 1963; Raun et al.,
1970; Jones, 1981; Martins et al., 1985; Pinedo, 1987; McAlpine and Murison, 1997;
Cardona-Maldonado and Mignucci-Giannoni, 1999; Hückstädt and Antezana, 2001;
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Chapter 6: Diet
Bustamante et al., 2003), only few studies have had a larger sample size for systematic
analysis.
One of the more extensive studies on the diet of Kogia is the analysis of 53 K.
beviceps and eight K. sima stomachs from animals stranded in the south-eastern United
States and it reports that histioteuthids and ommastrephids together account for the
majority of the beaks found in K. breviceps, followed by enoploteuthids and cranchiids
(Candela, 1987). While these families are found over the deep shelf and slope, oceanic
species make up the remainder of the sample. Neritic species such as loliginids are found
in one third of all the animals, but contribute only 1.5% to all the beaks (Candela, 1987).
Enoploteuthids are most abundant in K. sima, making up 33% of all beaks, followed by
histioteuthids, ommastrephids and loliginids (15% each) and to a lesser extent,
cranchiids (4%) (Candela, 1987). Small numbers of salps and deepwater shrimp are also
reported from the stomachs of the two specimens (Candela, 1987).
The analysis of six K. breviceps and five K. sima from Taiwanese waters
indicates that both species feed exclusively on oceanic cephalopods, with both species
having Enoploteuthis chunii and Taonius pavo as their main prey items (Wang et al.,
2002). K. breviceps feeds on eighteen species, representing nine families of cephalopods.
In K. sima thirteen species from seven families of cephalopods are represented in the
diet.
Although there have been reports that both Kogia species feed on the same main
prey items (Wang et al., 2002) and no differences in the families of prey eaten are
discovered between the two species (dos Santos and Haimovici, 2001), a number of
studies conclude that K. sima has a more coastal habitat than K. breviceps and that K.
breviceps lives seaward of the continental shelf and dives deeper than K. sima based on
the results of the diet analysis (Ross, 1979a; Candela, 1987; Klages et al., 1989; Wang et
al., 2002). Maigret and Robineau (1981) speculate that K. sima may be capable of diving
to between 500 and 1300m depth due to the presence of a deepwater crustacean in the
stomach of a stranded animal from Senegal. McAlpine and Murison (1997) conclude
that feeding by a K. breviceps stranded in New Brunswick, Canada, had occurred in the
deep zones of the continental shelf and slope or in the open ocean at mesopelagic depths.
Pygmy and dwarf sperm whales in the Gulf of Mexico are found in waters with the
steepest sea-surface temperature (SST) gradient (Davis et al., 1998). As the two species
are known to feed on squid they are thought to be foraging along thermal fronts where
their prey aggregates (Davis et al., 1998).
6-17
Chapter 6: Diet
As already mentioned in Chapter 1, it is remarkable that most studies on diet in

Kogia report a high number of nematodes in the digestive tract (Johnston and Mawson,
1939; Allen, 1941; Hale, 1947; Scheffer and Slipp, 1948; Hale, 1962; 1963; Raun et al.,
1970; Roest, 1970; Ross, 1979a; Martins et al., 1985; Hückstädt and Antezana, 2001).
An overview of this topic is given in Chapter 1.
6.1.5.1 Studies off southern Africa
Ross (1979a) provides data on the frequencies of occurrence of various families

of cephalopods in the stomachs of both Kogia species off Southern Africa. Sepiids,
which are commonly found over the continental shelf, are more common in K sima,
while oceanic cephalopods such as histioteuthids, cranchids, octopoteuthids and
chiroteuthids are more prevalent in the diet of K. breviceps.
Klages et al. (1989) present results from stomach content analysis of 35 K.
breviceps and 33 K. sima from South Africa. The majority of the prey is made up of
cephalopods (81.6% and 94.9% for K. breviceps and K. sima, respectively), with some
fish (14% and 3.2%, respectively) and crustaceans (4.4% and 1.9%). The most
frequently occurring prey species are Lycoteuthis diadema and Histioteuthis sp. in both
whales. Cranchiids like Teuthowenia pellucida and Taonius pavo are more prominent in
K. sima than K. breviceps, with mesopelagic fish and the mysid Gnathophausia ingens
making up the rest of the diet (Klages et al., 1989). In addition, Loligo vulgaris and
Octopoteuthis sp. are more important on the east coast, but insignificant on the south and
west coast (Klages et al., 1989).
Sekiguchi et al. (1992) report that K. breviceps off South Africa has the most
diverse diet out of 20 odontocete species examined (49 prey species), followed by
southern bottlenose whales H. planifrons (39 species) and K. sima with 27 species. K.
breviceps also has the third highest dietary diversity index (Sekiguchi et al., 1992). Both
Kogia species feed on cephalopods that are characteristically found over the continental
slope, mainly Histioteuthis sp. and Lycoteuthis diadema (32.1% and 13.4% for K.
breviceps and 48.4% and 18% for K. sima) (Sekiguchi et al., 1992).
Consequently, the diet of the two Kogia species off Southern Africa is well
known and previous studies have determined that the two species feed predominantly on
the same prey. However, little emphasis has been placed on determining dietary and thus
ecological differences between the two Kogia species.
6-18
Chapter 6: Diet
6.1.6 The niche concept and resource partitioning

An ecological niche is defined as the range of physical and biotic conditions
within which a species is adapted to survive and reproduce (Wittenberger, 1981;
Spellenberg, 1996). Each resource, such as food, space or time, can be considered as a
dimension of the niche (Pianka, 1975; Spellenberg, 1996). Species that exhibit a high
overlap along one dimension of a niche may be in competition if the common resource is
in short supply (Pianka, 1976). However, most resources may be sufficiently abundant
for more than one species to exploit, and competition occurs only when the use of a
resource by one consumer reduces the amount of the same resource available to another
(Wittenberger, 1981), thus information on the abundance of a resource is necessary to
determine competition. One of the central concepts in ecology is the competitive
exclusion principle, which states that two species cannot coexist if they are in direct
competition, therefore two sympatric species must differ in some aspect of their
ecological niche (Hardin, 1960; May and MacArthur, 1972). Niche overlap theory thus
aims to explore just how similar competing species can be if they are to co-exist (May
and MacArthur, 1972; Pianka, 1974; Schoener, 1974).
Niche overlap indices measure the degree of overlap between species in the
utilization of a common resource (Pianka, 1975). Early works by Pianka (1973)
attempted to measure how various lizard species coexisted with regard to their selection
of food size, their location, and their time of foraging. It emerged that two species with
similar niche requirements show a high degree of overlap. However, overlap indices are
merely based on the relative use of resources without accounting for their relative
availability (i.e. it is usually assumed that resources are equally available) (Pianka,
1976). Therefore no measure of significance is available, i.e. what value is sufficiently
different from 0 (indicating no overlap) to indicate a significant degree of overlap. As a
result studies on resource partitioning remain to some extent descriptive in nature.
A high niche overlap index therefore merely indicates that two or more species
utilize the particular niche largely to the same extent. However, overlap is never
complete and each species concentrates on a different part of the overall resource
spectrum (Wittenberger, 1981). Species vary considerably in their degree of
specialization and the resource spectra they exploit often overlap, leading to resource
partitioning. It is tempting to equate niche overlap with intensity of interspecific
competition, but the relationship between niche overlap and competition is too complex
6-19
Chapter 6: Diet
for that (Pianka, 1976; Wittenberger, 1981). Competition is affected by resource

availability as well as the degree of niche overlap and in this respect two species may
both obtain much of their food from a single, abundant resource without competing
(Pianka, 1976; Wittenberger, 1981).

The aim of this part of the study was to examine the diet composition of the two
species of Kogia, and, in particular, to determine whether different parts of the
populations feed on differing prey and how the sympatric Kogia populations off South
Africa partition the dietary resources they both use.

Stomach contents of 42 K. breviceps (21 females, 20 males and one animal of
unknown sex) and 33 K. sima (20 females and 13 males) stranded along the South
African coastline and accessioned to both the Port Elizabeth Museum (now Bayworld)
and the South African Museum marine mammal collections were examined. Stomachs
from stranded animals were removed after the oesophagus and intestine had been
ligated, transported to the museum and temporarily stored frozen. Stomach contents
were subsequently opened, washed out into metal sieves with 1.0mm mesh diameter to
isolate hard parts and the remains were preserved in 70% alcohol for long-term storage.
Only lower squid beaks and undigested otoliths were taken for prey identification
purposes. Where possible the squid beaks and otoliths were identified to species level
using the reference collection for prey identification at the Port Elizabeth Museum. The
lower rostral length (LRL) of the beaks and total length of the otoliths was measured
using Vernier calipers to the nearest 0.1mm. The hood length (HL) was measured in the
case of octopods and sepiids (Clarke, 1986b). Prey sizes and masses were estimated
from regressions relating dimensions of otoliths and cephalopod beaks with total lengths
(TL) or dorsal mantle lengths (DML), respectively. Regression equations are part of the
otolith and cephalopod beak reference collections held at the Port Elizabeth Museum and
have been obtained from the collection for some species (e.g. Argonauta argo).
Regressions equations for other species were obtained from the literature (Cooper, 1979;
Clarke, 1980; 1986b; Wolff, 1982; Smale, 1983).
6-20
Chapter 6: Diet
Cephalopod classification follows that of Clarke (1986b). Although initially

identified separately, Histioteuthis atlantica and Histioteuthis ‘B4’ were both grouped
into Histioteuthis atlantica. Similarly, Histioteuthis sp. and Histioteuthis ‘A5’ were
assigned to Histioteuthis sp. (after Clarke, 1986). Loligo vulgaris reynaudii and Loligo
vulgaris were grouped into Loligo vulgaris. In cases where identification to species level
was not possible, cephalopod weight and length were estimated by using regressions
available for the genus or family (Clarke, 1986b). Unidentified prey and some minor
prey items with no available mass data were omitted from the calculations. This was also
the case for crustacean remains.
Not all otoliths and cephalopod beaks were measured. Where large numbers of
one prey species were present a sub sample of 20-50 was taken for measurement, and the
total mass of each prey item was calculated from the average mass of those measured.
The percentage number (%Num), percentage mass (%Mass) and percentage
frequency of occurrence (%FO) of the individual prey items were calculated for each
animal, each species and for groups of different reproductive and/or developmental
status (see below). Proportion of numerical abundance (%Num) is the percentage of the
total number of prey items recovered from all stomachs represented by a particular prey
category. Similarly, proportion of reconstructed mass (%Mass) is the percentage of the
mass of prey recovered from all stomachs represented by a particular prey category.
Frequency of occurrence (FO) is the proportion of stomachs that contained a particular
prey category, regardless of its mass or abundance. For the determination of the main
prey items only prey species that numerically amounted to more than 10 individuals per
group were included in the analysis. Similarly, in the presentation of the results only the
main prey items that made up over 2% of the total number of prey items were included.
In order to determine whether the diets of the two Kogia species were different
from each other as well as to detect diet differences within each Kogia species the data
were analysed separately for the following groups: males and females, immature and
mature animals, and sexually mature males and sexually mature females neither
lactating, pregnant or accompanied by a calf (group 1) and immature animals of both
sexes and females that were lactating and/or pregnant and/or accompanied by a calf
(group 2). The classification into group 1 and 2 arose from the observation that certain
prey items were only present in animals belonging to either group. In addition, the
composition of group 1 and 2 reflects the composition of animals, which are thought to
travel and therefore feed together based on sighting and stranding data of the two species
6-21
Chapter 6: Diet
(see Chapters 1 and 7). The state of maturity was determined by histological analysis
(see Chapters 4 and 5). In the males, early spermatogenesis was classified as immature;
only animals in late spermatogenesis were considered mature. Where no reproductive
organs were available for examination body length was used as an indicator for maturity
based on length at sexual maturity as established in Chapter 4 and 5. A niche overlap
index (α) following Pianka’s (1975) formula:
n
∑ PijPik
α= i
n n
∑ Pij 2 ∑ Pik 2
i i
(where: Pij and Pik are the proportions of the ith resource used by the jth and kth
species, respectively)
was calculated for the two species as well as for males and females and mature
and immature animals of the same species and for groups 1 and 2 within a species as
defined above using the percent numerical data. In order to obtain a more accurate
comparison only prey items that could be identified to genus level were included in this
analysis. In addition, ANOVA’s were performed for the Simpson diversity index
( H = ∑ Pi ; where: Pi is the proportion of the ith resource) and Shannon-Weaver

2
diversity index ( H = − ∑ Pi × ln Pi ; where: Pi is the proportion of the ith resource) as

well as for species richness (as determined by the number of prey species consumed)
between the two Kogia species to determine whether the diets of the two species were
significantly different.
In order to elucidate the dietary differences between the different groups of K.
breviceps and K. sima further, size-frequency analyses were performed on the
cephalopod prey consumed by the individual groups. For this purpose 3150 cephalopod
beaks from the stomachs of K. breviceps were analysed and 1317 cephalopod beaks
from the stomachs of K. sima.
In addition to the South African material, previously unstudied stomach contents
for four Australian specimens were available from the collections of the Australian
Museum (AM; one female) and the South Australian Museum (SAUSM; three males).
These are also presented, but were excluded in any calculations regarding the South
African material.
6-22
Chapter 6: Diet
6.3 Results
K. breviceps
The diet of K. breviceps comprised 50 different cephalopod species from 22

families and 17 other prey species including fish (12 species), crustaceans (five species),
and colonial salps (one species) (Table 6.1). Numerically Histioteuthis sp. made up the
major part of the diet (28.34%), followed by Lycoteuthis diadema (14.49%). The next
important prey items were Loligo vulgaris, Octopoteuthis sp. and Sepia sp. (8.73%,
4.10% and 3.67%, respectively). Similarly, the most important prey item in terms of
mass was Histioteuthis sp., making up 29.26% of the total prey, followed by Lycoteuthis
diadema, which comprised 9.61% of the total prey mass (Table 6.1). The next most
important prey species in terms of mass were Loligo vulgaris, Octopoteuthis sp. and
Ancistrocheirus leseuri with 13.86%, 6.87% and 5.16%, respectively. In terms of
frequency of occurrence Lycoteuthis diadema was more abundant than Histioteuthis sp.
(8.50% and 7.38%, respectively) (Table 6.1). The next most abundant prey species were
Chiroteuthis sp. (6.04%), Octopoteuthis sp. (5.15%) and Taonius pavo (3.80%).
Table 6.1: Species list of prey eaten by Kogia breviceps.

Prey species Number % Mass(g) % Relative Frequency of
Number Mass(g) abundance Occurrence
(Number) (%)
CEPHALOPODA
Bathyteuthidae
Bathyteuthis sp. 2 0.05 68.69 0.02 1 0.22
Bolitaenidae
Japetella 1 0.03 - - 1 0.22
Brachioteuthidae
Brachioteuthis sp. 12 0.31 96.61 0.02 4 0.89
Cranchiidae
Leachia 3 0.08 32.81 0.01 1 0.22
Taonius sp. 9 0.23 204.98 0.05 4 0.89
Taonius pavo 136 3.64 4749.64 1.12 17 3.80
Teuthowenia sp. 34 0.87 6830.83 1.61 7 1.57
Teuthowenia
megalops 12 0.31 2555.71 0.60 4 0.89
Teuthowenia
pellucida 52 1.32 7000.05 1.65 14 3.13
Megalocranchia sp. 19 0.48 1076.62 0.25 4 0.89
Chiroteuthidae
Chiroteuthis sp. 134 3.41 12891.60 3.04 27 6.04
Cycloteuthidae
Cycloteuthis sp. 4 0.10 726.28 0.17 4 0.89
Discoteuthis sp. 28 0.71 4166.13 0.98 10 2.24
Discoteuthis
laciniosa 4 0.10 269.88 0.06 3 0.67
6-23
Chapter 6: Diet
Enoploteuthidae
Anchistrocheirus 33 0.84 21869.51 5.16 16 3.58
lesueuri
Enoploteuthis sp. 2 0.05 295.59 0.07 1 0.22
Abralia 15 0.38 1271.80 0.30 7 1.57
Gonatidae
Gonatus antarcticus 24 0.61 2800.88 0.73 11 2.46
Histioteuthidae
Histioteuthis sp. 1113 28.34 124105.07 29.26 33 7.38
Histioteuthis
atlantica 7 0.18 1319.99 0.31 3 0.67
Histioteuthis
bonnellii 45 1.15 4420.80 1.04 4 0.89
Histioteuthis dofleini 6 0.15 1825.65 0.43 3 0.67
Histioteuthis
macrohista 9 0.23 513.68 0.12 1 0.22
Histioteuthis
meleagroteuthis 8 0.20 693.04 0.16 1 0.22
Histioteuthis miranda 20 0.51 2608.75 0.62 3 0.67
Lepidoteuthidae
Lepidoteuthis 2 0.05 335.86 0.08 1 0.22
grimaldi
Loliginidae
Loligo vulgaris 343 8.73 58803.67 13.86 14 3.13
Lycoteuthidae
Lycoteuthis diadema 569 14.49 40741.63 9.61 38 8.50
Mastigoteuthidae
Mastigoteuthis sp. 3 0.08 9.24 0.00 1 0.22
Octopodidae
Octopus sp. 31 0.79 676.48 0.16 9 2.01
Octopus dofleini 11 0.28 157.22 0.04 1 0.22
Octopus vulgaris 2 0.05 1275.18 0.30 1 0.22
unidentified
Octopodidae 2 0.05 24.6 0.01 1 0.22
Octopoteuthidae
Octopoteuthis sp. 161 4.10 29138.99 6.87 23 5.15
Taningia danae 2 0.05 2679.18 0.63 2 0.45
Ommastrephidae
Ommastrephes 63 1.60 7435.98 1.75 15 3.36
bartrami
Ornithoteuthis
volatilis 22 0.56 1927.35 0.45 4 0.89
Todarodes sp. 2 0.05 619.02 0.15 1 0.22
Todarodes angolensis 5 0.13 4930.20 1.16 3 0.67
Todarodes sagittatus 25 0.64 18909.48 4.46 8 1.79
Todaropsis eblanae 57 1.45 5004.87 1.18 9 2.01
unidentified
Ommastrephidae 11 0.28 539.18 0.13 8 1.79
Onychoteuthidae
Onychoteuthis 7 0.18 1151.31 0.27 5 1.12
banksii
Moroteuthis sp. 33 0.84 8273.10 1.95 8 1.79
Moroteuthis ingens 5 0.13 6842.93 1.61 2 0.45
Moroteuthis robsoni 5 0.13 4195.86 0.99 2 0.45
unidentified
Onychoteuthidae 3 0.08 165.10 0.04 3 0.67
Pholidoteuthidae
Pholidoteuthis sp. 1 0.03 825.23 0.19 1 0.22
6-24
Chapter 6: Diet
Pholidoteuthis
boschmai 15 0.38 9295.41 2.19 7 1.57
Sepiidae
Sepia sp. 144 3.67 245.27 0.06 13 2.91
Sepia papillata 85 2.16 46.54 0.01 3 0.67
Sepiolidae
Rossia sp. 10 0.25 1103.25 0.26 2 0.45
Vampyroteuthidae
Vampyroteuthis 1 0.03 125.80 0.03 1 0.22
infernalis
Vitreledonellidae
Vitreledonella 1 0.03 48.66 0.01 1 0.22
richardi
unidentified
cephalopods 117 2.98 15896.30 3.75 22 4.92
FISH
Diretmidae
Diretmus argenteus 1 0.03 - - 1 0.22
Engraulidae
Engraulis japonicus 4 0.10 - - 2 0.45
Evermannellidae
Evermannella 20 0.51 - - 1 0.22
Gempylidae
Diplospinus 32 0.81 - - 2 0.45
multistriatus
Merlucciidae
Merluccius sp. 32 0.81 - - 7 1.57
Merluccius capensis 41 1.04 - - 2 0.45
Merluccius
paradoxus 5 0.13 - - 1 0.22
Moridae
unidentified Moridae 2 0.05 - - 1 0.22
Myctophidae
Lampadena 1 0.03 - - 1 0.22
Lobianchia 4 0.10 - - 1 0.22
unidentified
Myctophidae 32 0.81 - - 4 0.89
Paralepididae
Magnisudis prionosa 4 0.10 - - 1 0.22
Phosichthyidae
Phosichthys 79 2.01 - - 2 0.45
argenteus
Trichiuridae
Benthodesmus 9 0.23 - - 1 0.22
elongatus elongatus
unidentified fish 92 2.34 - - 6 1.34
CRUSTACEA
Amphipoda 1 0.03 - - 1 0.22
Isopoda 7 0.18 - - 2 0.45
Mysidae
Gnathophausia 44 1.12 - - 8 1.79
ingens
Euphausid 3 0.08 - - 3 0.67
Stomatopodidae
Squilla 38 0.97 - - 1 0.22
Crab larva 1 0.03 - - 1 0.22
unidentified crustacea 4 0.10 - - 4 0.89
OTHER
Colonial salp
Pyrosoma 1 0.03 - - 1 0.22
6-25
Chapter 6: Diet
K. sima
In contrast to K. breviceps K. sima fed on a smaller range of prey species made

up of 32 cephalopod species from 17 families and 6 others (three fish and three
crustacean species) (Table 6.2). Lycoteuthis diadema made up the majority of the diet in
terms of numbers (23.63%), followed very closely by Histioteuthis sp. (21.50%). The
next most important prey items numerically were Sepia papillata, Taonius pavo and
Chiroteuthis sp. (12.36%, 7.97% and 7.62%, respectively). In contrast to the numerical
results Histioteuthis sp. made up the bulk of the diet in terms of mass with 45.31%,
followed by Lycoteuthis diadema with 16.58% (Table 6.2). These were followed by
Loligo vulgaris (5.17%), Todaropsis eblanae (3.84%) and Taonius pavo (3.61%).
Lycoteuthis diadema and Histioteuthis sp. were the most frequently occurring prey
species (13.77 and 13.17%, respectively), followed by Taonius pavo, Chiroteuthis sp.
and Ommastrephes bartrami (6.59%, 5.99% and 4.19%, respectively) (Table 6.2).
Table 6.2: Species list of prey eaten by Kogia sima.

Prey species Number % Mass(g) % Relative Frequency of
Number Mass(g) abundance Occurrence
(Number) (%)
CEPHALOPODA
Argonautidae
Argonauta argo 1 0.07 9.00 0.01 1 0.60
Cranchiidae
Leachia 1 0.07 - - 1 0.60
Taonius sp. 50 3.43 2256.45 2.51 2 1.20
Taonius pavo 116 7.97 3239.17 3.61 11 6.59
Teuthowenia sp. 16 1.10 1814.92 2.02 3 1.80
Teuthowenia
megalops 2 0.14 505.86 0.56 2 1.20
Teuthowenia
pellucida 9 0.62 672.65 0.75 6 3.59
Chiroteuthidae
Chiroteuthis sp. 111 7.62 2786.067 3.10 10 5.99
Cycloteuthidae
Discoteuthis sp. 2 0.14 386.49 0.43 1 0.60
Enoploteuthidae
Anchistrocheirus 1 0.07 46.24 0.05 1 0.60
lesueuri
Enoploteuthis sp. 5 0.34 78.53 0.09 2 1.20
Abralia 13 0.89 229.88 0.26 3 1.80
Gonatidae
Gonatus antarcticus 27 1.85 1292.27 1.44 3 1.80
Histioteuthidae
Histioteuthis sp. 313 21.50 40671.43 45.31 22 13.17
Histioteuthis
atlantica 1 0.07 231.92 0.26 1 0.60
6-26
Chapter 6: Diet
Histioteuthis
macrohista 4 0.27 192.97 0.21 1 0.60
Loliginidae
Loligo vulgaris 28 1.92 4640.62 5.17 4 2.40
Lycoteuthidae
Lycoteuthis diadema 344 23.63 14886.9 16.58 23 13.77
Mastigoteuthidae
Mastigoteuthis sp. 1 0.07 10.18 0.01 1 0.60
Octopodidae
Octopus sp. 3 0.21 22.41 0.02 2 1.20
Octopus dolfleini 1 0.07 41.66 0.05 1 0.60
Octopoteuthidae
Octopoteuthis sp. 4 0.27 445.16 0.50 4 2.40
Ommastrephidae
Ommastrephes 24 1.65 2424.29 2.70 7 4.19
bartrami
Ornithoteuthis
volatilis 2 0.14 86.69 0.10 2 1.20
Todaropsis eblanae 27 1.85 3446.13 3.84 4 2.40
unidentified
Ommastrephidae 1 0.07 23.63 0.03 1 0.60
Onychoteuthidae
Onychoteuthis 4 0.27 702.64 0.78 3 1.80
banksii
Moroteuthis sp. 3 0.21 344.87 0.38 3 1.80
Sepiidae
Sepia sp. 14 0.96 40.76 0.05 5 2.99
Sepia papillata 180 12.36 44.8 0.05 4 2.40
Sepiolidae
Rossia sp. 2 0.14 60.99 0.07 1 0.60
Vampyroteuthidae
Vampyroteuthis 15 1.03 96.14 0.11 1 0.60
infernalis
unidentified squid 60 4.12 8036.82 8.95 8 4.79
FISH
Engraulidae
Engraulis capensis 7 0.48 - - 1 0.60
Merlucciidae
Merluccius capensis 20 1.37 - - 1 0.60
Myctophidae
unidentified 8 0.55 - - 3 1.80
Myctophidae
Phosichthyidae
Phosichthys 6 0.41 - - 1 0.60
argenteus
unidentified fish 9 0.62 - - 3 1.80
CRUSTACEA
Isopoda 1 0.07 - - 1 0.60
Mysidae
Gnathophausia 10 0.69 - - 4 2.40
ingens
Euphausid 2 0.14 - - 1 0.60
unidentified crustacea 8 0.55 - - 8 4.79
6.3.1 Comparison of the diet of K. breviceps and K. sima

It is evident from Table 6.1 and 6.2 that K. sima fed to a larger extent on fish than
6-27
Chapter 6: Diet
K. sima. Crustaceans, such as Euphausiids and the deep-water mysid Gnathophausia

ingens, also appear to a larger extent in the diet of K. breviceps than K. sima.
Both Kogia species fed mainly on Histioteuthis sp. and Lycoteuthis diadema and
the results for these two cephalopod species are listed separately in Table 6.3 for
comparative purposes. The data indicate that Histioteuthis sp. made up about a quarter of
the diet of K. breviceps, both numerically and in terms of mass, while Lycoteuthis
diadema made up about one sixth in terms of numbers and only about one tenth in terms
of mass. In contrast K. sima fed to almost equal amounts on Histioteuthis sp. and
Lycoteuthis diadema in terms of numbers, but Histioteuthis sp. made up almost half of
the prey mass consumed, while Lycoteuthis diadema comprised only about one sixth of
the total prey mass. These data indicate that K. sima preyed to a larger extent on both
Histioteuthis sp. and Lycoteuthis diadema in terms of mass than K. breviceps. While the
two cephalopod species combined numerically made up similar amounts in both Kogia
species (42.83% and 45.13%, respectively), they comprised only 38.87% of the total
prey mass in K. breviceps, while they made up 61.89% of the total prey mass in K. sima
(Table 6.3). This in combination with the wide range of prey items found in the
stomachs indicates that K. breviceps fed on a greater variety of prey species than K.
sima, which made up more of the diet in K. breviceps than K. sima. The data on the
frequency of occurrence of Histioteuthis sp. and Lycoteuthis diadema support this as
these prey items occurred only in 15.88% of the stomachs of K. breviceps, but in 27.48%
in K. sima (Table 6.3).
Table 6.3: The two main prey items of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima presented in
percentage number, percentage mass and percentage frequency of occurrence based on
all prey items present.
Stomach content (%)
Kogia breviceps Kogia sima
Prey species
No. Mass Frequ. No. Mass Frequ.
Histioteuthis sp. 28.34 29.26 7.38 21.5 45.31 13.71
Lycoteuthis diadema 14.49 9.61 8.50 23.63 16.58 13.77
Total 42.83 38.87 15.88 45.13 61.89 27.48
The main stomach contents listed for K. breviceps and K. sima in Table 6.4
6-28
Chapter 6: Diet
support these findings. For example, both Loligo vulgaris and Octopoteuthis sp. were
more important in the diet of K. breviceps in both numbers and mass, than in K. sima
(Table 6.4). In addition, some species such as Pholidoteuthis boschmai and Moroteuthis
sp., each contributing around 2% to the total prey mass of K. breviceps, were absent
from the diet of K. sima. In K. sima Taonius pavo, Taonius sp. and Todaropsis eblanae
appeared more important in both numbers and mass than in K. breviceps. And while
Sepia papillata was more pronounced in at least numbers in K. sima, Sepia sp. were
slightly more prevalent in K. breviceps. These data support the result that although the
main prey items were the same, each whale species fed on a suite of prey species, which
differed between the two Kogia species.
Table 6.4: Main stomach contents of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima presented as
numerical percentages and percentage mass based on all prey items present.
Main prey species Stomach content (%)

Number Mass Number Mass
Histioteuthis sp. 28.34 29.26 21.50 45.31
Lycoteuthis diadema 14.49 9.61 23.63 16.58
Sepia papillata 2.16 <2 12.36 <2
Taonius pavo 3.64 <2 7.97 3.61
Chiroteuthis sp. 3.41 3.04 7.62 3.1
Loligo vulgaris 8.73 13.86 <2 5.17
Octopoteuthis sp. 4.10 6.87 <2 <2
Sepia sp. 3.67 <2 <2 <2
Taonius sp. <2 <2 3.43 2.51
Todaropsis eblanae <2 <2 <2 3.84
Phosichthys argenteus 2.01 - <2 -
Ommastephes bartrami <2 <2 <2 2.7
Pholidoteuthis boschmai <2 2.19 n.p. n.p.
Moroteuthis sp. <2 <2 n.p. n.p.
Teuthowenia sp. <2 <2 <2 2.02
Other 24.08 72.56 15.33 14.56
Other = all prey species that comprised less than 2% of the total prey number and mass,
respectively. n.p.= not present.
6-29
Chapter 6: Diet
Both analyses of the Simpsons diversity index and the Shannon-Weaver diversity
index showed that the diversity of prey species eaten differed significantly between the
two Kogia species (F=13.39, df=1, p<0.0005 and F=18.81, df=1, p<0.0001,
respectively). In addition, the species richness of prey items was significantly different
between K. breviceps and K. sima (F=34.72, df=1, p<0.0001). In contrast, the niche
overlap index of 0.86 (where 1.0 indicates complete overlap and 0.0 indicates none)
showed that the diet and therefore the foraging areas of the two species overlapped to a
great extent (Table 6.5). The data used to calculate the niche overlap index are shown in
Figure 6.1 and only include prey items identified to species level. Therefore they differ
slightly from those presented above in Tables 6.1, 6.2 and 6.3, but reflect the trend
shown in Table 6.4.
Table 6.5: Niche overlap index calculated for different groups of Kogia breviceps and
Kogia sima.
Groups examined Niche overlap index*

K. breviceps vs K. sima 0.86
K. breviceps males vs K. breviceps females 0.75
K. sima males vs K. sima females 0.92
K. breviceps immatures vs K. breviceps matures 0.86
K. sima immatures vs K. sima matures 0.65
K. breviceps group 1 vs Kogia breviceps group 2 0.81
K. sima group 1 vs K. sima group 2 0.73
*= after Pianka (1975).
6.3.2 Comparison of the diet between different groups within K.

breviceps and K. sima using Pianka’s niche overlap index
As most of the niche overlap indices between males and females, immature and
mature animals, and animals belonging to group 1 and 2 were quite high in both species
of Kogia, an effort was made to determine dietary differences between the individual
groups.
6-30
Chapter 6: Diet
K. breviceps
In K. breviceps the lowest niche overlap index was found between males and females
(0.75) (Table 6.5). While female K. breviceps consumed about 2.5 times the amount of
Histioteuthis sp. than males, the consumption of Lycoteuthis diadema was similar in both
sexes (Figure 6.2). As a result of the lower consumption of Histioteuthis sp., males fed
on more prey species (12 main species compared to eight in females), each making up a
relatively small percentage of the diet. Males consumed more fish, such as Phosichthys
argenteus and Merluccius capensis, than females, as well as Loligo vulgaris (8.7% in
males, 2.1% in females) (Figure 6.2). In contrast, all the Gnathophausia ingens found in
K. breviceps were consumed by females (Figure 6.2). Similarly, most of the Sepia sp.
and Sepia papillata were consumed by male K. breviceps (Figure 6.2). However, the fact
that the K. breviceps sample had a predominance of immature males and mature females
should be kept in mind here and will be examined further below.
The highest niche overlap index for K. breviceps was recorded for mature and
immature animals (0.86) (Table 6.5). Mature animals preyed to a larger extent on fish
and consumed all specimens of Phosichthys argenteus, while all specimens of
Merluccius capensis were found in the stomachs of immature K. breviceps (Figure 6.3).
Similarly, all of the Squilla (crustacean) reported for K. breviceps were consumed by
immature animals (Figure 6.3). In addition, Loligo vulgaris was found to a greater extent
in mature animals (12.7%) than immature ones (3.2%) (Figure 6.3). Immature animals
also consumed the majority of Sepia sp. and Sepia papillata, which better explains the
differing result between males and females with regard to these two cephalopod species.
Overall the number of prey items consumed by mature K. breviceps was substantially
higher (n=23480) than those consumed by immature animals (n=1366), although the
sample sizes for both groups were similar (20 mature K. breviceps and 21 immature
animals).
The niche overlap index for group 1 and group 2 was 0.81 (Table 6.5). As Figure
6.4 indicates both groups fed to almost equal amounts on Histioteuthis sp. and “other”.
However, group 1 fed to a smaller degree on Lycoteuthis diadema (8.4%) than group 2
(21.2%). Instead, most of the Loligo vulgaris consumed by K. breviceps were eaten by
animals belonging to group 1 (Figure 6.4). In addition, they consumed more fish (all
Phosichthys argenteus were consumed by group 1), while group 2 ate more Sepia sp.
and Sepia papillata (Figure 6.4).
6-31
Chapter 6: Diet
a)
Histioteuthis sp. (29.1%)
Lycoteuthis diadema (15.3%)
Loligo vulgaris (5.4%)
Octopoteuthis sp. (4.3%)
)
p. (3.9%
Sepia s )
av o (3.7% Other (30.3%)
iu s p )
Taon p . ( 3.6% )
ss %
(2.3 2.1%)
o t euthi a t a (
Chir a papill enteus
Sepi thys arg
sich
Pho
b)
Lycoteuthis diadema (24.0%) Histioteuthis sp. (22.7%)
Sepia papillata (13.1%)

Other (20.2%)
Taonius pavo (8.4%)
%) %)
. ( 8.1 . 6
sp (3
u t his sp.
s
rote niu
Chi Ta
o
Figure 6.1: Diet composition of Kogia breviceps (n=41) (a) and Kogia sima (n=31) (b).
6-32
Chapter 6: Diet
a)
Other (21.9%)
Taonius pavo (5.1%)

)
. ( 3.8% %) GnaLoligo
4
ut his sp cida (2. thop vulg
hau aris
i ro t e e l l u sia i (2.1
Ch enia p ngen %)
s (2.
t h o w 4%)
Teu
b) Lycoteuthis diadema (16.4%)

Sepia sp. (6.7%)
Phosichthys argenteus (4.0%)

Other (28.9%)
Chiroteuthis sp. (3.4%)
( 2. 5%)
i )
art ram (2.3% )
ephes
b
i s sp. (2.2% MerSl quil
ast r t h o ucc la (
Omm p oteu us pav ius 2.1
ct o o n i cap %)
O Ta ens
is (
2.2
% )
Figure 6.2: Diet composition of female (n=21) (a) and male (n=20) (b) Kogia breviceps.
6-33
Chapter 6: Diet
From the combined data it emerges that mature male K. breviceps fed to a greater
extent on Phosichthys argenteus and Loligo vulgaris, while mature females consumed
more Gnathophausia ingens, and, in addition, females ate more Histioteuthis sp.
Similarly, immature males consumed more Merluccius capensis, as well as Sepia and
Sepia papillata.
K. sima
In contrast to K. breviceps the highest niche overlap index in K. sima was

recorded for males and females (0.92) (Table 6.5). Indeed most of the main prey items
were found in both sexes to almost equal amounts (Figure 6.5). While females consumed
slightly more Histioteuthis sp. than males, males had a more varied diet in terms of
numbers of prey species (7 main prey species in females compared to 10 in males)
(Figure 6.5). Although not evident from Figure 6.5 females had more fish in their diet
than males and also consumed all of the Euphausiids and Gnathophausia ingens found in
K. sima. In addition, they consumed all Loligo vulgaris and more Sepia papillata and
Sepia sp. than males.
The lowest niche overlap index for K. sima and overall in the whole analysis was
between immature and mature animals (0.65) (Table 6.5). Figure 6.6 shows clearly that
immature animals fed to a large extent on Sepia papillata, which made up over one third
of their diet (35.0%). In contrast, mature animals fed to a larger extent on Loligo vulgaris
(they consumed all Loligo vulgaris reported for K. sima) and also consumed more fish
(they ate all the Merluccius capensis found in K. sima) (Figure 6.6).
The niche overlap index calculated between group 1 and group 2 for K. sima was
0.73 (Table 6.5). Group 1 consumed almost twice as much Lycoteuthis diadema than
group 2 (Figure 6.7), while group 2 fed to a much larger extent on Sepia papillata
(20.4%) than group 1 (3.0%).
Therefore it appears that mature female K. sima fed to a larger extent on Loligo
vulgaris and on fish, while immature females fed predominantly on Sepia papillata.
6-34
Chapter 6: Diet
a)

Other (32.5%)
Taonius pavo (4.9%)
4% )
argenteus (3.
thys
Phosich
b)

Sepia sp. (9.2%)

Other (18.7%)
2%) T
o v u l garis (3. 3.0%) OctoSqui odaro
g pot lla ( psis
Loli
ci u s capensis ( eut 2.8 eb
Merluc his %) lan
sp. ae (
(2.8 2. 4
%) %)
Figure 6.3: Diet composition of mature (n=20) (a) and immature (n=21) (b)
Kogia breviceps.
6-35
Chapter 6: Diet
a)

Taonius pavo (5.4%) Other (24.3%)
)
eu s (4.5%
rgen t .4%) %)
h ys a sp. ( 4
Phos
icht t eu this sp. (3.6
Chi ro his
poteut
Octo
b)
Sepia sp. (6.9%)

Other (24.5%)
)
. ( 3.0% )
T
ut his sp is (2.8% .7%) aonius pavo (2.1%)
ote gar e (2
Chir ligo vul eblana
Lo ropsis
a
Tod
Figure 6.4: Diet composition of group 1 (n=12) (a) and group 2 (n=29) (b)
of Kogia breviceps.
6-36
Chapter 6: Diet
The examination of the prey items that differed between the groups showed
subtle differences in diet composition. Overall mature male K. breviceps predominantly
consumed Loligo vulgaris and also fed to a larger extent on fish, in contrast to K. sima,
where it was the females that fed on Loligo vulgaris and fish. Similarly, immature males
of K. breviceps fed to a large extent on Sepia papillata, while it was immature females in
K. sima. In addition, immature males of K. breviceps predominantly consumed
Merluccius capensis, while mature animals of K. sima fed predominantly on that species.
Furthermore, group 1 of K. breviceps fed to a larger extent on Loligo vulgaris,
Gnathophausia ingens and Myctophids, while in K. sima group 2 fed to a larger extent
on those prey items. However, in both species of Kogia females consumed more
Histioteuthis sp. than males.
The data on the niche overlap indices indicated some further differences between
the two Kogia species in that the biggest dietary differences within K. breviceps would
be expected between males and females, while the biggest difference occurred between
immature and mature animals in K. sima. However, all indices are relatively high,
indicating extensive niche overlap. The only exception appears to be the result for
immature and mature K. sima, which, according to the present analysis, showed some
real differences in diet.
As the index of niche overlap only compares numerical percentages, differences
in diet in terms of mass would not be detected with this method. During the data analysis
it was noted that lactating and/or pregnant females and immature animals (group 2) of
both Kogia species had Sepia papillata present in their stomachs, while that species
hardly ever appeared in animals of either Kogia species belonging to group 1. An
examination of the main stomach contents of group 1 and group 2 for either Kogia
species is presented in Table 6.6. These data indicate clear differences in diet for animals
of different reproductive status, with animals belonging to group 2 feeding to a larger
extent on inshore cephalopods, like Sepia papillata (4.31% in K. breviceps and 20.43%
in K. sima) (Table 6.6). In addition, animals belonging to group 2 in K. breviceps fed to a
larger extent on Sepia sp. (6.94%) than animals belonging to group 1 (< 2%). In contrast,
K. breviceps belonging to group 1 fed more on Loligo vulgaris (16.54%) than those
belonging to group 2 (2.79%). In K. breviceps the fish Phosichthys argenteus was quite
pronounced in group 1, while it was represented by less than 10 animals in K. sima. In K.
breviceps Merluccius capensis was only present in group 2, while in K. sima it was
present to a substantial amount in group 1 and absent from group 2 (Table 6.6). In
6-37
Chapter 6: Diet
a)
Lycoteuthis diadema (23.4%) Histioteuthis sp. (25%)
Sepia papillata (13.5%) Other (14.7%)
Taonius pavo (10.2%) Todaropsis ebla

Loligo vulgari nae (2.7%)
Chiroteuthis sp. (7.6%) s (2.9%)
b)

Other (7.0%)
Ommastrephes bartrami (2.2%)

Gonatus antarcticus (3.5%)
Taonius sp. (9.2%)
Teuthowenia sp. (3.5%)
Chiroteuthis sp. (9.2%) Vampyroteuthis infernalis (3.7%)
pavo (4.0%)
Taonius
Figure 6.5: Diet composition of female (n=19) (a) and male (n=12) (b) Kogia sima.
6-38
Chapter 6: Diet
a)

Chiroteuthis sp. (11.6%) Other (15.8%)
M
Taonius pavo (11.2%) Gon erlucci
S at us
g ari s ( 3.0%) epia pa us antar capens
vul pilla c is
ta (2 ticus (2 (2.1%)
Loligo
.9% .9%
) )
b) Lycoteuthis diadema (21.5%)
Other (7.6%)
Todaro
ps
Taonius is eblanae (2.5
pavo (2. %)
Sepia sp 5%)
. (2.8%
Taonius )
sp. (8.5
%)
Figure 6.6: Diet composition of mature (n=22) (a) and immature (n=9) (b)
Kogia sima.
6-39
Chapter 6: Diet
a)
Other (14.3%)

Vampyroteuthis infernalis (3.0%)
Taonius pavo (5.0%) Teuthowenia sp. (3.0%)
) Sepia p
4.0% apillata (3
arct i cus ( . 0% )
a nt
tu s
Gona
b)

Other (10.1%)

Ommastrephes bartrami (2.4%)
Taonius pavo (10.3%)
Taonius sp. (5.7%)
Figure 6.7: Diet composition of group 1 (n=13) (a) and group 2 (n=18) (b)
of Kogia sima.
6-40
Chapter 6: Diet
K. sima, Vampyroteuthis infernalis was only found in the diet of group 1.
Table 6.6: Main stomach contents of group 1 and group 2 of Kogia breviceps and Kogia
sima presented as numerical percentages based only on prey items identified to genus
level.
Main Prey Species Stomach Content (Numerical %)

Group 1 Group 2 Group 1 Group 2
Histioteuthis sp. 32.85 27.42 21.08 23.61
Lycoteuthis diadema 8.56 21.29 38.55 17.35
Sepia papillata - 4.31 - 20.43
Taonius sp. * * - 5.68
Chiroteuthis sp. 4.37 2.99 8.03 8.06
Loligo vulgaris 16.54 2.79 <2 2.16
Sepia sp. <2 6.94 <2 <2
Taonius pavo 5.40 2.13 5.02 10.33
Phosichthys argenteus 4.54 - * *
Octopoteuthis sp. 3.56 5.02 * *
Merluccius capensis - 2.08 4.02 -
Teuthowenia sp. <2 <2 3.01 <2
Vampyroteuthis infernalis * * 3.01 -
Gonatus antarcticus <2 <2 3.01 <2
Todaropsis eblanae <2 2.74 2.61 <2
Ommastrephes bartrami <2 <2 <2 2.38
Other 14.79 18.65 9.05 5.46
- = prey species was not present.
* = prey species was represented by less than 10 individuals in both groups combined
and thus not considered for calculations of main prey items.
Other = all prey species that comprised less than 2% of the total prey number.
6.3.3 Size-frequency analysis of prey

Overall K. breviceps fed predominantly on prey between 60 and 80mm in dorsal
mantle length (20.29%), which was slightly smaller than the main prey of K. sima, which
measured between 80 and 100mm in length (23.39%) (Figure 6.8). However, the next
predominant size class that K. breviceps fed on was cephalopods between 80 and
100mm in length (18.16%) (Figure 6.8).
6-41
Chapter 6: Diet
Both K. breviceps females and males fed predominantly on cephalopods between

60 and 80mm in length (21.7% and 18.46%, respectively), although females also fed to a
large extend on prey that was between 80 and 100mm long (20.12%) (Figure 6.9a).
Similarly, both sexes of K. sima fed primarily on prey of similar size, which was
somewhat larger than that of K. breviceps and measured 80 to 100mm in length (21.86%
for females and 26.97% for males, respectively (Figure 6.9b).
In K. breviceps immature animals fed primarily on prey between 60 and 80mm
in dorsal mantle length (24.56%), while mature animals predominantly fed on
cephalopods between 80 and 100mm in length (21.33%) (Figure 6.10a). In K. sima
immature animals fed to a large extent on very small cephalopods up to 20mm in length
(30.17%), while mature animals consumed mainly cephalopods between 80 and 100mm
in length (28.15%) (Figure 6.10b). Therefore it appears that immature animals in both
Kogia species fed on smaller prey than mature animals, but mature animals of both K.
breviceps and K. sima fed primarily on the same sized prey.
When the split into group 1 and group 2 was considered, K. breviceps belonging to
group 1 fed primarily on cephalopods between 80 and 100mm long (24.02%), while
animals belonging to group 2 fed on cephalopods between 60 and 80mm in length (21.9%)
(Figure 6.11a). The results for K. sima were the same with animals belonging to group 1
feeding mainly on cephalopods between 80 and 100mm in dorsal mantle length (43.49%),
while animals from group 2 fed on prey between 60 and 80mm in length (15.39) (Figure
6.11b). However, the latter group also fed to a large extent on small prey up to 20mm in
length (14.7%) (Figure 6.11b). Again immature animals and females either pregnant and/or
lactating/ and/or accompanied by a calf of both Kogia species fed on smaller prey than
mature males and females that were temporarily not reproducing. However, there were no
differences in size preference between the respective groups of the two Kogia species.
6-42
Chapter 6: Diet
25
20
15
Frequency (%)
10
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Dorsal mantle length (mm)
Figure 6.8: Size-frequency distribution of squid eaten by Kogia breviceps

(n=3150 beaks, n=41 whales) (black) and Kogia sima (n=1317 beaks,
n=31 whales) (white).
6-43
Chapter 6: Diet
a)
45
40
35
Frequency (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
b)
45
40
35
Frequency (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 6.9: Size-frequency distribution of male (n=20) (black)

and female (n=21) (white) Kogia breviceps (a) and male (n=12)
(black) and female (n=19) (white) Kogia sima (b).
6-44
Chapter 6: Diet
a)
45
40
35
Frequency (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
b)
45
40
35
Frequency (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 6.10: Size-frequency distribution of squid eaten by immature (n=20)

(white) and sexually mature (n=21) (black) Kogia breviceps (a) and immature
(n=9) (white) and sexually mature (n=22) (black) Kogia sima (b).
6-45
Chapter 6: Diet
a)
45
40
35
Frequency (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Dorsal mantle length (cm)
b)
45
40
35
Frequency (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Figure 6.11: Size-frequency distributions of squid eaten by Kogia breviceps

belonging to group 1 (n=12) (black) and group 2 (n=29) (white) (a) and
by Kogia sima belonging to group 1 (n=13) (black) and group 2
(n=18) (white) (b).
6-46
Chapter 6: Diet
6.3.4 Australian data

The stomach contents of four Australian animals were similar to the South
African animals (Table 6.7). Remains of the crustacean Gnathauphausia ingens were
found in two stomachs and could not be quantified further. Histioteuthis sp. was again
very prevalent in the stomach of one of the Australian animals (SAUSM M15814),
although it was surpassed by the presence of Enoploteuthis sp. (Table 6.7).
Table 6.7: Stomach contents of four Australian Kogia breviceps.
Animal No. Prey species No. % No. Mass (g) %

Mass
(g)
M25869 Octopodidae
F; L:160cm; Octopus sp. 9 100 1039.63 100
A:0.37yrs
M15814 Chiroteuthidae
M; Chiroteuthis sp. 2 8 132.00 8.02
L:242cm;
A:6.2yrs
Enoploteuthidae
Enoploteuthis sp. 13 52 856.17 52.00
Histioteuthidae
Histioteuthis sp. 7 28 352.87 21.43
Histioteuthis atlantica 1 4 212.20 12.89
Octopoteuthidae
Octopoteuthis sp. 1 4 27.38 1.66
Ommastrephidae
Martialia hyadesi 1 4 65.86 4.00
Gnathophausia ingens
remains
M16471 Mastigoteuthidae
M; Mastigoteuthis sp. 2 66.67 143.48 14.54
L:289cm;
A:3.67yrs
Ommastrephidae
Todarodes sp. 1 33.33 843.62 85.46
M16393 Gnathophausia ingens
F; L:210cm; remains
A:-
6-47
Chapter 6: Diet
6.4 Discussion
6.4.1 Niche partitioning between K. breviceps and K. sima

The results of the dietary analysis indicate that both Kogia species, which are
sympatric off the coast of Southern Africa, share the same ecological niche in terms of
prey species. Superficially they appeared to feed on the same main prey items and large
niche overlaps existed between the two Kogia species as well as between different
groups within the two species. In addition, an examination of prey size indicated that
little differences exist between the sizes of prey consumed by K. breviceps and K. sima.
However, species pairs with high overlap along one niche dimension often, but
by no means always, overlap little along another (Pianka, 1975). Thus an attempt is
made here to tease from the data the areas in which the two species differ.
6.4.1.1 Trophic segregation
6.4.1.1.1 Generalist vs. specialist
While dietary differences within each Kogia species are explored in more detail
below under section 6.4.2, subtle differences in species composition appear to indicate
some partitioning of the trophic niche of the two Kogia species off South Africa. K.
breviceps had a wider range of prey species, with 67 species of prey recorded from the
stomach contents, while K. sima fed on a smaller range of prey items with 49 species of
prey found in the stomachs. This indicates that K. breviceps is more of a generalist than
K. sima, which can be considered a specialist feeder. These results support previous
findings by Sekiguchi et al. (1992), which indicated that out of 20 species of smaller
odontocetes K. breviceps has the most diverse diet (49 species), followed by southern
bottlenose whales H. planifrons (39 species) and K. sima (27 species). Although in the
present study both species fed on the same two cephalopod species as their main prey
items, the composition of the additional suite of cephalopod prey differed between the
two. In this respect the crudeness of the prey data appears to have obscured real dietary
differences between the two Kogia species, a phenomenon which has been observed
previously when using niche overlap indices (Huey and Pianka, 1983).
Surprisingly, the data on prey size indicated that K. sima fed on slightly larger
prey than K. breviceps, although the latter fed on a larger range of prey sizes. These data
are in contrast to previous studies on diet in odontocetes in general, and Kogia in
6-48
Chapter 6: Diet
particular, which determined that larger whale species feed on larger prey (Ross, 1979b;
Clarke, 1980; Desportes and Mouritsen, 1993; Clarke and Goodall, 1994; dos Santos and
Haimovici, 2001). The size of the cephalopods consumed by K. breviceps off Taiwan
ranges from 48.6 to 490.2mm, while in K. sima the size of the prey consumed was
smaller, measuring 30.4 to 348.3 mm (Wang et al., 2002). Possibly the large number of
immature animals (n=20) in the sample of K. breviceps compared to K. sima (n=9) may
have skewed the results somewhat in the present study.
Although the niche overlap index is high and both Kogia species fed on the same
prey types and on the same size of prey, thus not indicating any resource partitioning,
they may not be in competition if the prey is available in sufficient supply to sustain both
populations (Pianka, 1976). In addition, the data indicate that K. breviceps has a wider
niche breadth, which is defined as the sum total of the variety of different resources
exploited by an organism (Pianka, 1976; Whitehead et al., 2003), in terms of diet than K.
sima. This would allow K. breviceps to forage on other prey species and other sizes of
prey when those that it shares with K. sima are in short supply.
6.4.1.1.2 Nutritional value
No clear preference for either ammoniacal or muscular squid could be observed

in either whale species. In the present study K. breviceps fed to a larger extent on
Octopoteuthidae, which belong to the ammoniacal squid, as well as Loliginids, which
are muscular squid, than K. sima. However, since these prey species only made up a
small part of the diet of each Kogia species and no clear preference for either
ammoniacal or muscular squid could be detected for either K. breviceps or K. sima, this
difference may just be a reflection of dietary preferences in species rather than indicating
a trend for nutritional preferences between the two Kogia species. This is in contrast to
previous studies on Kogia diet elsewhere. While muscular squid make up more than
60% of the diet of both Kogia species off Taiwan, K. sima consumes more muscular
squid than K. breviceps (74% and 65.7%, respectively) (Wang et al., 2002). In contrast,
the prey of both Kogia species off southern Brazil is comprised of small to medium sized
cephalopods, with neutrally buoyant species making up 65% of the specimens, while
muscular squid make up 31% (dos Santos and Haimovici, 2001). Only few fishes and
crustaceans are present in the diet (dos Santos and Haimovici, 2001).
6-49
Chapter 6: Diet
6.4.1.2 Spatial segregation
In addition to subtle differences in prey species and prey size between K.

breviceps and K. sima at least some spatial segregation seems to occur.
6.4.1.2.1 Depth
In order to determine the depth distribution of the prey of K. breviceps and K.

sima, which in turn gives an indication about potential differences in foraging depth
between the two species, an attempt was made to examine the habitat of the prey species.
However, as already stated the knowledge and literature on the habitat and, in particular,
diel migrations of most cephalopod species is scarce. In addition, there are no data or
indications at what time of the day or night either Kogia species forages. In order to
determine differences in the diet between the two Kogia species, a few observations
made during the analysis of the data are examined here.
The primary prey of both Kogia species was Histioteuthis sp., which are medium
to large squids usually found below 200m of water depth (Nesis, 1987; Clarke, 1996a).
Some species, such as Histioteuthis miranda, which was only found in K. breviceps,
have been reported from depths between 700 and 900m and are thought to be benthic
(Roeleveld et al., 1992).
The other main prey item, Lycoteuthis diadema, has been reported from depths
between 300 to 900m, some even as deep as 3000m (Roper and Young, 1975).
However, it is most abundant at depths between 400 and 500m (Payne and Crawford,
1989), although more recent surveys suggest that its peak abundance is between 500 and
900m off the South African west coast (Roeleveld et al., 1992). It lives at or near the
bottom over continental slopes (Nesis, 1987).
A number of prey species found in the diet of Kogia appear to be benthic. The
cephalopods Sepia sp. and Rossia sp. are both benthic over the continental shelf (Roper
and Young, 1975; Clarke, 1996a), the former even reportedly burying in the sea bottom
during the day and only emerging at night (Nesis, 1987). Octopus sp., Octopus dofleini
and Octopus vulgaris are to a larger extent found in the diet of K. breviceps than K. sima
and are benthic over the continental shelf (Roper and Young, 1975; Nesis, 1987; Clarke,
1996a). Histioteuthis macrohista, which occurred in the stomach contents of both Kogia
species, is also benthic on the lower continental slope (Roeleveld et al., 1992).
Some cephalopod species, which were more common in K. breviceps than K.
6-50
Chapter 6: Diet
sima, are found at great depths. The Octopoteuthid squid Taningia danae is only present
in K. breviceps and is found below 500m over the continental slope (Clarke, 1996a).
Other Octopoteuthidae, like Octopoteuthis sp., were to a much larger extent present in
the diet of K. breviceps than in the diet of K. sima and are found below 200m, but most
abundantly between 300 and 700m depth (Roper and Young, 1975). Pholidoteuthis
boschmai, which was found in K. breviceps, has only been caught between depths of 998
and 1412m (Nesis, 1987). However, Taonius pavo, which was relatively common in the
diet of both Kogia species, has been reported from depths between 600 and 900m (Roper
and Young, 1975; Roeleveld et al., 1992). The ommastrephid Todaropsis eblanae,
which was more common in the diet of K. breviceps than K. sima, is also benthic at
depths between 300 to 500m (Nesis, 1987; Roeleveld et al., 1992).
In contrast, Onycoteuthidae, which again were more common in K. breviceps
than K. sima, are found around and below the 200m isobath, and are therefore regarded
to belong to the more shallow water cephalopods. Similarly, Gonatus antarcticus occurs
at about the same depth (Clarke, 1996a) and was found at almost equal amounts in both
Kogia species.
The commercially exploited chokka squid Loligo vulgaris was also found to a
large extent in the diet of K. breviceps, while it was only present in small numbers in K.
sima. This species is found at all depths between the coast and 300m and two major
inshore spawning grounds have been identified off the Eastern Cape coast: Algoa Bay
and St. Francis Bay (Roberts and Sauer, 1994).
Some species, such as Vitreledonella richardi, are classed as deep-sea animals
and are usually found below 1000m water depth. However, this specimen weighed just
under 50g and was taken by an immature male K. breviceps. Juvenile Vitreledonella
richardi are found in the upper 300m and this is possibly where the present specimen
was taken. These results indicate the care one has to take when interpreting the depth
distribution of cephalopod prey. However, the deep-sea mysid shrimp Gnathophausia
ingens was more commonly found in K. breviceps than K. sima, possibly indicating that
K. breviceps dives more frequently to greater depths than K. sima.
Most fish species identified were more common in the diet of K. breviceps than
K. sima. Myctophids (or lantern fishes) and hake Merluccius capensis was found in
greater numbers in K. breviceps than K. sima. Interestingly, the anchovy Engraulis
japonicus was only present in K. breviceps, while a different species of anchovy,
Engraulis capensis, was found in K. sima, which may be a further indication of resource
6-51
Chapter 6: Diet
partitioning between the two species.

Thus the diet of both Kogia species included benthic prey species, indicating that
they can dive to the bottom at least in coastal waters up to 200m in depth. In addition, the
diet of both species indicated that they feed over the continental shelf and over the slope.
The availability of prey in dense patches has been linked to oceanographic features,
including bathymetry, fronts, eddies, and primary productivity (Fiedler, 2002).
Teuthivores are most abundant at the continental shelf edge and deep diving species may
be found near temperature fronts in deep water, where the squid may aggregate (Kenney
and Winn, 1987; Davis et al., 1998; Baumgartner et al., 2000). The presence of species
like Histioteuthis miranda, Taningia danae, and Pholidoteuthis boschmai in the diet of
K. breviceps indicated that this whale species also foraged over the lower slope and slope
edge. The depth at which a suitable prey source is available is a limiting factor for
marine mammals, which are dependent on returning to the surface to breathe. Shallow,
coastal waters are thus frequented by small cetaceans, which feed both benthically and
pelagically (Ross, 1979b) and this is reflected here by K. sima. In contrast in oceanic
waters the use of benthic or benthopelagic zones is limited to those species capable of
making deep dives (Ross, 1979b), which is reflected in the diet of K. breviceps. Candela
(1987) also noted that the foraging ranges of the two Kogia species off the south-eastern
United States broadly overlap, concentrating on the epi-and mesopelagic zones of the
deeper shelf and slope. However, K. breviceps forages to a greater extent on larger and
deep ranging squid, in contrast to K. sima, which takes smaller squid and feeds at lesser
depths (Candela, 1987).
6.4.1.2.2 Inshore/offshore
This segregation of the niche along the spatial dimension does not only
concentrate on depth, but also results in an inshore/offshore segregation. The waters a
certain species is usually found in are characterised by the physical conditions that
facilitate the accumulation of their prey (Forcada, 2002). Deep-diving species gain
access to prey that is unavailable to the shallower diving species and are thus often found
over deep ocean areas (Forcada, 2002). The shallower foraging/diving species i.e. K.
sima is thus restricted to the shallower inshore waters, while K. breviceps is capable of
deeper dives and thus able to exploit more offshore areas. This in turn results in
preferences in terms of temperature and oceanographic conditions between the two
6-52
Chapter 6: Diet
Kogia species due to the characteristic conditions off the South African coastline. While
the inshore waters are warmer due to the combined influence of shallow depth and the
warm Agulhas current, the offshore waters have prevailing cooler temperatures. This
temperature preference between the two Kogia species is further explored in Chapter 7.
The affinity of K. breviceps for a wider range of prey items, resulting in the
species being able to forage in cooler and deeper waters also has implications for the
largest spatial scale- distribution. Kenney and Winn (1986) found that the ultimate
controlling factor for the distribution of cetaceans is food. Offshore species of cetaceans
feed on a higher variety of prey (dos Santos and Haimovici, 2001) and a wide range of
prey items allows a predator to be distributed over a wide range (Forcada, 2002). Vice
versa a large range results in the animal encountering more types of prey and thus in
having a larger niche breadth (Whitehead et al., 2003), thus the causality in this case is
unclear. In this respect the generalist diet of K. breviceps allows it to have a larger
distribution than K. sima (see Chapters 1 and 7) and travel more widely (see Chapter 8).
6.4.1.3 Temporal segregation
6.4.1.3.1 Diel
Another segregation of the niche occupied by both Kogia species off South
Africa appears to occur along the temporal dimension. Sympatric predators are often
active at different times of the day (Schoener, 1974; Huey and Pianka, 1983) and a
number of cephalopod species rise to the surface at night. Consequently, species feeding
on these cephalopods save energy by feeding at night since they do not have to spend as
much energy on deep dives (Gaskin, 1982). Unfortunately no data are available on the
time of day either Kogia forages, but it is possible that the two species may feed at
different times in order to avoid direct competition (Huey and Pianka, 1983).
6.4.1.3.2 Seasonal
Different environmental factors influencing reproduction can interact with each

other in a complex way to regulate reproduction in a mammal and not only one factor
will prime it (Bronson, 1989). Of the many environmental factors food availability plays
the most important role and it is particularly important in relation to seasonal variation in
reproduction (Bronson, 1989). However, no habitat can provide a continuous supply of
6-53
Chapter 6: Diet
food for a certain species; food is usually patchily distributed and its availability varies
between years as well as between seasons (Bronson, 1989). Feeding strategy (being
either generalist or specialist) can affect the pattern of reproduction and the specialists
tend to be more seasonal breeders than generalized feeders as the latter can shift easily
from one food source to another (Bronson, 1989). This is also reflected in the data for
seasonal reproduction in the two Kogia species, with K. breviceps, being the generalist
feeder, having a longer mating and calving period extending over a period of six months,
while K. sima, which is more of a specialist feeder, has a shorter mating and calving
period of four months (see Chapter 5).
An extreme scenario of resource partitioning is if two species exploit the same
resource at different times of the year. The most environmentally dependent phase of a
female’s cycle is late lactation, when the female has to find and consume enough food to
nourish both herself and the rapidly growing offspring (Bronson, 1989). A females’
reproductive effort would be wasted if there was no chance of success because of
adverse environmental conditions and females compete with each other for food in order
to maintain pregnancy and lactation (Bronson, 1989). Therefore if several populations
use the same food resource they should evolve mechanisms to reproduce at different
times of the year and thus avoid high energetic demands when the main resource is being
heavily utilised (Dasmann and Mossman, 1962; Bronson, 1989). Differences in
reproductive seasonality were observed between the two Kogia species off South Africa
(see Chapter 5). While K. sima showed a calving peak during the austral summer months
(December and January), K. breviceps showed a peak in the austral autumn (March and
April). These differences in reproductive seasonality may have been selected for in order
to prevent utilisation of the same resource at a time when energetic demands are the
highest.
In addition, the diet analysis has shown that animals of both species belonging to
group 2 feed to a large extent on Sepia sp. and Sepia papillata, an inshore cuttlefish. This
trend is more pronounced in K. sima than K. breviceps. Unfortunately little information
is available on the seasonal migration of most cephalopod species off South Africa.
However, data on Sepia australis (Roeleveld et al., 1993) and Loligo vulgaris reynaudii
(Augustyn et al., 1994) indicate that late summer (March) and summer, respectively, are
peak spawning times for these cephalopod species, resulting in large aggregations of
animals. The colder upwelled waters over the Agulhas Bank are closer inshore over the
eastern part of the Agulhas Bank in late summer and a preference of at least these two
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Chapter 6: Diet
cephalopod species for colder temperatures results in spawning in that area. Cephalopods
are known to undertake seasonal migrations in response to spawning (Brodziak and
Hendrickson, 1999) and the seasonal movement of another teuthophagous odontocete,
the long-finned pilot whale G. melas, has been linked with the seasonal movement of its
cephalopod prey (Sergeant, 1962; Hoydal and Lastein, 1993; Payne and Heinemann,
1993). It is possible that other cephalopod species such as Sepia papillata may move
onto the Agulhas Bank at the same time of the year as Sepia australis or Loligo vulgaris
reynaudii in order to spawn. In this respect a peak in the abundance of the preferred prey
item of pregnant and/or lactating females of either Kogia species would coincide with
the timing of births and onset of lactation when energetic demands are the highest.
However, as most cephalopod species are short lived and have a number of spawning
events throughout the year (Augustyn et al., 1994; Roberts and Sauer, 1994) the different
reproductive seasonalities of the two Kogia species may be linked to separate spawning
events.
6.4.1.4 Sympatric species
While the above points try to emphasise the segregation of the two Kogia species
along the trophic, spatial and temporal dimension of their shared niche off South Africa,
the global distributions of K. breviceps and K. sima overlap to a large extent (see Chapter
1). Based on our current knowledge the two species are only truly sympatric off South
Africa, Florida, and the coasts of Taiwan and Japan. Little research has been done to
study the coexistence of sympatric whale species due to the logistic difficulties involved,
the only exception being the well-known dietary differences of two sympatric
populations of killer whales in the coastal waters of British Columbia, Canada, and
Washington State and southeast Alaska, USA (Ford et al., 1998). The two populations
do not mix, show differences in seasonal distributions, social structure, and behaviour.
However, the most pronounced difference can be found in the diet: the resident
population feeds predominantly on fish and prefers salmon, while the transient
population feeds on at least six different species of marine mammals (Ford et al., 1998).
In one of the classic studies on niche overlap in sympatric species, the diversity of
resources exploited by lizards along various niche dimensions and the extent of niche
overlap among them varied widely between three continents, and as a result the relative
importance of various niche dimensions in separating niches differs between locations
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Chapter 6: Diet
(Pianka, 1975). However, in order to define the dietary niches of each Kogia species in
more detail studies on allopatric populations of K. breviceps, for example off New
Zealand, and K. sima, for example in the Gulf of California, may help elucidate
differences. In addition, such research might help to interpret niche shifts between areas
where the two species occur allopatrically and where they occur sympatrically.
However, the interpretation of data from such investigations are often difficult due to
geographical variations in various environmental aspects, such as resource availability.
Finally, it has to be pointed out that competitive interactions can influence a
number of parameters of a species’ ecology as described above, but it is not the only
possible cause of resource partitioning. Consequently, such partitioning is most likely a
combination of competition, predation, and environmental or physiological constraints.
6.4.2 Niche partitioning within Kogia species

Aside from the interspecific differences in diet some clear differences in diet
were observed between groups within each Kogia species. This dietary segregation into
separate feeding groups is a common phenomenon among cetaceans (Evans, 1987;
Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a; Smith and Read, 1992), and it is thought that the partitioning
into subgroups and the use of different foraging ranges, different prey sizes and different
prey species reduces intraspecific competition (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a). However, as
the niche overlap indices between different groups were again very high and thus
obscured some real dietary differences an attempt is made here to tease them out.
6.4.2.1 Males versus females
Dietary differences between the sexes are commonly found in many cetacean
species and sexual segregation may have evolved in some species due to differing
energy demands between adult males and females (Gaskin, 1982). In both Kogia species
females appeared to feed to a larger extent on Histioteuthis sp. than males. This was
particularly pronounced in K. breviceps, probably leading to the reduced niche overlap
index between these two groups. In both Kogia species males had a more diverse diet
and in K. breviceps they fed to a larger extent on fish than female K. breviceps, which in
turn showed a preference for crustaceans. In odontocetes males appear to often have a
higher consumption of fish. In long-finned pilot whales mature males consume more fish
than any other group (Desportes and Mouritsen, 1993) and Priacanthus, a deep-water
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Chapter 6: Diet
fish species, is only found in the diet of mature male bottlenose dolphins Tursiops
truncatus (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a). In contrast, there are no differences between the
sexes with regard to the number of prey species consumed by Risso’s dolphins G.
griseus off South Africa (Cockcroft et al., 1993).
Although not evident from the data on prey composition, the sexual dimorphism
found in K. breviceps (see Chapter 3) is also reflected in the prey size preferences in K.
breviceps, with females taking same-sized as well as slightly larger prey than males.
Sexual dimorphism has been related to different types of food consumed by the two
sexes in other animals, including mammals (Ralls, 1976). In some of the mammals that
show reversed sexual dimorphism in size intersexual competition for food may be
reduced by exploiting a wider range of resources than would be possible if the sexes
were of equal size (Ralls, 1976). Differential niche utilization may be accomplished by
sexual dimorphism in size, by sexual dimorphism in the feeding apparatus, by a
combination of both, or by differences in foraging behaviour (Ralls, 1976). However,
exact links between sexual dimorphism and differential niche utilization are as yet
unclear (Ralls, 1976), and again the results observed for K. breviceps may be a reflection
of the skewed sample towards immature males and mature females in this species.
6.4.2.2 Mature versus immature animals
In both species of Kogia mature animals consumed more fish than immature
animals. In addition, in K. breviceps mature animals foraged predominantly on a
different species of fish (Phosichthys argenteus) to immature animals (Merluccius
capensis). In K. sima there was also some difference in the type of cephalopod
consumed: while mature animals consumed mainly Loligo vulgaris, immature animals
fed predominantly on Sepia papillata. It is interesting to note here that the comparison of
the diets of mature and immature animals yielded the highest niche overlap index in K.
breviceps (0.86), but the lowest niche overlap index in the whole study in K. sima (0.65).
Some additional differences in the size of prey taken by the two groups were
observed between K. breviceps and K. sima. While in both species mature animals fed
mainly on larger prey than immature animals (80-100mm), immature K. sima foraged
predominantly on much smaller prey (0-20mm) than immature K. breviceps (60-80mm).
This may present further subtle differences in niche segregation between the two Kogia
species.
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Chapter 6: Diet
While the dietary comparison between the sexes as well as between mature and
immature animals showed some interesting results, the trends in dietary segregation
already observed within the two species are even more pronounced in the following
analysis.
6.4.2.3 Group 1 (adult males and non-reproductive adult females) versus group 2
(pregnant and/or lactating females and immature animals)
In K. breviceps animals belonging to group 1 showed a clear preference for

Loligo vulgaris reynaudii and for fish. Animals of both Kogia species from group 2
foraged predominantly on Sepia sp. and Sepia papillata. As these cuttlefish species are
usually found in inshore waters between 0 and 200m water depth (Roper and Young,
1975; Nesis, 1987), these results indicate that animals from group 2 feed closer inshore
than animals from group 1. It is interesting to note that group 1 in K. sima fed almost
twice as much on Lycoteuthis diadema than group 2, while animals from group 2 in K.
breviceps consumed more Lycoteuthis diadema than those from group 1. This seems to
present a further overlap between the two Kogia species with K. breviceps from group 2
and K. sima from group 1 feeding to large extents on Lycoteuthis diadema, and may
indicate some spatial overlap in foraging area between the two groups of the two Kogia
species.
Interestingly, the size-frequency analysis of the prey indicated that in both
species animals belonging to group 1 fed predominantly on prey that was 80 to 100mm
in size, while animals from group 2 fed on prey 60-80 mm in size. In addition, K. sima
from group 2 also fed on smaller prey 0-20mm in size.
The results indicate that in both Kogia species females accompanied by calves
and immature young fed on smaller prey and closer inshore than mature males and non-
reproducing mature females. This inshore movement may be due to the fact that the cow
would not have to dive as deep in search of prey as she would over the edge of the
continental shelf. Thus she would not have to leave her calf unattended on the surface
too long or reduce her own foraging success, because the calf would not be able to dive
for as long or as deep. A similar strategy has been suggested for the spotted dolphin S.
attenuata (Bernard and Hohn, 1989). The above mentioned restrictions would decrease
the females ability to catch prey at a time when her energetic demands are increased and
thus the alternative would be to feed at a shallower depth.
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Chapter 6: Diet
The results of dietary segregation between different groups within the two Kogia
species are in agreement with previous studies on the diet of both Kogia species off
South Africa. Ross (1979b) reports that a high proportion of the diet of immature K.
sima, calves and adult females consists of cephalopods that occur over the continental
shelf (93% of all prey items), in particular small sepiids (Ross, 1979b). In contrast, adult
animals feed to a larger extent on oceanic cephalopods (71% of all prey items).
Similarly, only 55% of prey items in the stomachs of immature animals, calves and
accompanying adult females of K. breviceps are from oceanic species, while it is 85% in
adult K. breviceps (Ross, 1979b). These data suggest that juvenile and immature Kogia,
and in particular those of K. sima, live closer inshore than adults, probably over the outer
part of the shelf and upper part of the slope (Ross, 1979b). In contrast, adult animals are
found over deeper water. This conclusion differs from a previous conclusion by Ross
(Ross, 1979a), which was based on an analysis of all age groups together and suggested
that K. breviceps lives further offshore than K. sima. Ross concludes that the continental
slope is important as a “nursery” area for immature animals of both Kogia species (Ross,
1979b).
Similarly, studies on the bottlenose dolphins off northern Natal, South Africa
indicate that cow/calf pairs feed inshore, while resting females and adult males feed
offshore; adolescent animals feed inbetween (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990b). Young and
Cockcroft (1994) also found clear differences in the contribution of particular prey
species to the diet of different sex and size groups of common dolphins D. delphis off
South Africa, with strong evidence of resource partitioning between groups. While male
common dolphins concentrate on a single prey species i.e. pilchard, the diet of females is
more diverse (Young and Cockcroft, 1994).
In addition to inhabiting shallower waters than other cephalopod species, Sepia
species contain more calcium than squids and octopods (Clarke, 1986a) and may thus be
important in the diet of lactating females (helping in lactation) and growing immature
animals (aiding in the growth process and the formation of bones). Dietary preferences
depending on reproductive condition have been recorded in other cetaceans. Most
female adult harbour porpoises P. phocoena spend the year simultaneously lactating and
pregnant, which results in high energy requirements. No differences in relative prey
importance are present between adult harbour porpoises of different reproductive
condition in the Bay of Fundy, but lactating females ingest more fish and have a
significantly higher total caloric intake than non-lactating females or mature males
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Chapter 6: Diet
(Recchia and Read, 1989). Similarly, lactating female spotted dolphins S. attenuata
consume mainly flying fish, while pregnant females feed almost exclusively on squid
(Bernard and Hohn, 1989). Lactating common dolphins D. delphis off South Africa
consume more squid than pregnant females and both lactating and pregnant females are
the only groups to feed on flying fish (Young and Cockcroft, 1994). Squid have a high
water content and are thus thought to be important in the production of milk and
maintenance of lactation (Young and Cockcroft, 1994). An increase in the daily food
intake of lactating female bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus has been observed both in the
wild (Cockcroft and Ross, 1990a) and in captivity (Cheal and Gales, 1991).
6.4.3 Comparison with data on Kogia diet elsewhere

By far the majority of detailed dietary studies on both Kogia species originate
from South Africa (Ross, 1979a; 1979b; Klages et al., 1989; Sekiguchi et al., 1992).
However, in comparison with dietary studies elsewhere it seems typical for the two
Kogia species to feed on the same main prey items (dos Santos and Haimovici, 2001;
Wang et al., 2002) and to show some degree of spatial segregation in places where they
are sympatric (Candela, 1987; Wang et al., 2002).
As found in other teuthophagous odontocetes the preferred prey of a species can
vary with geographic location (Candela, 1987). The present data for the four Australian
specimens support that. While Histioteuthids appear to be important in the diet of K.
breviceps throughout the world (Clarke, 1996b), interestingly the diet of K. breviceps
from New Caledonia also contains a large portion of Enoploteuthis sp. (Bustamante et
al., 2003) as found in the Australian specimens.
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Chapter 7: Stranding patterns

The phenomenon of whale strandings has fascinated scientists and laymen for
centuries. During this time a number of theories have been put forward to explain the
reasons behind strandings and just as many have been dismissed due to their
shortcomings. However, as the biology and taxonomy of the majority of cetacean
species remains relatively poorly known, in comparison with our present knowledge of
terrestrial mammals, stranding data present a good source of information (Ross, 1984).
The best-known species of cetacean are either hunted commercially or by-caught in
fishing operations such as the dolphin-tuna fishery in the Eastern Tropical Pacific (ETP).
For other cetacean species, in the absence of direct exploitation, data on the biology of a
species has to come from stranded animals or sightings at sea (Ross, 1984).
Since no systematic surveys of cetacean distribution and abundance have ever
been conducted off the South African coastline, very little is known about the spatial and
temporal patterns of the distribution of cetacean species in this area. Although it is
widely accepted that stranding data are, due to their bias, a poor source of information
about a species’ biology (see Chapter 2), in some cases they represent the only
information available. In particular life history studies in cetaceans progress slowly and
are hindered by low overall sample sizes (Ross, 1984). In addition, long-term stranding
records provide a baseline for comparative studies between species and aid in
determining distribution and seasonality of strandings.
Although there has been much debate about the usefulness of stranding data in
establishing spatial distribution, such data have been widely used as they often represent
the sole source of information for a given population, species or geographical area (Silva
and Sequeira, 2003). Thus, for those species, for which data are otherwise inaccessible,
strandings, in conjunction with information on the local oceanographic conditions,
represent a starting point to gather information about a species’ distribution and habitat.
7.1.1 Oceanographic features off Southern Africa

To understand the zoogeography of marine flora and fauna the physical
characteristics of the area under investigation need to be taken into consideration
(Christensen, 1980). Thus in order to analyse the stranding data of Kogia from the
southern African coastline a detailed knowledge of the oceanographic conditions off the
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subcontinent is essential. The following section provides a brief overview of the main
features characteristic of the waters off southern Africa.
The marine topography off Southern Africa is characterised by a relatively
narrow continental shelf along the east coast, which is less than 10km in width (Figure
7.1) and provides little resistance to the fast, southward flowing Agulhas current
(Gründlingh, 1983) (Figure 7.2). At about East London on the Eastern Cape coast the
shelf widens rapidly to form the Agulhas Bank, which stretches westward along the
southern Cape coast to south of the Cape of Good Hope, where the shelf narrows again
to about 40km off the Cape Peninsula (Findlay, 1989) (Figure 7.1). At its widest point
the Agulhas Bank is up to 270km wide (Schumann and van Heerden, 1988) (Figure 7.1).
The topology of the Bank is characterised by rocky capes and shallow sandy bays, which
are usually less than 50 metres in depth (Findlay, 1989). North of the Cape Peninsula the
shelf slowly widens again until it reaches a relatively great width of 180km off the
Orange River (28° 35’S, 16° 25’ E) (Findlay, 1989) (Figure 7.1).
Figure 7.1: Bathymetry off Southern Africa (map by the Department of Geography,
Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa).
The oceanography off the subcontinent is dominated by two major current

systems: the warm Agulhas Current to the east and south and the cold Benguela system
to the west (Figure 7.2). In contrast to the Benguela system, the Agulhas Current,
especially the oceanographic features off the Southern Cape coast and the Agulhas Bank,
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has not been studied as intensively (Boyd et al., 1992). In particular, the flow patterns
over the Agulhas Bank are little understood (Boyd et al., 1992). The Agulhas Current
forms the western boundary current of the south Indian Ocean from 27°S to 40°S
(Gordon, 1985) and has its counterparts in other major western boundary currents such
as the Gulf Stream in the North Atlantic and the Kuroshio in the North Pacific (Goschen
and Schumann, 1988). The source water of the Agulhas at the northern end is derived
from the East Madagascar Current and the Mozambique Current (Gordon, 1985). The
Agulhas Current flows fast and deep along the east coast of South Africa, reaching its
maximum velocities and flowing most closely to shore in the area between Port Edward
(31°03’S, 30°14’E) and the Bashee River (31°55’S, 28°27’E) (Boyd et al., 1992) (Figure
7.2). Shelf regions east of 24° E are more regularly influenced by the Current than those
to the west of that longitude (Boyd et al., 1992). The core of the Agulhas Current lies off
the shelf-edge and generally follows the 1000m isobath between Port Elizabeth and
Mossel Bay (Boyd et al., 1992) (Figure 7.2). The Current follows the southern coastline
of the African continent with separation occurring at the Agulhas Bank near 22°E
(Gordon, 1985) (Figure 7.2). After separation the flow makes an abrupt anticyclonic turn
to the east in what is referred to as the Agulhas Retroflection (Gordon, 1985) (Figure
7.2). So-called Agulhas Rings are formed here at intervals of about two months and they
are the most intense found anywhere (Cockcroft et al., 1990). Weak cyclonic currents
are recorded on the central Agulhas Bank, while the flow is aligned with the bathymetry
over the western Agulhas Bank and joins the Benguela system as it flows past the Cape
Peninsula (Boyd et al., 1992) (Figure 7.2). At Cape Columbine on the west coast the
Agulhas current gains speed again as it diverges into a major offshore arm and a minor
northward arm (Boyd et al., 1992) (Figure 7.2).
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Figure 7.2: Major ocean currents off the South African subcontinent (map by the
Department of Geography, Rhodes University, Grahamstown, South Africa).
Swift western boundary currents such as the Agulhas Current and the Gulf
Stream govern most of the inshore processes along their contiguous coastlines
(Lutjeharms, 1981) and commonly exhibit upwelling along the inshore front of the
current (Schumann and van Heerden, 1988). The oceanography of the borders of the
Agulhas Current is characterized by a number of mesoscale circulation phenomena
(Lutjeharms, 1981; Lutjeharms et al., 1989; Goschen and Schumann, 1988), which
include meanders and eddies, and are to a large extent due to the horizontal shear
between the current and the relatively quiescent water overlying the adjacent continental
shelf (Lutjeharms et al., 1989). Such features are also present in other western boundary
currents, such as the Gulf Stream off the east coast of the United States (Lutjeharms et
al., 1989). These shear-edge features are a consistent and ever-present part of the
northern border of the Agulhas Current (Lutjeharms, 1981). The shape and dimensions
of these shear edge features are generally small with strongly defined boundaries near
Port Elizabeth, but as they move downstream their lateral dimensions increase markedly
(Lutjeharms, 1981). It is unclear to what depth these edge features extend, but the area
they cover during their dispersive stages indicates their important influences on
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circulation patterns and water masses on both the Agulhas Bank as well as the South
Atlantic Ocean (Lutjeharms, 1981).
However, all along the east coast of Southern Africa the northern Agulhas
Current follows the continental shelf edge quite closely with no regular meandering or
large border eddies (Gründlingh, 1983; Lutjeharms et al., 1989) (Figure 7.2).
Occasionally so called Natal pulses are formed in the Natal bight and result in the
concurrent deflection of the core of the Agulhas Current offshore as well as having a
decided effect on the shear-edge features adjacent to the Agulhas Bank (Lutjeharms,
1981). But only once the current flows past Port Elizabeth on the eastern part of the
Southern Cape coast, where it encounters the wide continental shelf, which forms the
Agulhas Bank, is significant meandering behaviour, similar to that of the Gulf Stream,
frequently observed (Lutjeharms et al., 1989). Upstream of Port Elizabeth the current
does not meander noticeably and no significant border features are observed (Lutjeharms
et al., 1989). Downstream of Port Elizabeth meanders increase in amplitude and trailing
plumes of warm water are associated with each shoreward meander of the Agulhas
Current (Lutjeharms et al., 1989). South of Mossel Bay and south-east of Port Elizabeth
warm plumes have also been observed (Lutjeharms et al., 1989) and the number of
meanders observed between Port Elizabeth and the southern extremity of the Agulhas
Bank is far higher than in the areas either side of it as is the occurrence of eddies and
plumes in this area (Lutjeharms et al., 1989). However, the core of the current lies well
offshore of the shelf break at all times and much of the time the main flow is observed
50km and more from the shelf edge (Schumann and van Heerden, 1988). Plumes
associated with meanders offshore from the southern tip of the Agulhas Bank usually
drift off in a north-westerly direction into the south-east Atlantic Ocean (Lutjeharms,
1981), but sometimes get advected back onto the Agulhas Bank to reach the shore
between Cape Agulhas (the southernmost tip of Africa) and Cape Town (Lutjeharms et
al., 1989). In the centre of the Agulhas Bank cooler water temperatures indicate inshore
upwelling areas (Schumann and van Heerden, 1988; Lutjeharms et al., 1989). Larger
oceanographic features such as the Agulhas Current and Agulhas Rings were shown to
extend vertically for a few hundred metres, while other features visible at the sea surface
were found to be shallow e.g. warm water plumes probably do not extend further than
50-100m downward (Lutjeharms et al., 1989).
The hydrographic structure of the Agulhas Current is very similar to that of other
large western boundary currents (Gründlingh, 1983) and can be identified by high
7-6
current velocities and temperatures in the surface structure (Goschen and Schumann,
1988). For most of its course it is characterised by a high-speed central “core” flowing at
over 1m/sec, with maximum velocities of 2.5m/sec recorded beyond the shelf break
(Gründlingh, 1983; Goschen and Schumann, 1988). The core has a width of some tens
of kilometres (Gründlingh, 1983) and is usually located just beyond the shelf break,
which in the case of Algoa Bay would be about 70km offshore (Goschen and Schumann,
1988). The associated maximum temperatures are about 26ºC in summer and 3-4º less in
winter; the temperatures are about 3ºC lower than the corresponding values off Kwazulu
Natal, indicating a marked cooling downstream (Goschen and Schumann, 1988). A
difference of 6°C was recorded between inshore waters in Algoa Bay and the offshore
current (Goschen and Schumann, 1988). Strong seasonal thermoclines are found off
Algoa Bay and on the Agulhas Bank (Goschen and Schumann, 1988) and a separate
study over the Agulhas Bank further to the west just off Mossel Bay indicated the
extreme variability of the region in terms of water temperatures (Schumann and van
Heerden, 1988). Plumes of warm water may cross the shelf edge and disperse over the
continental shelf, thus advecting warmer and more saline tropical and subtropical surface
water from the Agulhas Current into the surface layers of the Agulhas Bank (Goschen
and Schumann, 1988). Shelf-edge upwelling within these frontal eddies introduces
nutrient-rich water to these regions (Goschen and Schumann, 1988). Although no strong
seasonal change was found in the flow behaviour of the Agulhas Current (Lutjeharms et
al., 1989), the core of the current shows large episodic meanders several times a year,
which move Agulhas Current surface water over the shelf and closer inshore as well as
creating upwelling in the core of a cyclonic eddy thus bringing cold water to the surface
(Goschen and Schumann, 1988). Cold Indian Ocean Central Water can also be brought
onto the shelf by current-induced upwelling (Goschen and Schumann, 1988). The
Agulhas Current thus plays an intermittent role in determining the current and
temperature structures of the adjacent shelf water (Goschen and Schumann, 1988). On
the wider shelf areas wind can be expected to be the main forcing mechanism (Goschen
and Schumann, 1988). Unfortunately little information is available about the offshore
(i.e. southward) extent of the Agulhas Current and its influence on the surrounding
waters.
Algoa Bay is the largest and easternmost bay on the south-eastern Cape coast and
faces into the South-West Indian Ocean with the dominant oceanographic feature being
the Agulhas Current (Goschen and Schumann, 1988). It appears to represent a special
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scenario in the course of the Agulhas Current. The prevailing winds in Algoa Bay are
generally parallel to the coastline and the surface flow is generally the same (Goschen
and Schumann, 1988). During easterly winds a localized upwelling cell has been
reported off Cape Receife, Algoa Bay (Beckley, 1983; 1988), similar to that seen in St.
Helena Bay north of Cape Town (Goschen and Schumann, 1988). Such wind-induced
upwelling is especially conspicuous at headlands and sudden drops in temperature at
Humewood Beach, which occur each year during February and/or March suggest that
temperature reversals across Algoa Bay are annual oceanographic events (Beckley,
1988). In addition, the presence of cold water at shallow depths i.e. 10° C at 20m has
been reported (Beckley, 1988). This is surprising as Algoa Bay is relatively shallow
(<50m depth) and one would assume that the water is generally well mixed. The origin
of the cold water is unknown, but it has been suggested that it could originate from cold
Atlantic Central water (Chapman and Largier, 1989).
In contrast to the Agulhas Current system, the cool, nutrient rich waters off the
west coast of the subcontinent have been subject to extensive study and most
mechanisms involved in the upwelling phenomena along this coastline are well
understood. The dominant mechanisms over the southern Benguela shelf are coastal
trapped waves, which organize large-amplitude pulses in upwelling (Jury and Brundrit,
1992). This produces a periodic input of nutrients during active upwelling, followed by
enhanced primary production during the quiescent phase (Jury and Brundrit, 1992).
North-directed, upwelling-favourable winds associated with low sea levels, northward
shelf currents and declining coastal sea surface temperatures coexist in the active
upwelling phase (Jury and Brundrit, 1992). Furthermore, a comparison between sites
reveals the propagating nature of the pulses, being southwards along the West Coast and
continuing eastwards along the South Coast beyond Port Elizabeth (Jury and Brundrit,
1992). A definite seasonal pattern in the movement of surface water off the west and
south-west coasts of South Africa was reported by Duncan and Nell (1969). During
summer (December- February) a southward flowing current is found inshore and a
northward flowing current offshore off the west coast, while in the winter months (June-
August) either the summer pattern may prevail or a general southerly trend is found both
inshore and offshore (Duncan and Nell, 1969). Off the south-west coast a westward drift
from Cape Agulhas often rounds Cape Point during summer, while the flow in winter is
consistently eastwards (Duncan and Nell, 1969).
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7.1.2 Cetacean distribution at sea

7.1.2.1 General
A myriad of factors influence the spatial and temporal distribution and

abundance of cetaceans and they can be roughly categorised into environmental, biotic
and anthropogenic factors (Davis et al., 1998). Environmental factors, including
physiochemical, climatological and geomorphological variables, operate on time scales
ranging from hours to thousands of years (Davis et al., 1998). Diel, seasonal, interannual
and decadel patterns of variability or periodicity may occur for each factor (Davis et al.,
1998). Biotic factors are prey distribution, inter- and intraspecific competition,
reproductive events and predation pressure, while anthropogenic factors range from
historical hunting, pollution, shipping and fishing operations to geochemical and seismic
explorations (Davis et al., 1998). The spatial and temporal distribution of marine
mammals and their prey may be influenced by a number of these factors, but the relative
contribution of each may be difficult to quantify.
The combined interpretation of stranding data and distribution of free ranging
animals at sea is vital to get a clear understanding of a species’ ecology. While stranding
data can contribute to the known distribution range of a certain species, information of
its distribution and habitat preference at sea in turn is important for a more sound
interpretation of stranding data. The distributions of species are not uniform, but show
varying patterns throughout their ranges. Understanding the factors that influence these
patterns and the abundance of animals is a central theme in ecology and is critical for the
management of long-lived marine animals. Knowledge on preferences in temperature,
bathymetry and prey all aids in interpreting stranding data, ultimately contributing to the
formation of a clearer picture about a species’ distribution and preferred habitat.
In contrast to mysticetes the majority of odontocete species appear to restrict
their habitat to a limited oceanographic environment (Kasuya, 1995; Davis et al., 1998).
Factors such as temperature, chlorophyll a and/or plankton distribution and
oceanography, including salinity and bathymetry, all influence the distribution of
odontocetes to a greater or lesser extent (Kenney and Winn, 1986, 1987; Smith et al.,
1986; Davis et al., 1995; Griffin, 1999; Baumgartner et al., 2000). Temperature is
considered to be one of the most important factors limiting the distribution of organisms
in the marine environment (Christensen, 1980; Fiedler and Reilly, 1994) and such
baseline data are particularly important for abundance estimates (Fiedler and Reilly,
7-9
1994). Seasonal changes in distribution in relation to temperature are observed in some

species (Reilly, 1990), and some species show a preference for warm current systems
(Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993). Although initial studies concentrated on examining the
effect a single environmental variable, studies during the last decade have increasingly
examined the interactions between a number of factors and cetacean distribution in order
to understand mechanisms that produce and maintain the observed patterns. In particular,
the use of satellite tracking, remote sensing and GPS systems has increased the
collection of data on cetacean distribution in recent years. Strong associations to different
habitats are increasingly linked to a number of geographic and oceanographic patterns of
co-varying factors such as sea surface temperature, thermocline depth, upwelling, and
salinity (Au and Perryman, 1985; Reilly et al., 1996; Griffin, 1999).
In addition, behavioural patterns such as predator avoidance, interspecific
competition and reproductive strategies all affect cetacean distribution to some extent,
but studies of energy budgets in cetaceans indicate that most species need to feed every
day and thus habitat is assumed to be primarily determined by the availability and
abundance of prey (Reilly et al., 1996; Baumgartner et al., 2000). Concentrations of
whales feeding on plankton were shown to be located in areas with the richest food base
(Volkov and Moroz, 1977). However, for teuthophagous species it is not always possible
to establish a direct dependence of the observed distribution on the distribution of prey
species and hydrological characteristics of the area (see Chapter 6). Kenney and Winn
(1986) determined that high-use habitats for teuthophagous whales are found in the shelf
edge region. This area usually shows quite a diverse cetacean assemblage, although the
individual species may have quite narrow dietary specializations (Kenney and Winn,
1986). In comparison, regions over submarine canyons, although thought to be of major
importance in the distribution of cetaceans, are significantly less important than the shelf
break region (Kenney and Winn, 1987).
The distribution of oceanic cetaceans is thus presumed to be linked to the
oceanographic processes by physical-biological interactions and the trophic relationships
between phytoplankton, zooplankton, micronekton and cetacean prey species
(Baumgartner et al., 2000); unfortunately, it is to date still extremely difficult to measure
the distribution of cetacean prey (Reilly et al., 1996) (see Chapter 6).
7-10
7.1.2.2 Distribution of cetaceans off southern Africa
There is a general lack of data on the distribution of cetaceans off southern

Africa. This is mainly due to the fact that dedicated survey trips are lacking and most
data are collected opportunistically onboard other vessels. However, the collection and
analysis of stranding data from the southern African coastline gives an insight into the
distributions of the species found here (Ross, 1979a,b; 1984; Findlay, 1989; Findlay et
al., 1992).
Although cetaceans were thought to be associated with the Agulhas Retroflection
and the Agulhas Rings due to the enhancement of primary productivity in this area, this
was not supported by any sightings (Cockcroft et al., 1990). However, 13 out of 15
sightings were made on the edges or within Agulhas Rings, although not associated with
increased chlorophyll a concentrations (Cockcroft et al., 1990). It was concluded that
warm/cold water interfaces determined the distribution of cetaceans in the area
(Cockcroft et al., 1990).
7.1.2.3. Distribution of Kogia at sea
Although the distribution of either Kogia species has so far only been studied by
indirect means of stomach content analysis (see Chapter 6), for reasons already
mentioned in Chapter 1, there have been some opportunistic gatherings of distribution
data at sea during survey studies (Davis et al., 1995; 1998; Ballance and Pitman, 1998;
Baumgartner et al., 2000). However, in most cases the observers were not able to
distinguish between the two Kogia species to their similar appearance and sightings
could only be classified as Kogia spp. (Davis et al., 1995). In the Gulf of Mexico
stranding records in the area indicate that the two species are not uncommon, but there
was an absence of sightings of these animals, which the observers put down to the
“cryptic” behaviour of the species and the difficulties of identifying them at sea (Davis et
al., 1995). Similarly, the stranding data indicate that Kogia breviceps is more common in
the study area than K. sima, while the sighting data gained from the survey show the
opposite (Davis et al., 1995). There are seasonal differences in the amount of sightings,
with animals being seen less frequently in autumn than in summer (Davis et al., 1995).
Sightings that could be identified to species level show that K. breviceps is absent in
autumn and K. sima is seen almost exclusively in spring and summer (Davis et al.,
1995). In general, Kogia sightings are associated with higher sea surface temperatures
7-11
(SST) and are typically recorded along the mid-to lower slope in waters over 1000m
deep (Davis et al., 1995). In contrast, Baumgartner reports that sightings are restricted to
the upper continental slope in regions with high epipelagic zooplankton biomass in the
same area (Baumgartner et al., 2000). As there has been some niche overlap documented
between the two Kogia species (Ross, 1979b) (see Chapter 6), this association may be
due to the utilization of zooplankton in the diet of one or more of their common prey
species (i.e. cephalopods) (Baumgartner et al., 2000). Like other deep diving species
Kogia are found in waters with the steepest SST gradients (Davis et al., 1995; 1998) and
over the deepest bottom depths, but at intermediate bottom-depth gradients (Davis et al.,
1998). Since they are cephalopod feeders they may forage along thermal fronts
associated with eddy systems and may be associated with upwelling events, which are
more productive than warmer surface water (Davis et al., 1995; 1998; Baumgartner et
al., 2000).
In the North Atlantic both K. breviceps and K. sima are found exclusively in
waters associated with the Gulf Stream (Griffin, 1999), which is characterised by a
higher mean water temperature (26.6°C) and a significantly greater mean water depth
(4421m) (Griffin, 1999). In addition, the area also displays one of the highest
zooplankton densities (Griffin, 1999).
In the ETP K. sima is found in all waters, but was seen most frequently near the
coast (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993). In addition, all K. breviceps sightings (n=4) are
recorded north of 24°N, while all K. sima (n=84) sightings are recorded south of 24°N,
indicating that K. breviceps has a more northerly distribution range (Wade and
Gerrodette, 1993). These data support the fact that K. sima may have a more tropical
distribution than K. breviceps.
In the western tropical Indian Ocean Ballance and Pitman (1998) were able to
distinguish between K. breviceps and K. sima sightings and found that K. sima associates
with warm, deep and clear (i.e. low chlorophyll levels) water characterised by a deep
thermocline (Ballance et al., 1996a). Sightings of 20 specimens of K. sima were
reported, while only two solitary K. breviceps were spotted (Ballance et al., 1996b). The
latter were observed at sea states of Beaufort zero and one, while K. sima were observed
at sea states zero to two (Ballance et al., 1996b), which is similar to other studies
(Barlow and Sexton, 1996). Comparions of abundance estimates for K. breviceps
indicate that estimates are higher in the western tropical Indian Ocean than in the Gulf of
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Mexico (Ballance and Pitman, 1998). In contrast, abundance estimates for K. sima are
the highest in the ETP and lowest in the Gulf of Mexico (Ballance and Pitman, 1998).
The mean school size for both Kogia species is the highest in the Gulf of Mexio
(Ballance and Pitman, 1998). It appears that the higher number of sighting records for K.
sima in the wild may be due to the fact that they are easier to observe owing to the larger
dorsal fin and larger group size (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993; Ballance et al., 1996a;
Ballance and Pitman, 1998). However, this point needs further investigation before it can
be determined whether this presents a clear bias in sighting data and, as a result, in
abundance estimates.
7.1.3 Cetacean strandings

Over the last few decades a number of theories about the causes of cetacean
strandings have emerged and these are reviewed here.
7.1.3.1 The analysis of stranding data
Although stranding databases are common in most developed countries and are,
for the most part, well maintained, few researchers have utilised this resource.
Nevertheless, some useful information has emerged from analyses carried out on the
British (Sheldrick, 1979; Klinowska, 1985a,b; 1986a,b), French (Hussenot et al., 1996),
Portugal (Silva and Sequeira, 2003), South African (Ross, 1984; Findlay, 1989), New
Zealand (Brabyn, 1991), and United States (Mead, 1979; Credle, 1988; Polacheck et al.,
1995) stranding records.
Stranding data contain useful information on spatial/seasonal distributions and
mortality processes as well as on life history parameters. However, a number of biases
are inherent in data from stranded animals and should be kept in mind when utilising
such data (Mead, 1979). Klinowska (1985a) presents a good summary on the advantages
and downfalls of stranding records, as well as their value to research on cetaceans. A
stranded animal will have to be noticed, reported and recorded and it appears that the
most commonly reported cetaceans are the large ones i.e. the mysticetes, followed by the
rare ones, resulting in the common species being underrepresented (Mead, 1979). There
may be problems with identifying specimens, in particular when the species are similar
in appearance or when the specimens are incomplete or decomposed (Mead, 1979) (see
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also Chapter 8). Most strandings are reported in areas of concentrated effort and species
that are usually found in the inshore fauna of that given coastline are likely to strand in
that area, while animals, which do not have their usual distribution range along a given
coastline, are unlikely to wash ashore due to the large distance involved and scavengers
or decomposition breaking up the carcass before it reaches the shore (Mead, 1979). The
size of a population and its mortality rate will contribute to the abundance of a species in
the stranding record and these factors will change with season (Mead, 1979). In addition,
the interaction of these factors may be important in some cases, for instance an offshore
species which has relatively low population levels, but has regular inshore movements
coincident with increased mortality rates may be represented by more records in the
stranding database than a more common species with an opposite pattern of movement
or mortality (Mead, 1979). Additional problems in maintaining stranding databases with
using data from stranding databases often limit the analysis. These include incomplete
reporting of information, inconsistency between different observers and a lack of
standardised methods. The most important bias in the longitudinal trend of stranding
databases is varying effort (Klinowska, 1986b). In particular, follow-up information such
as age determination and examination of reproductive status are not carried out
consistently and lack of information on datasheets introduces potential for errors. In
addition, strandings only represent a sample of the total population and it is therefore
important to closer determine the relationship between strandings and the rest of the
population in order to gain a complete understanding of the total population (Klinowska,
1985a).
Strandings are for many areas the only source of information on the local species
(Klinowska, 1985a). Very little is known about natural mortality in free-ranging cetacean
populations. This is due to the difficulties in obtaining basic information on population
size, calf production and survival data as well as accurate age estimates (Perrin and
Reilly, 1984; Geraci, 1993). Thus this basic information has to be gathered from
stranded animals (Ross, 1979a) or animals taken incidentally in fishing gear (Cockcroft
and Ross, 1990a; Geraci, 1993). Natural mortality trends in mammals usually show a
high rate in very young animals, decreases markedly in mature animals and increases
again with older age (Ralls et al., 1980; Geraci, 1993). Mortality seems higher in males
than in females and also in species with polygynous mating systems as opposed to
alternative mating systems (Geraci, 1993).
Furthermore, stranding records can be maintained over a long period of time as
7-14
well as large geographical areas (Klinowska, 1985a). Over the years the accumulation of
such data increases the significance of the stranding database and the possible results of
such vast amounts of data gathered can be seen in the present study. And as recent
studies indicate (Hussenot et al., 1996; Silva and Sequeira, 2003) the analysis of
stranding patterns does still yield important data about the cetacean fauna in a certain
area and thus is a valid research tool.
7.1.3.2 Stranding patterns
Most stranding events are probably the result of numerous contributing and
interacting factors rather than having a simple cause-and-effect relationship (Cordes,
1982). Factors which may contribute to a stranding include the physical environment
represented by tides, currents, coastal configuration, weather and man- induced features;
low water temperatures; changes in water chemistry; the seasons; feeding conditions;
possible feelings of alarm in the affected whales; interference with their echolocation
mechanism; presence of disease and behavioural characteristics (Cordes, 1982).
In general, the majority of strandings in a particular geographical region are
comprised of single animals (Sheldrick, 1979; Brabyn, 1991; Polacheck et al., 1995),
which in some areas are comprised of mainly dead animals (Mead, 1979; Klinowska,
1985a), while in others live strandings are more common (Brabyn, 1991). Stranding
implies the beaching of a live animal in contrast to the casting ashore of a dead one,
although this distinction can not always be made as a stranded animal often dies on shore
before being discovered (Cordes, 1982). In addition, many animals that strand probably
die at sea and then drift ashore (McManus et al., 1984; Evans, 1987), although it is
assumed that dead animals will rarely be carried for longer distances than 100km
(Brabyn, 1991).
Single strandings usually result from accidents or are sick, old, weak, or pregnant
individuals (Klinowska, 1985a; Evans, 1987). Other frequent causes for strandings are
young animals, which have not been weaned successfully or lost their mothers (Evans,
1987). Cow/calf pair strandings may often occur as a result of difficulties with
parturition; however, if both individuals come ashore it may be impossible to determine
which animal leads the way to the stranding (Geraci, 1993).
Stranding rates may vary seasonally according to the prevailing weather
conditions as sick or struggling animals are more prone to strand during rough weather.
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Strandings along the New Zealand coastline are high in summer and lower in winter,
with the extent of the seasonality varying between species and between groups (Brabyn,
1991). An in-depth study of harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena strandings along the
Atlantic cost of the U.S. shows that some animals are resident year round, while a large
part of the population migrates along the shore, or moves inshore/offshore in certain
areas (Polacheck et al., 1995). Higher mortality rates are observed seasonally, perhaps
reflecting prey shortages (Polacheck et al., 1995). Natural mortality rates vary from year
to year, possibly due to environmental factors, and is highest for juveniles between two
and three years old (Polacheck et al., 1995).
Inshore species often may have consistent and more or less predictable stranding
patterns due to their residency or seasonal migration through the area concerned (Geraci,
1993). However, these more traditional patterns have become less clear and predictable
due to human activities (Geraci, 1993). For pelagic species stranding patterns are more
confused, but correlations with locations, tides, storms, geomagnetic disturbances and
other factors have been suggested (Klinowska, 1985b; Brabyn, 1991; Brabyn and
McLean, 1992; Geraci, 1993).
There is evidence that the frequency with which a species strands is related to the
local abundance of the food supply and that there is some direct relationship between the
incidence of stranding and the abundance of whales in neighbouring waters (Cordes,
1982). Coastal species are more commonly found in single stranding events, perhaps at a
frequency related to their population density in neighbouring seas (Cordes, 1982).
One phenomenon, which may play an important role in the occurrence of
strandings, but which has been little researched, are El Niño events (G. Ross, pers.
com.), which may result is changes of prey quality and quantity, and in turn in increased
numbers of stranding events. However, there has been no publication to date that
examines the connection between the two.
Parasite infections are very common in cetaceans and some may even be
contracted in utero (Geraci and St. Aubin, 1987; Geraci, 1993). Some parasites may play
an important role in disease and mortality, and some infestations, in particular those
affecting the brain, have been linked to stranding events (Geraci, 1979; Hall and
Schimpff, 1979; Geraci, 1993).
Human related mortality events include entanglement in both coastal fishing gear
(Hohn et al., 1996; Kraus et al., 1997) and pelagic fisheries (Perrin and Henderson,
1984) as well as habitat degradation, oil spills and other forms of pollution, including
7-16
noise pollution (Calzada et al., 1994). In recent years evidence has emerged which
indicates that noise pollution, resulting from commercial shipping traffic, seismic
explorations and oil drilling rigs may be a more important factor in the cause of whale
strandings than previously thought (Holmes, 1997). In particular, low-frequency sound
emissions used in military tests appear to be linked to an increased frequency of beaked
whale strandings both in the Mediterranean (Holmes, 1997; Frantzis, 1998) and the
Bahamas. However, the adverse effects of low-frequency sound on whales are poorly
understood and the definite results are still pending.
Other forms of pollution, oil spills in particular, contribute to overall habitat
degradation, which may have an adverse effect on prey abundance and diversity and
may increase stress and susceptibility to infection (Geraci, 1993). Some populations have
accumulated high levels of contaminants that possibly result in disease, including tumors
and reproductive disorders (Geraci, 1993). Furthermore, unusually high amount of
naturally occurring toxins caused by red tides have also been linked to a number of
cetacean strandings (Geraci et al., 1989; Aguilar, 1991).
While solitary strandings are strongly influenced by disease, mass-strandings
appear largely related to the behaviour of the herd (Cordes, 1982) and occur less
commonly (Sheldrick, 1979; Brabyn, 1991). Usually mass strandings are defined as
stranding events, which involve two or more animals, excluding cow/calf pairs (Geraci
and Lounsbury, 1993). Numerous theories about the reasons for mass strandings of
cetaceans have emerged in the past. These include possible escape behaviour, suicide
attempts and a means of regulating populations (Sergeant, 1982; Odell et al., 1984).
Mass-stranding cetaceans are usually pelagic forms with a strong social cohesion
(Sergeant, 1982; Evans, 1987), which causes some animals of the herd to follow
stranded animals ashore (Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993). Most of the species involved in
such stranding events are pelagic and are thought to follow their prey inshore (Cordes,
1982; Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993). However, it is doubtful that inshore foraging
behaviour alone could lead to strandings (Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993). There are too
few data available to indicate any cyclic activity in stranding patterns and although some
theories appear very plausible the fact remains that stranding events are difficult to link
with variations in environmental parameters (Odell, pers. com.). As a result most of
these theories have been dismissed by most researchers due to a lack of convincing
evidence.
However, a few studies have presented some supporting evidence and are still
7-17
thought to explain some of the reasons behind mass strandings. Klinowska (1985b;
1986a) proposes that cetaceans use the earth’s magnetic field both as a compass and a
map. Magnetite in the form of iron oxide crystals is found in the brains of a number of
cetaceans (Klinowska, 1986a) and is thought to aid in navigation, similarly to homing
pigeons. Furthermore, it is known that migration routes of cetaceans do follow
geomagnetic contours (Klinowska, 1986a). Offshore species strand more frequently and
strandings occur where geomagnetic contours run perpendicular to the coastline
(Klinowska, 1985b; 1986a). As a result Klinowska (1986b) proposes that cetaceans have
an integrated travel system based on features of the geomagnetic field, using the
geomagnetic topography as a basic map and monitoring their progress using
geomagnetic time cues. Magnetite crystals are reported from the brain of common
dolphins (Zoeger et al., 1981) as well as K. breviceps (Credle, 1988). However, there are
little data indicating just what role these crystals play in cetaceans and whether they
actually aid in navigation and magnetic map sense has not been proven for any species
of animal (Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993). Subsequently, Brabyn and McLean (1992) fail
to provide supporting evidence for Klinowska’s hypothesis. Their analysis of herd
strandings in New Zealand shows that whales do not strand at random locations, but
rather strandings are concentrated in five locations (namely Whangerei, Kaipara,
Hawkes Bay, Golden Bay and the Chatham Islands) (Brabyn and McLean, 1992). The
topography of the beach is thought to be the determining factor as all these beaches are
long, gently sloping beaches, most having some protrusion from the coastline (Brabyn
and McLean, 1992). A comparison with other multiple herd-stranding sites around the
world shows a similar beach topology (Brabyn and McLean, 1992). This would be in
agreement with another hypothesis on the cause of mass-strandings, which is that
shallow water or gently sloping beaches distort the animals’ sonar, providing it with false
information and causing it to strand (Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993). However, cetacean
sonar has largely been studied in bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus, a
predominantly inshore species, and little is known about the ability of pelagic forms to
alter signals and compensate for background noise (Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993).
Sometimes animals accidentally get trapped and subsequently grounded by the
outgoing tide. Such incidents occur frequently in areas with long meandering channels,
broad tidal flats, strong or unusual currents, or extreme tidal flow or volume (Geraci and
Lounsbury, 1993). Areas, which are famous for being such “whale traps”, include Cape
Cod, Massachusetts, and Sable Island, Nova Scotia (Geraci and Lounsbury, 1993).
7-18
Many individuals in a group of mass-stranded cetaceans often show signs of

illness infestations (Hall and Schimpff, 1979) and it appears that viruses may have been
overlooked for some time as possible causes of mass mortality events in cetaceans as
recent outbreaks of morbillivirus suggest (Geraci, 1993; Calzada et al., 1994).
Brabyn (1991) suggests that stranding patterns for any given species may be
explained by differences in the distribution of prey species, feeding patterns, migration
and social organisation. Unfortunately for most species much of these data are either
poorly documented or still unknown. However, the increase in the frequency of
stranding reports which has been observed in the last two decades is most likely due to
easier access to remote stretches of coastline as well as enhanced public and government
awareness of cetaceans (McManus et al., 1984). In this way, chances of the discovery of
rare species have improved over the years (McManus et al., 1984).
Although strandings are an important source of material for scientific studies,
especially those concerned with pathology, anatomy, toxicology and ecology, they do
not simply reflect population abundance and distribution and thus great care should be
taken when using them to infer such information (Gonçalves et al., 1996).
7.1.3.3 Cetacean strandings off southern Africa
Ross (1984) describes the small cetacean fauna of the south-east coast of
Southern Africa, using data from 350 specimens originating from strandings since 1968.
To this day his analysis serves as a guideline for anyone carrying out research on any
species of small odontocete in South Africa as his work was valuable for the re-
evaluation of the taxonomic status of a number of species and in a comparatively short
period of time provided nearly one third of the world’s recorded material for three
species of Mesoplodon, both species of Kogia, as well as Lagenodelphis hosei (Ross,
1984). It indicates that Southern Africa is a major source of samples for the cetacean
fauna of much of the South Atlantic and Southern Indian Ocean (Ross, 1984).
The number of species of the small cetacean fauna (24) off South Africa is high
compared to the number of species recorded for other regions and suggests that this
diversity results from the variable oceanographic conditions found off the subcontinent
(Ross, 1984). Four components that structure this diversity can be described:
-a tropical/subtropical component, containing species associated with the Agulhas
Current;
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-a temperate/subantarctic component containing species associated with cool water,

which intrudes eastwards inshore of the Agulhas Current;
-a cosmopolitan component, which is represented by species which occur in both warm
and cool water off Southern Africa, such as K. breviceps; and
-a mixed water component, which includes species like K. sima, which have apparently
restricted distributions in the region of mixing cool and warm waters over the Agulhas
Bank (Ross, 1984). Based on this distribution a probably isolated population contained
wholly within the southern African region was suggested for K. sima (Ross, 1984).
However, there is still lack of data on the detailed distribution of cetaceans off
Southern Africa, in particular on the some of the larger cetaceans, like the mysticetes, for
which there is only data originating from the whaling industry. Findlay (1989), in
reviewing published and unpublished records, altogether comprising about 60000
animals, of sightings, strandings and specimens from the study area up to the end of June
1986, reports nine species of large cetaceans and 28 species of small ones present in the
study area (Findlay, 1989). His analysis of stranding data (1477 specimens) reveals that
the majority were live strandings (n=625), compared to 609 animals found dead on
shore, 44 dead strandings and 23 dead at sea (Findlay, 1989). Skeletal remains, which
were found on beaches made up 79 specimens and nine were either dredged or trawled
up at sea (Findlay, 1989). Two animals were found in the gut of a predator (Findlay,
1989). Furthermore, 506 animals were recorded as caught incidentally and 138 as caught
directly (Findlay, 1989).
Ekman (1967; in: Findlay, 1989) noted the wide spectrum of zoogeographic
components in southern African oceans and stated that faunistic boundaries are complex
due to the oceanographic conditions. This zoogeographic pattern can only be understood
if the faunistic regions are defined by water characteristics and not by geographical
boundaries (Ekman, 1967; in: Findlay, 1989). Findlay (1989) suggests that the high
species diversity of cetaceans in southern African waters arises largely from these
complex oceanographic conditions. The mixing of the tropical/subtropical waters
brought in from the east by the Agulhas current with the cold temperate waters of the
west coast results in the formation of a descending cline of surface water temperature
from east to west. Certain species appear to be strongly confined to particular
temperature ranges and faunistic boundaries seem to coincide with temperature fronts
(Findlay, 1989). Within this temperature cline the distribution patterns of certain species
are strongly associated with water depth. Therefore the non-migratory cetacean fauna of
7-20
the region can be ascribed to 10 different habitats, which are largely characterised by
water temperature and depth (Findlay, 1989). According to this system, Findlay
(Findlay, 1989) describes the habitat of K. breviceps as pelagic cosmopolitan. Strandings
of cetacean species on both the west and east coast may suggest that they move around
the Cape Peninsula in cells of Agulhas current water into the Benguela system (Findlay,
1989). Similar events during interglacial temperature maxima may have facilitated the
east to west dispersal of present pan-tropical species through the Cape cold-water barrier
(Findlay, 1989). Findlay considers both species of Kogia as sympatric off Southern
Africa since the longshore distributions of strandings overlap, but that that may not be
the case if the two species were confined to different depths (1989).
7.1.3.4 Kogia strandings
As already mentioned in Chapter 1 Kogia are primarily known from stranding

events (Credle, 1988). The majority of records of the two species of Kogia deal with
stranded animals, usually single strandings (see Chapter 1). However, few studies have
pooled these events together and analysed them.
Early in the last century Allen (1941) reports about 20 or so Kogia stranded
along the east coast of North America, including Canada. At that stage many Kogia
records exist from the western Pacific, but only two (namely from Peru and Mexico) in
the eastern Pacific (Allen, 1941). This lack of records can partly be put down to a lack of
observers in that area, but it may possibly reflect preferences of Kogia for certain areas
where food and water temperatures are optimal, especially as the regions of strandings
are influenced by major ocean currents like the Agulhas, the Gulf Stream and the
Japanese (Kuroshio) Current (Allen, 1941).
Almost four decades later Mead (1979) in his 1979 study of the stranding records
from the Atlantic and Gulf coast of the U.S. remarks that K. breviceps is the third most
abundant species to strand in the study area (108 records), making up 33% of all live
strandings, which is surprising as it was usually considered a rare as well as an offshore
species (Mead, 1979). He speculates that these records may be the result of an inshore
movement of part of the population during a period of increased natural mortality,
resulting in a disproportionate number of strandings (Mead, 1979). However, studies in
the south-eastern United States support a high stranding rate of both Kogia species along
that coastline (Odell et al., 1984), with K. breviceps being the second most commonly
7-21
stranding species after T. truncatus, with most of the strandings occurring in Florida
(Odell, 1991). The majority are live strandings (Bossart et al., 1985). Out of 2381
cetaceans reported to have stranded K. breviceps makes up 224 stranded animals, while
only 50 specimens of K. sima are reported (Odell, 1991). Odell et al. (1984), examining
over 100 stranding records of K. breviceps in Florida, suggest a seasonal pattern with
stranding peaks in autumn and winter. While adult males and females strand in
approximately equal numbers, the males seem to conform to the bimodal seasonal
pattern better than the females do (Odell et al., 1984). Adult, non-pregnant females,
pregnant females, and females with calves strand at similar frequencies and most
pregnant females are found in January and February (Odell et al., 1984). Juveniles strand
in a conspicuously low frequency, which may indicate different distribution patterns for
different age classes (Odell et al., 1984). Credle (1988) examines strandings of both
species of Kogia in the south-eastern United States from Florida and surrounding states,
looking for correlations with the earth magnetic field. A total of 384 Kogia strandings
from 1883 until 1988 are analysed and of these 317 (83%) are K. breviceps and 67
(17%) are K. sima (Credle, 1988). She confirms the presence of magnetite, a strong
magnetic iron oxide (Fe3O4) required for magnetoreceptive ability, in the brain of both
Kogia species. Contrary to previous findings a correlation exists between live strandings
and days of low atmospheric magnetic activity (Credle, 1988). Field strengths are higher
and the magnetic field gradient is steeper in areas of live stranding events than in areas
with no strandings (Credle, 1988), which is somewhat contradictory to the findings by
Klinowska (1985b; 1986a; 1986b) (see above), but overall correlations between
stranding events and geomagnetic characteristics are not as strong as those reported for
other cetacean species (Credle, 1988). However, since Kogia are oceanic and deep
diving species the coastal magnetic field may not have any impact on them and these
species would be expected to strand in random locations with respect to local magnetic
field intensity (Credle, 1988). Furthermore, all stranded adult Kogia have
cardiomyopathy, a condition that may be linked to a dietary thiamine deficiency (Credle,
1988).
The combined works of Hale (Hale, 1947; 1959; 1962; 1963) give an overview
of the Kogia strandings along the South Australian coastline. Strandings appear to
mainly occur in the austral autumn and winter, namely from late April to late September
(Hale, 1962). During this period both calves and adults strand and most strandings
happen during calm weather (Hale, 1962). Strandings in New South Wales are restricted
7-22
to August and September, whereas strandings in New Zealand are reported to occur from
August to July, thus extending into the summer months, which Hale believed suggests
some migratory pattern, similarly to that observed for baleen whales (Hale, 1962).
Similarly, Sylvestre (1988) suggests a seasonal movement of Kogia off the west coast of
New Caledonia based on the fact that strandings only occur between June and
December.
In New Zealand K. breviceps has the highest incidence of stranding (364
individuals represented by 297 stranding events) of any cetacean species, based on
records from 1873 to 2001 (Brabyn, 1991; Tuohy et al., 2001). The majority of
strandings are single, live events and only few group strandings, the largest group
comprising four animals, are reported (Brabyn, 1991). Most strandings occur in May and
only few animals strand in October and November/December (Brabyn, 1991). Twice as
many females appear to strand as males, approximately half of which are accompanied
by a calf (Brabyn, 1991). The majority of the stranding events occur in Hawkes’s Bay
(74%) on the east coast of the North Island, concentrating mainly in two hotspots in the
area: Mahia and Opoutama Beach (Tuohy et al., 2001). These two regions alone account
for 47% (n=141) of all stranding events (Tuohy et al., 2001). The area is close to the
Hikurangi Trough and Poverty Bay Canyon and the East Cape Current, which flows past
the east coast of the North Island of New Zealand, passes over the Poverty Canyon and
probably causes nutrient-rich upwelling in the Hawke’s Bay area (Tuohy et al., 2001).
An abundance of methane-rich seeps associated with the subduction zone in the area
further enriches the waters and results in great faunal assemblages (Tuohy et al., 2001),
which in turn would result in nutrient rich waters with high prey densities. Hawke’s Bay
appears to have the greatest number of stranded cow-calf pairs as well as pregnant
females in New Zealand, leading a number of researchers to conclude that it may present
a calving and/or nursery area (Brabyn, 1991; Tuohy et al., 2001). Although the majority
of strandings occur between 38°S and 42°S on the east coast of the North Island,
suggesting a sizeable population of this species off the coast, the absence of sightings in
coastal waters indicates that the species may live beyond the continental shelf, perhaps
over the region of deep (3250m) trenches and canyons between Cook Strait and East
Cape (Baker and van Helden, 1990).
Amongst the records analysed by Findlay (94 K. breviceps, 71 K. sima, 17 Kogia
spp.) (Findlay, 1989) for South Africa only one sighting of a Kogia was recorded, which
was observed in August 1971 off the south-east coast near East London (30°36’S,
7-23
31°08’E) over a water depth of 2000 to 3000 metres and a salinity and temperature of
35.2-35.4‰ and 20°-22° C, respectively (Findlay, 1989). The paucity of sighting records
for the two species is thought to reflect small school size, small body size, a deep-water
habitat and possibly diving behaviour (Findlay, 1989).
Of the 94 K. breviceps strandings the majority (n=47) were dead strandings,
while 21 animals stranded alive (Findlay, 1989). Four animals were found dead on the
shore, for seven animals only the skeletal remains were recovered and for 15 specimens
there was no indication in the records (Findlay, 1989). In K. sima the trend was similar
with the majority of the 71 specimens being dead strandings (n=42), while only 16
animals stranded alive (Findlay, 1989). One specimen was found dead on the beach and
for two others only the skeletal remains were discovered (Findlay, 1989). Two
specimens were either dredged up or found in the gut of a predator and eight records
showed no details (Findlay, 1989). After examining the abundance pattern for both
species by season, Findlay concluded that both species are “resident” in South African
waters (1989).
So-called “mass stranding” events are rare in Kogia and only two have been
found in the literature. One was reported by Ross (1979a) and involved a juvenile male
and three juvenile female K. sima. These data were included in the present study. The
other was described by Caldwell and Caldwell (1989), who report the stranding of three
adult-sized K. breviceps (one 320cm long male, two females of 300 and 310cm length,
respectively) on a Florida beach in 1968.

Since the original sample analysed by Ross’ (1979a) was relatively small and
additional data have emerged since, the aim of this part of the present study was to
determine basic stranding patterns, stranding range, and distribution for both species of
Kogia from southern Africa and to establish whether there are differences between the
two species. No attempt was made to explain causes of stranding events. As the
misidentification of the two Kogia species is often encountered when working with a
stranding record (Credle, 1988), this problem has been addressed in Chapter 8.
7-24
7.2.1 Sample
Appendix A lists all the strandings of Kogia from southern Africa used in the
present analysis by species in reverse chronological order. Information on the collection
number, date, sex, total length, latitude, longitude, locality and type of event is listed for
each stranding event. Species identification after 1979 was based on Ross’ (1979a)
findings on the morphological and external distinguishing characteristics of the two
species (see Chapter 1). Since the genus was only recognised to have two distinct species
as late as 1966, species identification prior to that date may not always be correct.
7.2.2 Analysis of strandings

Stranding events were either defined as dead or live strandings. It is presumed
that live strandings involved animals which were alive when first discovered or at the
time of the arrival of a stranding coordinator. The vast majority of the records is based
on the stranding records held at the Port Elizabeth Museum (PEM, now Bayworld) or the
South African Museum (SAM) and it could not be discerned from the records what
criteria were used to assess that. Furthermore, strandings were considered to be either
single or, when two or more animals stranded together, multiple. Cow/calf pair
strandings were defined as a mature female stranding with an immature, younger animal
at the same time and the same beach.
The general distribution of Kogia strandings along the South African coastline
was plotted by means of a geographical information system (GIS). In order to calculate
the mean sea-surface temperature (SST) at the time of a live stranding, SST charts for
10-day periods issued by the Department of Environment Affairs were consulted. These
charts are held by the J.L.B. Smith Institute of Ichthyology (now South African Institute
for Aquatic Biodiversity (SAIAB)) in Grahamstown and are available for both the east
and west coast dating back to 1968.
7-25
7.3 Results
7.3.1 Composition of stranded animals

106 strandings of K. breviceps and 85 strandings of K. sima along the South
African coastline between 1880 and 1995 were analysed. Data on the size-frequency
distributions of the stranded animals of both species have already been presented in
Chapter 2 and will not be discussed any further here.
In both Kogia species females were found to strand slightly more frequently than
males, with 37.7% (Figure 7.3a) and 44.7% (Figure 7.3b) of strandings being made up
by females of K. breviceps and K. sima, respectively. In comparison, 34% of K.
breviceps strandings were males (Figure 7.3a), while 38.8% of K. sima strandings were
males (Figure 7.3b). 28.3% and 16.5% of K. breviceps and K. sima strandings,
respectively, were not determined to sex (Figure 7.3 a,b).
Furthermore, about one third of all strandings comprised immature animals
(35.1% in K. breviceps and 31.9% in K. sima) (Figure 7.4 a,b). Based on the data for
length at sexual maturity, which were established for males in Chapter 4 and females in
Chapter 5, respectively, roughly two thirds of the stranded animals were mature in both
species (64.9% in K. breviceps and 68.1% in K. sima, respectively) (Figure 7.4 a,b).
Live animals were found to strand considerably less often in both species: in K.
breviceps 32.6% of all strandings comprised live animals, whereas in K. sima only
26.2% stranded alive; the rest were dead strandings (Figure 7.5 a,b).
In addition, the majority of strandings in both species was found to be single,
namely 58% in K. breviceps and 59.5% in K. sima (Figure 7.6 a,b). Multiple strandings,
defined as more than one animal stranding at a time and including cow/calf pairs, were
found to occur less often, comprising 42% of the K. breviceps strandings and 40.5% of
the K. sima strandings (Figure 7.6 a,b). The majority of these were made up of cow/calf
pairs. The highest number of animals stranding at one time was three for K. breviceps
and four for K. sima.
For the following analyses only strandings from 1965 onwards were included as
observer effort has been more reliable. Furthermore, additional environmental variables
such as sea surface temperatures were historically only available from that date onwards.
7-26
a) b)
males males
34% 38.8%
females
37.7%
unknown females unknown
28.3% 44.7% 16.5%
Figure 7.3: Total number of Kogia breviceps (a) and Kogia sima (b) strandings (in %)
between 1880 and 1995 analysed by sex.
a)
b)
immature immature
35.1% 31.9%
mature mature
64.9% 68.1%
Figure 7.4: Total number of Kogia breviceps (a) and Kogia sima (b) strandings (in %)
between 1880 and 1995 analysed by reproductive status.
7-27
a) b)
live strandings live strandings

32.6% 26.2%
dead strandings dead strandings

67.4% 73.8%
Figure 7.5: Total number of Kogia breviceps (a) and Kogia sima (b) strandings (in %) between
1880 and 1995 analysed by the condition of the animal.
a) b)
multiple strandings multiple strandings

42% 40.5%
single strandings single strandings

58% 59.5%
Figure 7.6: Total number of Kogia breviceps (a) and Kogia sima (b) strandings (in %) between
1880 and 1995 analysed by the type of stranding event. Stranding events in which more than
two animals stranded together at the same time were classified as multiple strandings.
7-28
7.3.2 Stranding trends over time

The occurrence of Kogia strandings over the years showed some fluctuation and
while in some years no strandings were recorded for either species, in other years there
appeared to be unusually high records of stranded animals (Figure 7.7). However, while
no strandings of K. breviceps occurred in 1974, 1978, 1989 and 1990, these years do not
coincide with those in which there were no strandings for K. sima (namely 1974, 1984,
1988, 1992 and 1993), except for 1974 (Figure 7.7). It also appears that the record for K.
breviceps is slightly more consistent, with between one to three strandings occurring in
most years (Figure 7.7a), while K. sima strandings seem to have more definite peaks
(Figure 7.7b).
7.3.3 Seasonality of strandings

An analysis of the number of stranded animals in relation to month showed that
K. breviceps stranded more frequently in the austral winter and spring (July to October)
(Figure 7.8a), whereas K. sima show a peak in April and July (late summer and winter),
although it is not as pronounced as in K. breviceps (Figure 7.8b). It is noteworthy that no
strandings of K. sima occurred during June over a 30-year period (Figure 7.8b).
The analysis of live strandings by month show a definite peak of strandings of K.
breviceps in September, while they stranded in more or less equal numbers throughout
the rest of the year (Figure 7.9a). In contrast, K. sima showed a peak in live strandings in
March and April, and remarkably no live stranding events at all during June and October
(Figure 7.9b).
7.3.4 Stranding distribution

In order to analyse the geographical location of both K. breviceps and K. sima
strandings the peak stranding location along the southern Cape coast was determined for
each month by determining the location where the greatest number of animals stranded
averaged over the years. The peak stranding location (in degrees longitude) was plotted
versus the month of the stranding and indicated that K. breviceps seems to strand in the
Western Cape throughout the whole year, with the exception of July (Figure 7.10 a).
Strandings do, however, also occur in the Eastern Cape more or less regularly
7-29
a)
10
n=95
8
No. of stranded animals
0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Year
b)
10
n=79
8
0
1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995
Year
Figure 7.7: Total number of stranded Kogia breviceps (a) and Kogia sima (b)
along the Southern African coastline between 1965 and 1995.
7-30
a)
16
14
Number of stranded animals
12
10
8
6 Females: n=41
Males: n=36
4 Total: n=96
2 (unknown sex:
n=19)
0
Month
b)
16
14
Number of stranded animals
12
10
8
6
Females: n=38
4 Males: n=31
2 Total: n=78
(unknown sex:
0 n=9)
Month
Figure 7.8: Total numbers of stranded Kogia breviceps (a) and Kogia sima (b)
per month.
7-31
a)
8
n=25
0
Month
b)
8
n=21
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Month
Figure 7.9: Seasonal occurrence of live strandings of

Kogia breviceps (a) and Kogia sima (b) between 1965 and 1995.
7-32
a)
30
Eastern Cape
28
Longitude ( E)
o
26
24
Western Cape
22
20
18
Month
b)
30
Eastern Cape
Longitude ( E)
28
o
26
24
Western Cape
22
20
18
Month
Figure7.10: Seasonal geographic distribution of Kogia breviceps (a)

and Kogia sima (b) strandings along the Southern Cape
coastline between 1965 and 1995.
7-33
throughout the year (Figure 7.10a). In contrast, K. sima strandings occur predominantly
in the Eastern Cape, except in late spring and summer (November, December and
February) when peak strandings happened in the Western Cape as well (Figure 7.10b).
The general distribution of the Kogia strandings along the South African
coastline showed that K. breviceps has a wide range of stranding events, ranging
between Saldanha Bay on the West coast (33°03’S, 18°02’E) and St. Lucia in Natal (28°
24’S, 32°22’E) on the east coast (Figure 7.11). Strandings of this species have in fact
also been reported as far North as Swakopmund in Namibia (22°40’S, 14°34’E), but
those were not included in this study.
In contrast K. sima strandings occurred only from Rocher Pan (32°36’S,
18°18’E) to Sodwana Bay (27°31’S, 32°42’E) and thus occupied a much shorter stretch
of the coastline than those of K. breviceps (Figure 7.12).
The distribution of cow/calf pairs of K. breviceps along the South African
coastline showed that there may be a slight eastward movement throughout the year
(Figure 7.12a) as the first stranding events occurred in February on the Atlantic coast of
the Western Cape, strandings in April and May happened along the southern coast of the
Western Cape, and strandings occurred in the Eastern Cape between July and October
(Figure 7.12a). This was supported by a continuous increase in the length of the calves as
the strandings occurred further eastward. In contrast, the distribution of K. sima cow/calf
pair strandings along the coastline was confined to a much narrower stretch of coastline
and strandings occured exclusively to two bays in the Eastern Cape, Jeffrey’s Bay and
Algoa Bay (Figure 7.12b).
The distribution patterns of stranding events of immature K. breviceps and K.
sima versus mature animals showed a similar trend in both species (Figure 7.13 and
7.14). While the stranding locations of mature animals were spread out along the entire
coastline (Figure 7.13b and 7.14b), immature animals had a more localised distribution
in stranding events (Figure 7.13a and 7.14a). This phenomenon was particularly
pronounced in K. sima, where mature animals stranded along the southern Cape coast
between Cape Town and Port Elizabeth (Figure 7.14b), while immature animals
stranded only in the vicinity of these two locations (Figure 7.14a). However, this may
reflect a bias in the stranding records since the majority of the stranding events were
comprised of mature animals.
7-34
a)
o o
20 30
30
o
S O U T H A F R I C A Durban 30
o
East London
Cape Town
Port Elizabeth
Kogia breviceps: strandings 1965 - 1995

200 Km
20o 30o
b)
o o
20 30
30o S O U T H A F R I C A Durban 30o
East London
Cape Town
Port Elizabeth
Kogia sima : strandings 1965 - 1995 200 Km
o o
20 30
Figure 7.11: Geographical distribution of stranding events of Kogia breviceps (a)

and Kogia sima (b) along the South African coastline from 1965 until 1995.
7-35
a)
o
20
30o S O U T H A F R I C A
7 9 7 7
Cape Town 8 10 9
9
Port
4 5 Elizabeth
Kogia breviceps : cow/ calf pairs

200 Km
o
20
b)
o
20
30
o
S O U T H A F R I C A
Cape Town
Port
Elizabeth
Kogia sima: cow/ calf pairs

200 Km
o
20
Figure 7.12: Geographical distribution of stranding events of Kogia

breviceps (a) and Kogia sima (b) cow/calf pairs along the South
African coastline. The numbers represent the month of the stranding
event. .
7-36
a)
20
o
30o
30
o
o
East London
Cape Town
Port Elizabeth
Kogia breviceps : immature animals

200 Km
20o 30o
b)
20
o
30o
East London
Cape Town
Port Elizabeth
Kogia breviceps : mature animals

200 Km
20o 30o
Figure 7.13: Geographical distribution of stranding events of immature (a) and mature (b)
Kogia breviceps along the South African coastline.
7-37
a)
o o
20 30
30
o
o
East London
Cape Town
Port Elizabeth
Kogia sima : immature animals

200 Km
o
20o 30
b)
20
o
30o
East London
Cape Town
Port Elizabeth
Kogia sima : mature animals

200 Km
20o 30o
Figure 7.14: Geographical distribution of stranding events of immature (a) and mature (b)
Kogia sima along the South African coastline.
7-38
7.3.5 Temperature preferences

In order to elucidate further differences in the stranding patterns of the two
species I tested whether there were any significant differences in the sea surface
temperatures (SST’s) at the time of the stranding. SST’s were available from charts
issued by the Department of Environment Affairs and held by the J.L.B. Smith Institute
of Ichthyology (now SAIAB) in Grahamstown, calculated for decadels (10-day
intervals) for the entire South African coastline. The mean sea surface temperature for
strandings of K. breviceps was 16.5°C, but 17.9°C for K. sima. This difference in
temperature was found to be significantly different at the 95% level. Furthermore, live
strandings in each species were found to occur at a slightly higher sea surface
temperature than dead strandings, but this was not found to be significantly different.
7.4 Discussion
7.4.1 Composition of stranded animals

The size-frequency of the stranded K. breviceps and K. sima along the Southern
African coastline has already been discussed in Chapter 2 and was found to be biased
towards immature males and mature females in K. breviceps, while it was normally
distributed for K. sima.
In a healthy, normal population there are no apparent reasons why either sex
should be more prone to strand, and strandings of male and female K. breviceps occurred
in more or less equal numbers, whereas K. sima had a slightly higher rate of female
strandings. One possible explanation for this may be that males appear to stay and forage
further offshore, while females seem to move closer inshore with their young in order to
feed (see Chapter 6). Although a similar trend was seen in K. breviceps, this
phenomenon was more pronounced in K. sima. The more complex inshore environment
may be confusing for these animals and cause them to strand.
In addition, a higher rate of stranded females than males may be due to
reproductive stress as females of both species may ovulate up to once a year and are
often found to be simultaneously lactating and pregnant (see Chapter 5). In particular,
monthly peaks in stranding events appear to be related to the calving season (see below).
Furthermore, the majority of the stranded animals were mature and strandings
were composed mainly of dead animals rather than live ones. While immature animals
7-39
are inexperienced in navigation and as a result more likely to get confused and strand
themselves, mature animals may be predominantly sick, old or dead. Adult Kogia appear
to commonly suffer cardiomyopathy (Bossart et al., 1985) and all adult animals
examined by Credle for the south-eastern United States showed this condition, leading
her to conclude that it is probably a primary factor responsible for mortality, either at sea
or on the beach (Credle, 1988). In addition, Kogia seem to suffer heavy parasite loads
(see Chapter 1), which may make them more prone to strand. Dead animals are
transported by the prevailing currents and eventually may get washed ashore. Of the 94
K. breviceps strandings that occurred along the South African coastline before June 1986
Findlay (1989) found the majority (n=47) to be dead strandings, while 21 animals
stranded alive. Similarly, out of the 71 K. sima strandings the majority of animals
stranded dead (n=42), while only 16 animals stranded alive (Findlay, 1989). In contrast,
live stranding events far outnumbered strandings of dead animals in Credle’s analysis of
Kogia strandings along the south-eastern United States (Credle, 1988). Most animals
were either alive or recently dead (n=270, 80%) (Credle, 1988). Similarly, Brabyn found
that the majority of the K. breviceps strandings in New Zealand were single, live
animals.
The fact that the majority of the strandings for each species were single animals
is probably a reflection of the group size of the two species, which appear to be mainly
solitary (Carwardine, 1995; Baird et al., 1996; Willis and Baird, 1998) (see Chapter 1).
Analysing Kogia strandings in the south-eastern U.S. Credle found the majority to be
single strandings (n=286, 74%) and concluded that the strandings of single specimens
suggest a solitary lifestyle (1988). Observations at sea indicate that K. breviceps has a
slightly smaller group size of one to six animals (Carwardine, 1995; Baird et al., 1996),
while K. sima occurs in larger groups of one to seven animals (Wade and Gerrodette,
1993; Davis et al., 1995; Ballance et al., 1996b) (see also Chapter 1). This is reflected in
the maximum number of animals that stranded together, which was three for K.
breviceps and four for K. sima. The former group was composed of a pregnant and
lactating female accompanied by two smaller, unsexed individuals, while the latter was
composed of one immature male and three immature females. Mass strandings in the
south-eastern United States, defined as three or more adults stranding together, are rare
and make up less than one percent of all events (Credle, 1988). Data from Florida and
South Africa suggest that there are different types of groups in both species, namely
solitary adult animals of both sexes, cow/calf pairs, and small groups of immature
7-40
animals (Ross, 1979a; Leatherwood and Reeves, 1983; Credle, 1988). However, the
most common groups, judging from data from stranded animals, seem to be solitary
animals or cow/calf pairs (Ross, 1979a; 1984; Credle, 1988).
7.4.2 Stranding trends over time

The temporal analysis of Kogia strandings over the years showed more definite
peaks for K. sima than for K. breviceps strandings. This may indicate some correlation
with environmental factors influencing inshore/offshore movement of K. sima, which
does not appear to influence K. breviceps. Exactly which factors are responsible for the
different stranding patterns between the two species is difficult to discern as there are no
data available for a number of environmental parameters (such as primary productivity,
prey distribution etc), and it is most likely the interaction of a number of parameters that
results in the observed differences. One possibility would be the occurrence of El Niño
phenomena, and although there was no direct correlation with El Niño events, which
were reported to be strong in 1972/73, 1976/77 and 1982/83, there was an increase in the
number of stranded Kogia around these time periods. Since El Niño events primarily
affect water temperatures, the initial change in an ecosystem would occur at the
planktonic level, resulting at a change in fish and squid abundance and distribution some
time after that (Kawasaki, 1992). Studies on environmental effects on squid populations
are rare, but the literature available indicates that at least some species undertake
seasonal migrations in response to fluctuations in food availability, water temperature
and spawning (Brodziak and Hendrickson, 1999). Furthermore, the distribution of neritic
species appears to be more influenced by environmental factors than that of oceanic
species (Brodziak and Hendrickson, 1999). As Kogia are close to the top of the food
chain there may be a certain lag phase until the effects of El Niño events would become
reflected in an increased number of strandings. However, no such studies have been
undertaken on cetaceans to date and it is therefore difficult to predict the extent of such a
lag phase.
No obvious explanation is available for the general decrease in the number of
strandings in the 1990’s, although an increase in the squid fishery off the South African
coastline may be playing a role in that (see below and Chapter 6).
7-41
7.4.3 Seasonality of strandings

The analysis of strandings by month indicated that K. breviceps stranded more
frequently during the austral winter and spring (July to October), while K. sima stranded
in more or less equal numbers throughout the year, with small peaks in late summer and
winter (April and July, respectively). Unfortunately no seasonal analyses of cetacean
strandings have been carried out in Southern Africa to date, so that no comparison can be
made with the seasonality of strandings of species other than Kogia. A previous analysis
of Kogia strandings from southern Africa did not find any seasonality in the stranding
events for either species (Ross, 1984), but Findlay (1989) reports peaks of K. breviceps
strandings in late winter (July-September), while K. sima has a stronger seasonal
occurrence of strandings in late summer/ early autumn (February-June) (Findlay, 1989).
These data are in agreement with the above findings for K. breviceps.
Odell (1985) suggests that a seasonal peak in the stranding events in Florida is
linked to the inshore-offshore movement of the Gulf Stream. Individual animals may
follow warm water plumes shooting off from the stream and travelling towards the coast.
They may get confused in the more complex inshore waters and subsequently strand, as
strandings appear to occur more frequently when the Gulf Stream is positioned further
offshore. Although the hydrographic structure of the Agulhas Current is very similar to
that of other large western boundary currents such as the Gulf Stream (Gründlingh,
1983), no strong seasonal behaviour was found in its flow behaviour (Lutjeharms et al.,
1989). However, it may be possible that meanders and plumes shooting off the current
and travelling towards the coast are more prevalent at a certain time of year and thus
may result in increased strandings. Meanders and eddies have been reported off the
south-eastern Cape coast, but not off the east coast of South Africa, where the current
flows closely along the continental shelf edge, and plumes of warm Agulhas water were
recorded offshore from Port Elizabeth (Lutjeharms et al., 1989).
The most common stranding months for the two Kogia species in the south-
eastern U.S. were August and September (late summer) when 26% of all whales
stranded (Credle, 1988). Overall, over 50% of the strandings occur on the east coast of
Florida, while less strandings in the Gulf of Mexico suggest a lower density or a seasonal
migration (Credle, 1988). Credle (1988) concludes that an increase in stranding events in
one month or at a particular location could be equally attributed to an increased mortality
as to actual movement of animals. In this respect an increase in stranding events during
7-42
August/ September in the south-eastern U. S. was interpreted as the result of an increase

in storms as that is the peak of the hurricane season (Credle, 1988).
A seasonal movement of Kogia based on the seasonal occurrence of strandings
has also been suggested for Australia and New Zealand (Hale, 1962) and New Caledonia
(Sylvestre, 1988). However, such seasonality in stranding events may also be linked to
the seasonal inshore/offshore movement of the main prey and/or the animals themselves
and this will be discussed in more detail below under section 7. 4.6.
Peaks in the number of live strandings in relation to month appear to be
associated with reproductive events such as calving and weaning as they occur just after
the end of the calving season. In K. breviceps a protracted calving season was found
from March to August and lactation appeared to last just under a year (see Chapter 5).
Thus the increase in the number of live stranding events in September, just after the end
of the calving season, is probably due to of cow/calf pair strandings, resulting from a
combination of factors such as difficulties during birth, unsuccessful weaning of the calf,
reproductive stress for the cow associated with simultaneous pregnancy and lactation,
and, lastly, a slight migration further inshore. An increase in live strandings in K. sima
was found from March to May, which can also be attributed to an increase in cow/calf
strandings. In this species calving occurred from December to March and lactation was
estimated to also last about one year (see Chapter 5). Females and immature animals of
both species have a different prey preference than males, feeding closer inshore (see
Chapter 6). This inshore movement possibly also provides additional shelter, ensures that
the cow does not have to dive as deeply in search of prey and thus may not leave her
offspring unattended at the surface for long periods. It may, however, also increase the
possibility of stranding as the animals find themselves in a more complex environment
than the one they are used to.
It is remarkable, however, that no strandings of K. sima have been recorded
during June over the last 30 years. June is the coldest month in the austral winter and
therefore sea surface temperatures (SST’s) are the lowest off the Southern African
coastline during this month. Further indications about SST preferences will be discussed
below. The absence of live stranding events in October for K. sima is unclear.
7.4.4 Stranding distribution and habitat preferences

The analysis of Kogia peak stranding locations by longitude indicated that K.
7-43
breviceps stranded in both the Western and Eastern Cape regions, but had a “peak”
location at around 20°E in the Western Cape. In contrast, K. sima almost exclusively
stranded in the Eastern Cape at around 26°E and was only found to strand in the Western
Cape during the summer months. This indicates a clear preference of K. sima for the
Eastern Cape region. As mentioned earlier the shelf regions of the Eastern Cape (i.e. in
particularly east of 24°E) are strongly influenced by the warm waters of the Agulhas
Current (Boyd et al., 1992). In this respect the above results would indicate that K. sima
prefers warmer water temperatures, especially as it is only found in the cooler waters of
the Western Cape during the summer months, when water temperatures are the highest.
In contrast, K. breviceps appears to frequent both the Western and Eastern Cape to
almost equal amounts, perhaps with a slight preference for the Western Cape.
Such a difference in habitat preference and distribution is further supported by
the general stranding distribution of the two species: the shorter strip of coastline along
which K. sima stranded is still influenced by the warm Agulhas Current, whereas K.
breviceps had a much broader stranding range, occurring even along the coast of
Namibia, which is predominantly influenced by the cold Benguela system. However,
those data were not included in the present analysis. The three records of K. breviceps
from Namibia that Ross presented in 1979 formed a substantial proportion of all the
records from this territory, which has over 1000km of uninhabited coastline (Ross,
1979a). In contrast, the Natal coast has a higher human population, but it appears to have
a relatively low stranding rate for all species of cetaceans, which may possibly be a result
of the narrow continental shelf and the fast, directional flow of the prevailing current
parallel to the coastline (Ross, 1979a). As K. breviceps appears to be distributed across
an entire spectrum of oceanographic conditions (see Chapter 1) it appears unlikely that
the distribution of this species could be correlated with a particular water mass (Ross,
1979a).
Historical records of Kogia distribution and habitat preferences are difficult to
interpret since either only one or up to seven species of Kogia were recognized
(Yamada, 1954; Handley, 1966; Ross, 1979a; Willis and Baird, 1998). Allen (1941)
comments on the record by Hirasaka (1937) from Indepencia Bay, Peru, that it was
“interesting as occurring in the region of the cool Humboldt Current, though it may, of
course, have washed in from a warmer area of the adjacent seas”. Ross (1984) notes that
while records for K. breviceps extend from Cape Cross in Namibia to the Natal coastline,
the majority of strandings occur along the Cape south coast (Ross, 1984). This is in
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contrast to his findings for K. sima, with most of the strandings (72%) reported from the
south-east coast (Ross, 1984). He suggests that the apparent restriction of stranding
records to the southern part of the South African coastline may in fact represent the true
distribution of K. sima, which may be associated with the mixed water region in this area
formed by the interaction of the Agulhas with the Benguela Current (Ross, 1979a; 1984).
He suggests further that this region over the Agulhas Bank is a possible nursery area for
immature K. sima (Ross, 1984). In contrast, no clear pattern was found for K. breviceps,
although strandings of immature animals are also restricted to the southern Cape coast
(Ross, 1984). He speculates that mature animals of this species may disperse more
widely once they move offshore (Ross, 1984). Findlay’s findings support those of Ross’
(Findlay, 1989), with K. breviceps strandings found along the entire South African
coastline from 22°S on the west coast to 29° 50’S on the east coast, while K. sima was
only reported to strand between Cape Colombine (32°49’S, 17°50’E) and approximately
28°E (just east of Port Elizabeth (see Figure 7.2).
The apparent eastward movement of K. breviceps cow/calf pairs may be a result
of the eastward migration of the main prey item of the cow/calf pairs and/or may be
related to the reported eastward movement of Benguela water at the same time as the
strandings occur (see section 7.4.6). Credle (1988) reports a westerly migration for both
Kogia species towards the Gulf of Mexico, which was reflected in strandings in the
Florida Keys in late winter/spring (February to April) and late summer/ autumn (August
to October). She suggests that K. sima moves into the eastern Gulf in late summer/early
fall, followed by a westward movement towards Texas in late fall/early winter, but did
not provide any explanation for this phenomenon (Credle, 1988). No data were provided
for K. breviceps.
In contrast to K. breviceps cow/calf strandings those of K. sima occurred
exclusively in two bays in the Eastern Cape, namely Algoa Bay and Jeffrey’s Bay. As
mentioned previously this is an area strongly influenced by the Agulhas Current
(Goschen and Schumann, 1988). These differences in the stranding distribution of
cow/calf pairs between the two species together with the observed differences of the
general stranding distribution indicate that the Agulhas Current may in fact play a greater
role in the general ecology of K. sima, since it is the major oceanographic feature
influencing the marine environment off the Eastern Cape coast. It has been suggested
before that the seasonal fluctuation of the Gulf Stream off Florida may play a role in
stranding events of both Kogia species as strandings occur in greater numbers when the
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Gulf Stream is further from shore (Odell, pers com.). In contrast to the Gulf Stream the
Agulhas current does not show any seasonal inshore/offshore movement. It is more or
less constrained by its path along the continental shelf throughout the year, with plumes
of warm water shooting off periodically. These plumes possibly play a role in K. sima
strandings. The role of nearshore currents in Kogia strandings along the Florida coast has
been speculated before. However, a correlation between individual warm nearshore
currents and individual stranding events is extremely difficult to test due to the small
time scales involved (Dan Odell, pers. com.). Credle (1988) reports that the distribution
of live strandings is not significantly different from a random distribution based on the
analysis of 116 strandings in the south-eastern U.S.. However, data for both live and
dead animals combined show a clumped distribution, which may indicate stranding “hot
spots” caused by the prevailing currents, occurring in areas where the Gulf Stream runs
close to shore (Credle, 1988). In addition, live strandings have a geographically random
distribution, but occur in sites with geomagnetic field strengths above average and on
magnetically “quiet days compared to passive stranding events (Credle, 1988).
The apparently more “clumped” distribution of strandings of immature Kogia
along the South African coastline, which was particularly pronounced in K. sima, may
indicate that mature and immature animals do in fact form different groups.
7.4.5 Temperature preferences

The differences in SST at the stranding location between live K. breviceps and K.
sima further support the above indication that K. sima appears to prefer warmer
temperatures and probably has a closer association with the Agulhas Current than K.
breviceps. The maximum temperatures recorded for the Agulhas Current ranged from
26°C in summer to 22-23°C in winter in the surface waters, while the surrounding water
masses were on average about 6°C cooler (Goschen and Schumann, 1988). Data
reviewed above on the distribution at sea of the two Kogia species also suggest that K.
sima may prefer somewhat warmer waters than K. breviceps. Survey data indicate that
K. sima is found near the coast (Wade and Gerrodette, 1993) and prefers warm, deep
waters (Ballance and Pitman, 1998). Both species of Kogia are found in higher water
temperatures than other cetacean species included in surveys (Davis et al., 1995), but are
also found along thermal fronts, which may be related to foraging (Davis et al., 1995;
1998; Griffin, 1999; Baumgartner et al., 2000). Such data in combination with the
7-46
stranding data may indicate that both Kogia species have an affinity for western
boundary currents, which are usually warm currents and provide the necessary
oceanographic conditions of thermal fronts that the two species need for foraging (see
also sections 7.4.6 and 7.4.7 below).
Cetaceans have a number of physiological and morphological adaptations
according to the habitat they live in. Species that have a more offshore habitat, which
may require the need to dive longer and perhaps deeper, have greater blood volumes,
haemoglobin concentrations, and packed cell volumes, thus facilitating a greater oxygen
carrying capacity, than inshore species (Ridgway and Johnston, 1966; Hersh and
Duffield, 1990). Total blood-oxygen content estimates are nearly three times higher for
offshore species, such as Dall’s porpoise Phocoenoides dalli than for coastal species like
the bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus (Ridgway and Johnston, 1966). The discovery of
different types of haemoglobin present in the latter aided in the differentiation of two
ecotypes (Hersh and Duffield, 1990). Additionally, the two forms also have distinct
morphological differences with offshore animals exhibiting a longer body with a shorter
snout and smaller flippers (Hersh and Duffield, 1990). The smaller size of coastal
animals as well as larger flipper size is probably an adaptation to aid greater
manoeuvrability in a more complex inshore environment and a representation of a
warm-water habitat (Hersh and Duffield, 1990). In this context, these characteristics are
thought to present a warm, shallow-water ecotype (as opposed to a cool, deep-water
ecotype) than simply an inshore one (Hersh and Duffield, 1990). Additional differences
in skull dimensions may reflect the differing food preferences observed between the two
forms and the morphological differences may indicate population differentiation based
on resource exploitation (Hersh and Duffield, 1990). In similar situations where
morphological characteristics differ a difference in the haematology of these animals is
also expected (Hersh and Duffield, 1990).
Sighting data from the short-finned pilot whale Globicephala macrorhynchus
reveal a thermal segregation between the two forms (or ecotypes) found off Japan
(Kasuya et al., 1988). However, additional factors such as bathythermal structure or food
availability are also thought to control the distribution of the two forms (Kasuya et al.,
1988). Subsequent studies suggest the segregation of a northern and southern form into
different sub-species based on differing distribution ranges (Kasuya and Tai, 1993). The
northern form, which is also slightly larger, appears to occupy the colder northern part
influenced by the cold Oyashio Current, with water temperatures ranging between 12°C
7-47
and 24°C. In contrast, the southern form has a smaller body and appears to occupy the
warmer southern Kuroshio Current with water temperatures between 20°C and 31°C
(Kasuya et al., 1988; Kasuya and Tai, 1993). This seems to result in larger neonates in
the northern form than in the southern form (Kasuya and Tai, 1993). In addition, the two
forms appear to have different reproductive seasonalities, although they seem to occupy
similar niches.
Previous morphological studies on both Kogia species indicate that although K.
breviceps has the bigger body length of the two species, K. sima has larger extremities
such as flippers, dorsal fin and flukes (Ross, 1979a). Unfortunately the data did not allow
a statistical comparison of the size of these structures. The regulation of heat loss from
the appendages as a response to exercise, diving activity, or change in water temperature
is extremely important in cetaceans (Whittow, 1987; Pabst et al., 1998; Rommel et al.,
1998). Thus these data may support the idea that K. breviceps has a more temperate,
cold-water habitat and therefore smaller extremities in order to conserve body heat,
while K. sima has a more tropical, warm water habitat, thus no need to conserve as much
heat and subsequently has larger extremities. This may be especially important for
species, which undertake long and deep dives as is assumed for Kogia (see Chapter 6).
Further supporting evidence comes from the description of a counter-current heat
exchange system in the dorsal fin of odontocetes, which functions as a cooling system
for the intra-abdominal testes (Rommel et al., 1992; 1998; Pabst et al., 1995). It appears
that the size of the dorsal fin may be an indication of the size of the testes i.e. the larger
the testes the greater is the need for a larger surface area of the dorsal fin to act as an
efficient cooling mechanism (Ann Pabst, pers. com.). In the case of Kogia the larger
dorsal fin of K. sima may well reflect the larger testes as established in Chapter 4.
However, it may also indicate that the animal lives in a warmer environment, thus needs
a larger surface area in order to cool the testes down than an animal that lives in a cooler
environment, such as K. breviceps with its smaller dorsal fin.
The evidence presented above for ecotypes of both T. truncatus and G.
macrorhynchus would indicate that a similar scenario may be true for Kogia. Within the
ceacea more examples can be found that, among closely related species or two ecotypes
of the same species, the forms living in the colder environment show similar life history
or morphological traits to each other. Similarly, the forms found in the warmer
environment also exhibit similar life history traits and morphologies. Such patterns of
differing ecologies between closely related species will be discussed in more detail in
7-48
Chapter 9.
Based on an analysis of the stranding data the distributions of the two Kogia
species off South America were found to extend further south on the east coast of South
America than on the west coast, which seems related to the prevalence of the warm
Brasilian Current, particularly during the highest flow peak in the austral summer
(Muñoz-Hincapié et al., 1998). Similarly, Muñoz-Hincapié et al. (1998) suggest that the
distribution range of Kogia on the west coast is linked to the cool, northward flow of the
Perú Current. However, the similarities drawn by Muñoz-Hincapié et al. (1998)
between the distribution of Kogia off South America and the distribution and clear link
to the main currents off South Africa does not hold. While there were some clear
patterns observed by different researchers off Southern Africa (Ross, 1979a; 1984;
Findlay et al., 1992) (present study), the sample size for Kogia off South America is not
large enough to demonstrate a clear trend in distribution patterns as found for other
species (Hussenot et al., 1996; Silva and Sequeira, 2003).
7.4.6 Distribution determined by diet

The distribution of many marine mammal species is to a large extent determined
by their prey (Kenney and Winn, 1986; Payne and Heinemann, 1993; Young and
Cockcroft, 1994). The Agulhas Bank is a major spawning ground for both pelagic fish
and squid (Chapman and Largier, 1989; Augustyn et al., 1992; 1994). Unfortunately,
little is known about the biology of most squid species as some may be actively avoiding
the catching nets deployed to study them (see Chapter 6). However, some data are
available on those species that are commercially exploited (Augustyn et al., 1994;
Roberts and Sauer, 1994). Unfortunately, however, these may not be the species that
Kogia are feeding on. Mother and calf pairs of K. breviceps mainly feed on Sepia sp.
(see Chapter 6) and it is possible that the eastward movement throughout the year
reflected in the cow/calf pair strandings may be an indication that the animals follow the
migration of their prey. Incidentally, the flow pattern of Benguela surface water is from
north to south during the summer months (December to February), inshore along the
west coast, while it flows eastwards along the south-west coast in winter (Duncan and
Nell, 1969). Thus the prevalent currents during that time period may aid in the migration
of cephalopod prey or the whales themselves. Although data on the distribution Sepia sp.
are rare, information available on other cephalopods indicate that the waters off the
7-49
Eastern Cape coast, in particular between Plettenberg Bay and Algoa Bay, may be
important habitats for some squid species, which are usually found over the Agulhas
Bank, but may migrate further east in order to spawn (Roeleveld et al., 1993; Augustyn
et al., 1994). Data for both the cuttlefish Sepia australis and the commercially exploited
chokka squid indicate that the species use the inshore waters of the Eastern Cape region
as spawning grounds (Roeleveld et al., 1993; Augustyn et al., 1994). It has been
speculated that topographically induced upwelling areas inshore of large western
boundary currents sustain large populations of squid as these provide productive
environments with appropriate temperatures for all life stages of the cephalopods (O’
Dor, 1992). The Agulhas Current forms the western boundary current of the southern
Indian Ocean (Goschen and Schumann, 1988) and swift western boundary currents
govern most of the inshore processes along their coastlines (Lutjeharms, 1981). They
commonly show upwelling along the inshore front of the current (Schumann and van
Heerden, 1988) and such an inshore upwelling cell is found just off Port Elizabeth and
thus may further support the fact that Kogia cow/calf pairs come closer inshore to feed.
In addition, they may also seek a sheltered and protected environment, where females
with their calves would not have to dive as deep in search of food and thus would not
have to leave their calves unattended at the surface for too long. However, being pelagic
animals they may get confused in the more complex inshore environment and
subsequently strand themselves.
These circumstances may also play a role in strandings of immature animals,
which prey on the same cephalopod species as cow/calf pairs (see Chapter 6). These
animals may still be lacking navigational skills since they strand in only a few locations
along the coast, which are predominated by onshore currents from the Agulhas Current.
7.4.7 Population sizes and population “hotspots”?

Credle (1988) concludes that the mere occurrence of strandings of Kogia along a
coastline indicates that there must be a minimal population present in the area. As no
other odontocete exhibits such a high number of stranding events in the area, Kogia may
be either especially abundant in the region or have extreme mortality (Credle, 1988).
Consequently, the high number of strandings of both Kogia species along the South
African coastline would lead to the conclusion that both Kogia are also abundant in this
region, but unfortunately, the data available to date do not allow any estimate of
7-50
population sizes off the subcontinent.

It is noteworthy that the peak stranding areas for Kogia species worldwide such
as the south-eastern United States, South Africa, the east coast of the North Island of
New Zealand and potentially Japan, are all influenced by western boundary currents.
Although the above discussion indicates that the interrelationship between these
oceanographic conditions, the biology of the squid, and the distribution of the whales is
as yet not fully understood, attempts by Ross (1979a), Odell et al. (1985), and in the
present study indicate, that these ecosystems appear to be a preferred habitat for Kogia,
or may in fact represent calving and nursery areas as suggested by some authors (Ross,
1979a,b; Tuohy et al., 2001).
However, it is generally believed that these so-called stranding “hotspots”
represent separate populations of Kogia due to their shear distance from each other. This
assumption is examined in more detail in the following chapter (Chapter 8).
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Chapter 8: Population genetics

While the previous chapters concentrated on aspects of the life history and
ecology of the two Kogia species, the present chapter examines the population genetics
of the two species in order to address questions of how distinct the South African
populations are from others in the Southern Hemisphere and how much exchange there
may be between them.
Since data on the movements of wild animals are currently unavailable for either
Kogia species, their population structure or the degree of mixing of animals from
different regions is unknown. Movements of small odontocetes appear to be restricted in
most species (Mate et al., 1995; Pichler et al., 1998; Rosel et al., 1999a, b; Pichler et al.,
2001a) and it seems unlikely that cetaceans the size of Kogia travel between continents
over long oceanic distances. In addition, both in South Africa and New Zealand, females
of both species strand frequently with calves. This has led to the suggestion that both
areas represent calving grounds (Ross, 1984; Tuohy et al., 2001). Therefore it has
commonly been assumed that these stranding “hotspots” represent separate populations
that are reproductively isolated to some degree.
Although both Kogia species strand in high numbers in certain geographical
areas, such as Florida, South Africa and New Zealand (see Chapter 7), surprisingly few
tissue samples are available from either species for genetic analysis. The main reason for
this may be that the animals often strand in an advanced state of decay, leading
researchers to dismiss the prospect of collecting tissue samples. Furthermore, the
majority of tissue samples available for Kogia have been preserved in formalin and this
can create problems during the process of DNA extraction. Museum and other research
collections have only in recent years taken to preserving material in ethanol. In contrast,
teeth and bones of Kogia are routinely accessed to collections. Although traditionally
employed in the research of extinct species as well as past populations, ancient DNA
research can now aid in studying contemporary populations of cetaceans for which no
direct sampling method can be used (Dalebout et al., 1998; Pichler et al., 2001b).
8.1.1 The study of “ancient” DNA

During the last 15 or so years the development of new techniques for the
examination of so-called “ancient DNA” has enabled researchers to study past
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organisms, including extinct species (Higuchi et al., 1984; Pääbo, 1989; Neimanis et al.,
2000), of both plant (Golenberg, 1994) and animal origin (Janczewski et al., 1992;
Huynen et al., 2003). “Ancient DNA” (also referred to as aDNA) is defined as being
“any bulk or trace of DNA from a dead organism or parts of it” and therefore it is “any
DNA that has undergone autolytic or diagenetic processes or any kind of fixation”
(Herrmann and Hummel, 1994). This indicates that the source material for aDNA is
immense and any preserved organism, parts of it and/or products made from biological
material can potentially supply aDNA (Herrmann and Hummel, 1994).
The first successful attempt to amplify DNA from dead animal remains was
made from mummified muscle tissue connected to the hide of a quagga (Higuchi et al.,
1984) and to date aDNA has been successfully extracted from such diverse sources as
bird feathers (Ellegren, 1994), remnants on eggshells (Cooper, 1994), herbarium
specimens (Taylor and Swann, 1994), plant seeds (Rollo et al., 1994), mummified skin
(Nielsen et al., 1994) as well as bones (Hagelberg, 1994), teeth (Matisoo-Smith et al.,
1997; Tebbutt et al., 2000; Pichler et al., 2001b) and hair (Greenwood and Pääbo, 1999).
More studies have successfully amplified ancient mitochondrial DNA than
ancient nuclear DNA (Herrmann and Hummel, 1994), which is due to the high copy
number of mtDNA per cell and the possibility that organellar DNA is preserved better
than nuclear DNA in aDNA samples (Hagelberg, 1994; Nielsen et al., 1994; Rollo et al.,
1994; Huynen et al., 2003). In addition, dense tissues such as bone/teeth and seeds
appear to preserve DNA better than more porous material as they do not contain water
and enzymes and offer mechanical protection (Cooper et al., 1992; Herrmann and
Hummel, 1994; Hummel and Herrmann, 1994a; Matisoo-Smith et al., 1997). This is
supported by the fact that longer fragments can be amplified from ancient bone than
ancient tissue remains (Hagelberg, 1994).
Three types of cells present sources of aDNA in extractions from bones: (i)
osteocytes, (ii) osteoblasts, and (iii) osteoclasts (Hummel and Herrmann, 1994b). Further
possible sources are blood cells and epithelial cells of the Haversian canals as well as
residues of cartilage cells in the better preserved specimens (Hummel and Herrmann,
1994b). Teeth are composed of dentine, enamel and cementum (for more detail see
Chapter 3). While the enamel and the dentine do not contain any cells (Klevezal’ and
Kleinenberg, 1967; Symons, 1976), the pulp cavity of the tooth holds a number of cells
which present sources of aDNA: (i) odontoblasts, which lie on the boundary between the
pulp cavity and the dentine and which have long processes that extend almost to the
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outer surface of the dentine, (ii) fibroblasts and (iii) defence cells (Symons, 1976). In
addition, a number of blood vessels and nerve fibres are present in the pulp tissue
(Symons, 1976). While the enamel has very little organic content and the dentine only
contains around 18-21% organic material (Symons, 1976; Berkovitz et al., 1978), the
cementum has the highest organic content with about 23% (Berkovitz et al., 1978).
Three types of cells are sources for aDNA in cementum: (i) fibroblasts, (ii)
cementoblasts and (iii) cementocytes (Klevezal’ and Kleinenberg, 1967). Therefore
tissue remains in the pulp cavity as well as cells contained within the cementum present
the best sources for aDNA in teeth. As a result of the low water and lipid content of
bones and teeth each osteocyte or cementoblast appears to undergo individual
mummification (Hummel and Herrmann, 1994a). This in addition to the fact that they
are completely surrounded by protective hard tissue, which aids against physical and
biochemical decay by microorganisms, ensures the long term preservation of genetic
information in these materials (Hummel and Herrmann, 1994a).
A number of review articles deal with the problems encountered when working
with aDNA, including DNA damage, (Pääbo, 1990; Hummel and Herrmann, 1994a;
Austin et al., 1997) and discuss the differential preservation of DNA in a number of
different tissues and under differing preservation conditions (Lindhal, 1993; Cooper,
1994; Höss et al., 1996). In addition, guidelines for the minimization of contamination
have been established (Pääbo, 1990; Cooper, 1994; Austin et al., 1997).
The rapid progress in aDNA studies over the last decade is not least due to the
invention of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which enables the synthesis of many
copies of a small number of intact DNA molecules in the presence of a vast excess of
damaged molecules (Thomas et al., 1989; Herrmann and Hummel, 1994; Austin et al.,
1997). However, due to the high contamination risk involved in PCR, dramatic results
with aDNA should be viewed with skepticism (Lindhal, 1993). The DNA molecule is
generally not expected to survive longer than 10 000 to 100 000 years and even if it does
survive it will be highly fragmented (Austin et al., 1997). However, the extent of
fragmentation of DNA from “ancient” samples does not appear to be related to the age
of the sample, but rather the preservation conditions (Hagelberg et al., 1989; Pääbo,
1989; Cooper, 1994; Hagelberg et al., 1994). Therefore many historical specimens of
interest are likely to yield only short mitochondrial fragments of DNA (Höss and Pääbo,
1993a; Cooper, 1994). Although a number of studies have claimed to have extracted
DNA from plant or animal remains millions of years old, such as insect inclusions in
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amber dated from 120-135 million years before present (Poinar et al., 1994), most of the
reports on DNA older than 50 000 years have not been authenticated (Austin et al.,
1997). The oldest authenticated records of aDNA come from woolly mammoths frozen
in permafrost in Siberia and are around 50 000 or more years old (Hagelberg et al., 1994;
Höss et al., 1994). Recently, DNA was successfully extracted from a 60 thousand year
old human fossil from Australia (Adcock et al., 2001), although this study still remains
to be authenticated.
Because aDNA studies allow the investigation of both spatial and temporal
genetic changes (Relethford, 2001), a number of studies have concentrated on extinct
species in order to determine the phylogenetic affiliation with extant species (Higuchi et
al., 1984; Thomas et al., 1989; Janczewski et al., 1992) as well as trace biogeographic
relationships (Cooper et al., 1992). However, aDNA studies have also been used to
compare past and present populations of organisms and one of the first such study was
carried out on the kangaroo rat (Dipodomys panamintinus) (Thomas et al., 1990;
Villablanca, 1994). Subsequently, population studies utilizing aDNA material have been
especially popular in the field of paleaoanthropology (Hagelberg et al., 1989; Adcock et
al., 2001), either to examine past human populations directly (Hauswirth et al., 1994) or
to study non-human markers of human migrations (Matisoo-Smith et al., 1998).
Ancient DNA techniques have also been used to study a number of cetacean
species by extracting aDNA from the bones and teeth of odontocetes, such as the
Hector’s dolphin (Pichler et al., 1998), members of the Ziphiidae family (Dalebout et al.,
1998), and the sperm whale P. macrocephalus (Tebbutt et al., 2000; Pichler et al.,
2001b), as well as from the baleen of mysticetes like the blue whale Balaenoptera
musculus (Kimura et al., 1997) and northern right whale Eubalaena glacialis
(Rosenbaum et al., 1997). Since samples from cetaceans are often difficult to obtain due
to the elusive nature of some species, the technique of analyzing bones and teeth
containing aDNA now enables researchers to access the often extensive collections of
cetacean material located in museums, universities and research institutes. In this way
studies on little known species for which too few samples are available to use
conventional techniques, like for example the Ziphiids, can now be initiated. Similarly,
such material can help to elucidate the population structure of past organisms and aid in
determining the conservation status of present populations (Pichler et al., 1998). In
addition, sampling collection costs will be reduced, retrospective and non-invasive
sampling is possible, and sample sizes may be increased (Kimura et al., 1997). In many
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cases the technique presents a valuable instrument in studying animals, which are
otherwise inaccessible in the wild (Rosenbaum et al., 1997; Pichler et al., 2001b), such
as Kogia.
8.1.2 MtDNA as a molecular marker

A number of reviews discus the advantages and disadvantages of using
mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) as a genetic marker (Wilson et al., 1985; Moritz et al.,
1987; Harrison, 1989; Avise, 1994; Meyer, 1994; Villablanca, 1994; Wallis, 1999), but
the three main advantages of mtDNA, namely i) its haploid, non-recombining nature, ii)
its maternal inheritance (Moritz et al., 1987; Harrison, 1989; Villablanca, 1994), and iii)
its relatively rapid evolutionary rate (Moritz et al., 1987; Harrison, 1989; Villablanca,
1994), led to its widespread use in population biology studies and phylogenetic analyses
(Moritz et al., 1987). As mtDNA is present in a haploid state, its genetic and sequencing
analysis is not complicated by the presence of a second allele at any locus (Avise, 1994).
Because it does not recombine, the entire circular genome (which is approximately 16
kilobases long in most animals) is inherited intact in a clonal fashion, and thus the
molecule’s genealogical history can be traced simply (Avise, 1994). The fact that
mtDNA is maternally inherited allows conclusions about the maternal phylogenies and
maternally mediated gene flow within and among populations (Moritz et al., 1987;
Villablanca, 1994). Thus mtDNA markers are expected to show quite different patterns
than nuclear markers, especially if the mating or dispersal/philopatry strategy differs
between the sexes of a species (Moritz et al., 1987; Villablanca, 1994; Lyrholm et al.,
1999). As mtDNA exhibits considerable variation among individuals, both within and
between populations, and thus provides enhanced resolving power for the detection of
genetic diversity among closely related populations, it has proven to be an effective
marker of population structure and patterns of intraspecific geographic variation
(Harrison, 1989; Wada et al., 1991). Furthermore, the effective population size of the
mitochondrial genome is roughly a quarter that of the nuclear genome, thus leading to a
higher rate of local differentiation by random genetic drift (Baker and Palumbi, 1997).
This ability to detect local differentiation may be enhanced by the rapid evolutionary rate
of mtDNA in relation to nuclear DNA, which has been found to vary among taxa
(Moritz et al., 1987; Harrison, 1989; Meyer, 1994; Rand, 1994). It results in high levels
of intraspecific variation, thus again aiding in resolution (Schaeff et al., 1991). In
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mammalian species, like whales and dolphins, mtDNA studies may be particularly
meaningful, because social organization is often female-based and dispersal is sex-biased
(Baker and Palumbi, 1997; Dizon et al., 1997a).
8.1.2.1. Cytochrome b
Cytochrome b is probably one of the best-understood mitochondrial genes with

respect to its structure and function (Irwin et al., 1991; Meyer, 1994), and its widespread
use as a genetic marker allows for the resulting data to be compared with a larger body
of work (Harrison, 1989; Meyer, 1994).
8.1.3 Species identification

Although described as two distinct species (Handley, 1966; Ross, 1979), the
overall similarity in appearance between Kogia breviceps and K. sima often make
identification to species level difficult (Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989) (see Chapter 1). In
addition, both species frequently strand in an advanced state of decay, which intensifies
the problem of species identification. However, accurate species identification is
necessary for obtaining useful information from the stranded animals for ecological,
distributional and life history studies.
Other studies on cetaceans have encountered similar problems. Some described
beaked whale species are only known from a few specimens, which may not be
representative of the respective species (Henshaw et al., 1997), and even studies on well-
known cetaceans such as the common dolphin Delphinus delphis benefit from the
examination of species identity by molecular means (Rosel et al., 1994). Although most
species can be identified according to morphological characteristics, some species are
difficult to identify in the field and the process often requires detailed examination in a
laboratory (Dalebout et al., 1998). In recent years molecular methods have equipped
researchers with additional tools of species identification, which allows identification
from only small samples of tissue or blood (Cronin et al., 1991; Baker and Palumbi,
1994). More recently, a web-based tool for the identification of whales, dolphins, and
porpoises has enabled researchers to identify unknown specimens by aligning their DNA
sequences to a validated data set of reference sequences (Ross et al., 2003).
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8.1.3.1 Species identification in Kogia
To date the only genetic confirmation of an identification based on

morphological characteristics in a species of Kogia was carried out by Hückstädt and
Antezana (2001) on a female K. breviceps stranded in Chile. However, recent studies
using electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESIMS) on specimens from the North
Atlantic, Gulf of Mexico, the eastern North Pacific and Indian Ocean have verified two
definite Kogia species (Duffield et al., 2003). As accurate species identification is
unavailable for a substantial number of Kogia strandings due to either an advanced state
of decay, age-size related confusion or inexperienced stranding personnel, any study on
Kogia should involve a verification of species identification (Duffield et al., 2003).
8.1.4 Population genetic studies of cetaceans

As many marine mammals today face the threat of extinction due to habitat
destruction, pollution, overexploitation or other human-related causes, the identification
of distinct populations of marine mammal species has become increasingly important
over the last few decades. Population genetics is the study of determining how genetic
principles apply to entire populations (Hartl and Clark, 1989). However, the question of
what constitutes a population is not always an easy one. Phylogeography refers to the
analysis of natural populations using molecular techniques in order to identify genetic
relationships among individuals of known geographic origin (Palumbi et al., 1991;
Avise, 1994). Knowledge of patterns of genetic relatedness can then be related to
features of the environment in order to determine if a continuously distributed species
exhibits genetic heterogeneity across its range or if an ecological discontinuity is
matched by a genetic discontinuity (Palumbi et al., 1991). The ability to discern these
geographic patterns allows inferences to be made about migration, demographic
processes, or historical events in the evolution and persistence of populations or species
(Palumbi et al., 1991). Avise et al. (1987) review the literature on geographic patterns of
population structure.
Molecular methods are an indirect way to estimate levels of gene flow between
populations (Slatkin, 1987) and the variety of molecular methods that are available today
to analyze gene frequencies in natural populations indicate that species differ greatly in
the extent of gene flow they experience (Slatkin, 1985). Reviews of the different
8-8
mechanisms of gene flow and their effect on natural populations are given by Slatkin
(1985; 1987).
Studies on cetacean populations indicate a similar level of genetic variability as
found in other large mammal species (Anonymous, 1991). An overview of population
genetic studies as well as other molecular analyses on marine mammals in general is
presented by Dizon et al. (1997b), and for cetaceans in particular by Hoelzel (1991;
1994). Specific reviews of population genetic analyses are available for only a few
marine mammals, namely the walrus Odobenus rosmarus (Scribner et al., 1997a), the
polar bear Ursus maritimus (Scribner et al., 1997b), the sea otter Enhydra lutris
(Scribner et al., 1997c), and the harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena (Rosel, 1997).
8.1.4.1 Stock boundaries
Definitions of stock boundaries based on experience drawn from the study of

terrestrial mammals have proven to be inadequate for cetaceans as they have evolved a
high degree of motility and versatility in the marine environment, and these
characteristics are reflected in the genetic structure of cetacean populations (Hoelzel,
1994). In the marine environment the processes affecting genetic differentiation are not
nearly as well understood as those in the terrestrial environment. Many cetacean species
are capable of migrating great distances and in some cases baleen whale breeding
populations mix on feeding grounds, which they visit annually and which can be up to
thousands of kilometers away (Hoelzel, 1994; Baker et al., 1998a). In addition, recent
studies also suggest some mixing on the breeding grounds (Garrigue et al., 2002). This
may allow gene flow to occur over wide distances, thus preventing genetic
differentiation of populations, which are separated by thousands of kilometres. But even
among species that both breed and forage in the same geographic range, intraspecific
differences in the feeding ecology can lead to the genetic differentiation of local
populations (Hoelzel and Dover, 1991; Hoelzel, 1994). The unusual dispersion and
social behaviour of some cetacean species makes the geographic identification of some
genetic stocks difficult and in many cases an insight into the ecological context of the
species under examination is central to the interpretation of behaviour and genetic
structure (Hoelzel, 1994).
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8.1.4.2 Migrations and temporal movements
Migrations and temporal movements are main reasons for patterns of genetic
diversity in cetaceans. Although little is known about seasonal movements of
odontocetes, it is evident that the seasonal movement of prey, which is more pronounced
in temperate and polar regions, largely determines movement patterns of odontocetes
(Hoelzel, 1994). For example, significant genetic differentiation was found between
geographically distinct summering groups, which are most likely a result of maternal
fidelity to summer migration areas in belugas Delphinapterus leucas (Brown Gladden et
al., 1997; O’Corry-Crowe et al., 1997; 2002). Long annual migrations between feeding
and breeding grounds are characteristic for many of the large baleen whales and
molecular analyses so far indicate that mixing between reproductive groups of minke
whales Balaenoptera acutorostrata takes place on the feeding grounds (Hoelzel, 1994).
This is in contrast to the main pattern observed for humpback whales where whales from
more than one feeding ground mix in one breeding area (Baker et al., 1993), although
females show considerable site fidelity to feeding grounds (Clapham and Mayo, 1990).
Furthermore, the minimum number of migration events could be calculated from the
current geographical distribution of haplotypes (Baker et al., 1993). The most extensive
study of genetic variation within and between baleen whale populations was carried out
by Wada and Numachi on Balaenoptera species (Wada and Numachi, 1991).
For a number of species with a worldwide distribution, like the fin whale B.
physalus and the sei whale B. borealis, there is little genetic differentiation between
ocean basins, while for others there is considerable variation between populations in the
different ocean basins like in the minke whale B. acutorostrata and the humpback whale
Megaptera novaeangliae (Hoelzel, 1994).
8.1.4.3 Sympatric, genetically different populations
In some species sympatric, genetically different populations co-exist in the same

habitat, but show differing patterns in habitat utilization (e.g. mammal versus fish-eating
killer whales Orcinus orca (Hoelzel and Dover, 1991), inshore versus offshore
bottlenose dolphins Tursiops truncatus (Curry and Smith, 1997), and common dolphins
D. delphis (Rosel et al., 1994)). A special situation appears to exist among populations
of spinner dolphins Stenella longirostris in the eastern tropical Pacific. Although four
distinct stocks are recognized for management purposes based on morphology and
8-10
geographical distribution, molecular analysis reveals an equally high within-population

variation as between-population variation and great genetic interchange for at least two
of the stocks (Dizon et al., 1991).
When different populations become geographically isolated it can result in the
species becoming variously subdivided. The most extreme form of geographic isolation
occurs in species that are endemic to a certain geographical area such as the North Island
Hector’s dolphin Cephalorhynchus hectori (Pichler et al., 1998) or the vaquita Phocoena
sinus (Rosel and Rojas-Bracho, 1999).
8.1.4.4 Kinship patterns
Different patterns of kinship are another main reason for differing patterns of
genetic diversity in cetaceans. Kinship patterns in cetaceans concur with general
mammalian patterns in that a number of species form stable, matrifocal groups in which
females are philopatric, while males disperse, which is expressed in greater within pod
variation than between pod variation (Hoelzel, 1994). This is particularly the case for
social dolphin species such as long-finned pilot whales Globicephala melas (Amos et al.,
1991) and bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus in Sarasota (Duffield and Wells, 2002),
although there is some indication of female movement between groups in the latter. In
contrast, in mammal eating killer whales O. orca the social organization indicates serial
polygyny, which could lead to a less structured pattern of genetic variation at the
population level (Hoelzel, 1994). The degree of male dispersal varies between species
and is most distinct in sperm whales P. macrocephalus, where the sexes form separate
groups, which only come together for breeding (Hoelzel, 1994; Lyrholm and Gyllensten,
1998; Lyrholm et al., 1999). Four species of baleen whales are known to migrate over
long distances to travel between their feeding and breeding grounds, namely the
humpback whale M. novaeangliae, the gray whale Eschrichtius robustus, the northern
right whale E. glacialis and the southern right whale E. australis, while the breeding and
feeding ecology of the remaining baleen whale species is poorly understood (Hoelzel,
1994). However, of these four species only the breeding behaviour of the humpback
whale has been investigated with molecular techniques (Baker et al., 1993; Hoelzel,
1994). The results indicate at least partial reproductive isolation between feeding
grounds and segregation of mtDNA lineages (Baker et al., 1993; 1998a, b). Similarly,
significant genetic differentiation was found between two wintering grounds of southern
8-11
right whales (Baker et al., 1999). These results contribute to the emerging picture of
stock structures within oceanic populations of baleen whales in the absence of obvious
geographical barriers (Baker and Palumbi, 1997).
One result of the high degree of sociality found in dolphins could be a low level
of genetic variation within local populations as found in killer whales and pilot whales
(Amos et al., 1991; Hoelzel and Dover, 1991). Furthermore, a loss of genetic diversity
was seen in a number of species which have been subject to overexploitation, either
directly through hunting (Malik et al., 2000) or indirectly due to fisheries bycatch (Rosel
and Rojas-Bracho, 1999; Pichler and Baker, 2000). Low diversity as a result of founder
events has been suggested for the Black Sea harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Rosel, 1997)
and the Hawaiian population of humpback whales M. novaeangliae (Baker et al., 1993).
Although studies involving life history and genetic structure have in the past
been conducted separately in cetaceans, in recent years, molecular studies on cetaceans
have increasingly incorporated both life history and environmental data (Rosenbaum et
al., 2002). A recent study on humpback whales M. novaengliae in the North Atlantic
showed how subtle differences in life history traits among individuals, such as
differential reproductive success in females, can alter certain aspects of the population
genetic variability (Rosenbaum et al., 2002), while studies on bottlenose dolphins T.
truncatus in the Gulf of Mexico (Duffield and Wells, 2002) and long-finned pilot whales
G. melas in the North Atlantic (Fullard et al., 2000) were able to relate distributions of
genetic lineages with current systems and sea-surface temperatures. The increased use of
combining genetic data with information on environmental factors and life history will
help elucidate patterns of population structures in different cetacean species in the future.
In most population studies on cetaceans biopsy samples for genetic analysis are
obtained from animals that are already known to the researcher from previous photo-
identification studies. The genetic analysis of populations is most effective when it is
interpreted within a demographic, behavioural, morphological or comparative
framework (Baker and Palumbi, 1997). However, when species are intractable to
demographic study, as well as highly mobile and relatively inaccessible, as is the case
with Kogia, genetic studies may be the only way for describing the structure and historic
demography of a species (Baker and Palumbi, 1997; Scribner et al., 1997b).
8-12
8.1.4.5 Molecular studies on Kogia
Previous molecular studies on Kogia are limited to the analysis of the karyotype
of K. breviceps (Arnason and Benirschke, 1973) and a microsatellite analysis of cow/calf
pairs (Tuohy et al., 2001). Contrary to other cetacean species, which have 44
chromosomes, the chromosome number for both K. breviceps and the sperm P.
macrocephalus whale were found to be 2n=42 (Arnason and Benirschke, 1973). A
microsatellite analysis was carried out on seven K. breviceps cow/calf pairs stranded in
New Zealand in order to determine the relatedness of the animals (Tuohy et al., 2001).
Five of these pairs were related, while two were possibly not, although they had stranded
together (Tuohy et al., 2001). More recently, a K. breviceps sequence from the present
study has been used to present the outgroup for a dataset of ziphiid sequences used in the
web-based molecular identification tool for cetaceans (Ross et al., 2003). A review of
the phylogenetic analysis of cetaceans including Kogia has been given in Chapter 1.
Knowledge of the genetic as well as spatial and temporal aspects of intraspecific
population structure is the foundation of good and appropriate management of cetacean
populations (Dizon et al., 1991). Different populations of the same species have often
been called geographic forms, stocks, races etc. (Dizon et al., 1991). In genetic terms,
the female component of a population is demographically the most important and this
makes the analysis of maternally inherited mtDNA appropriate for decisions about
population definition as well as for management plans (Dizon et al., 1997a).
Furthermore, assessments of the status of marine mammals require knowledge of the
intraspecific population structure of the species concerned and in this context a variety of
data, including molecular genetic data, aid in unravelling the complexities of
intraspecific structure (Dizon et al., 1997a).

In this respect the aim of this part of the study was threefold: a) it was necessary
to determine whether the two species were genetically distinct and whether previous
identification based on morphological characteristics had been correct, b) to determine
how many populations of K. breviceps as well as K. sima are found off South Africa and
to examine the genetic variation within these populations, and c) to determine how
genetically distinct the South African Kogia populations are in relation to other
8-13
populations in the Southern Hemisphere. The latter could unfortunately only be

addressed in a preliminary manner for K. sima due to a limited number of samples from
different geographic locations. However, the results of the present analysis will help to
establish the conservation status of Kogia populations off South Africa, Australia and
New Zealand as well as aid in developing management directives for the two species.
8.2.1 Samples
The geographical origins of the samples are given in Figure 8.1. Tissue samples,
including muscle, skin, liver and heart tissue (see Appendix D), were obtained from four
K. breviceps and three K. sima stranded along the South African coastline, 48 K.
breviceps stranded along the New Zealand coastline, and seven K. breviceps and five K.
sima (including two cow/calf pairs) stranded along the Australian and Tasmanian
coastline (Table 8.1). In addition, there were two samples (one from South Africa, one
from Australia), which had only been identified to genus level (Table 8.1). Soft tissue
material preserved in ethanol was available for both Kogia species from the 1990’s
onwards. The earliest samples of soft tissue for K. breviceps were from 1988 (Australia),
1994 (New Zealand) and 1998 (South Africa). For K. sima the first samples of soft tissue
preserved in ethanol dated from 1992 (Australia) and 2000 (South Africa). As indicated
in Table 8.1 the sample size was increased dramatically for both Kogia species with the
access of teeth and bone from museum collections for DNA analysis. Teeth and/or bone
samples were available from 67 K. breviceps and 48 K. sima from South Africa and 25
K. breviceps and two K. sima from Australia (Table 8.1). Three samples from South
Africa had been identified only to genus level (Table 8.1). For comparative purposes one
tooth each from a K. beviceps and a K. sima stranded in Peru and one tooth from a K.
sima from Chile were included in the analysis (Table 8.1). The oldest samples available
for K. breviceps dated from 1880 and 1899 and originated from South Africa (see
Appendix D). The oldest samples for K. sima were from 1958 and 1959 (Australia) and
1969 (South Africa) (see Appendix D). However, due to inherent problems with the
extraction of DNA from such old samples (Hagelberg, 1994; Hagelberg et al., 1994), the
oldest samples yielding DNA dated from 1930, 1957 and 1959 for K. breviceps and from
1971 for K. sima (see Appendix D). Thus the majority of samples of aDNA date from
8-14
NAMIBIA
Atlantic Ocean
Figure 8.1: Geographical locations of

K. breviceps (D.) and K. sima ( . ) N~ "NEW CALEDONIA
samples from South America (A), AUSTRALIA

Ilrisbane
South Africa (B), and Australasia (C)
used III the genetic analysis.
'"
Great
Australian ydney
S"N:W~A~;:~
Bight Canberr81
Tasman
\l.
~obarl 0- ..., "'"'

p C
8-15
1970 onwards for both Kogia species.
Table 8.1: Sample sizes available for extraction sorted by tissue types for the different
geographic locations in the Southern Hemisphere. Data in parentheses indicate
specimens that were tentatively only identified as Kogia spp. by the collectors.
Collection Kogia breviceps Kogia sima
location Tissue* Teeth and Total Tissue* Teeth and Total
bone bone
South Africa 4 67(+1) 72 3(+1) 48(+2) 54
Australia 7 25 32 5(+1) 2 8
New Zealand 48 - 48 - - -
New Caledonia 2 - 2 - - -
Peru - 1 1 - 1 1
Chile - - - - 1 1
Total 61 94 155 10 54 64
*= Tissue samples include material from skin, muscle, liver and heart. Teeth and bone
samples were obtained from museum collections.
8.2.2 DNA extractions
8.2.2.1 From tissue samples
Genomic DNA was extracted from all tissue samples by standard proteinase K
digestion, followed by a phenol-chloroform extraction and ethanol precipitation of the
DNA (Sambrook et al., 1989) as modified for small samples by Baker et al. (1994).
Precipitated DNA pellets were washed in 70% ethanol, dried, resuspended in TE buffer
(10mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.6, 1mM EDTA, pH 8.0) and stored at -20° C (Baker et al.,
1994).
8.2.2.2 From bones and teeth (“ancient material”)
All reagents for the DNA extraction from the “ancient” material were purchased
exclusively for this project and kept separate from reagents used for genetic work on
other marine mammals. The reagents were prepared in laboratories which do not handle
any animal DNA, and the extraction procedure itself was conducted in a designated
“ancient” DNA room, equipped with a laminar flow cabinet, in which no work on
modern cetaceans or other animals had been carried out. In addition, the preparation for
the PCR was conducted in the designated “ancient” DNA room. Working surfaces were
8-16
washed with sodium hypochlorite (10%) and ethanol (70%) and all equipment was
sterilized by bleaching and autoclaving. Teeth were cleaned with sterile, fine grained
sandpaper and ethanol (100%) to remove all traces of foreign DNA and stored in the
freezer at -80ºC for at least 12 hours, if possible longer, in order to make them brittle.
Especially designed tooth crushing sets consisting of a stainless steel tray, well and bolt
were used for crushing whole teeth by placing the well on the tray, inserting a tooth into
the well and placing the bolt on top. Teeth were crushed by means of a hammer until a
fine powder was obtained, which was then transferred into sterile, labelled 2ml
Eppendorf tubes. These were stored in the freezer at -80ºC until further use. The
crushing sets were washed in sodium hypochlorite (10%), followed by a wash of
hydrochloric acid (0.1%) and autoclaved prior to every use and each set of crushers was
used for one tooth specimen only. In addition, working surfaces were cleaned between
the processing of individual teeth using 10% sodium hypochlorite and 70% ethanol and
all disposable equipment was replaced. The DNA was extracted using the silica-based
method designed for “ancient” DNA samples (Höss and Pääbo, 1993b) as modified by
Matisoo-Smith et al. (1997).
8.2.3 Amplification and sequencing

Nested fragments of the cytochrome b region of the mtDNA ranging from 300-
430 base-pairs (bp) in length were amplified for either species from both modern and
“ancient” tissue extractions using PCR. In addition, an approximately 550bp section of
the control region of the mtDNA was amplified for a subset of K. breviceps (mainly
from New Zealand) and K. sima specimens (all from South Africa) for comparative
purposes. The PCR reactions followed standard protocols (Palumbi, 1996).
For modern tissue samples the oligonucleotide primers tgludg (5’-TGA CTT
GAA RAA CCA YCG TTG-3’) and cyb2 (5’-CCC TCA GAA TGA TAT TTG TCC
TCA-3’) (Palumbi, 1996) were used to amplify the larger cytochrome b fragment. For
the majority of samples from aDNA this fragment was not amplified successfully as
expected from extractions from such material (Höss et al., 1996). Instead, these
specimens are represented by a smaller fragment nested inside the larger one, which was
amplified using the primers cyb1 (5’-CCA TCC AAC ATC TCA GCA TGA TGA
AAA-3’) (Palumbi, 1996) and cyb2. For amplification of the control region fragment the
8-17
primers M13Dlp1.5 (5’-TGT AAA ACG ACG GCC AGT TCA CCC AAA GCT GRA
RTT CTA-3’) and Dlp5 (5’-CCA TCG WGA TGT CTT ATT TAA GRG GAA-3’) or
Dlp8G (5’-GGA GTA CTA TGT CCT GAA CA-3’) were used (Baker et al., 1993). For
both loci, fragments were sequenced in both directions in some cases to confirm variable
nucleotide positions.
All amplifications used the same conditions: 1X Perkin Elmer PCR Buffer II,
2.5mM MgCl2, 0.4µM each primer, 0.25mM dNTP and one unit of AmpliTaq. For
museum specimens 0.5mg/mL bovine serum albumin (BSA) was added to help
overcome the effects of inhibiting substances that often accumulate in such material
(Pääbo, 1990). Amplifications were initiated by a 3-minute, 94ºC denaturation step,
followed by 35 cycles of 92ºC (40 seconds), 54ºC (40 seconds) and 74ºC (40 seconds).
Amplified DNA was run on standard agarose gels, visualized under UV light after
ethidium bromide staining, and were compared to a 123bp ladder to confirm successful
amplification.
Prior to sequencing the PCR products were purified using ConcertTM Rapid Gel
Extraction Systems (Life Technologies) or QiaQuickTM PCR product purification kits
(Qiagen). Cycle sequencing reactions used ABI Big Dye reagents, and sequencing
products were analysed using an ABI 377 automated sequencer.
8.2.4 Sequence analysis

Sequences were examined and aligned using the program SequencherTM (Gene
Codes Corporation) including confirmation of polymorphic sites. Sequences obtained
from aDNA material were authenticated by alignment with those from the tissue
material (Thomas et al., 1990). Unique haplotypes were determined using MacClade
(Maddison and Maddison, 1992). Phylogenetic reconstruction was carried out using the
maximum-parsimony algorithm in PAUP* (Swafford, 2000). For the analysis of
population structure the program Arlequin Vs. 2.000 (Schneider et al., 2000) was used.
Some samples were assumed to originate from cow/calf pairs based on the fact
that the animal stranded together. MtDNA sequences from these pairs were compared
and examined in order to determine whether they were identical as expected for cow/calf
pairs. If this was the case, only one sequence was used to represent the pair for the
population analysis.
Published cytochrome b and control region sequences for Kogia and the sperm
8-18
whale P. macrocephalus from Genbank were included in the phylogenetic analysis.

These were as follows: cytochrome b- AF304073 (Cassens et al., 2000) for the sperm
whale, U72040 (from California) (Milinkovitch et al., 1996), X92542 (Arnason and
Gullberg, 1996) (from South Carolina), and U13134 (Milinkovitch et al., 1994) (from
the Western North Atlantic) for K. breviceps, and AF304072 (Milinkovitch et al., 1994)
and AF334482 (Hamilton et al., 2001) for K. sima; control region- M93154 (Dillon and
Wright, 1993) for the sperm whale and X72201 (Arnason et al., 1993) for K. breviceps;
no published sequences were available for K. sima.
8.2.5 Assignment to species level

Five samples (four from South Africa, one from Australia) were obtained from
animals that had been identified only to genus level. As the two Kogia species are so
similar in appearance and thus easily misidentified (especially if the animals are in an
advanced state of decay as is often the case with stranded individuals of both species), a
number of researchers have now taken to only identify the two species only to genus
level. Therefore the sequences obtained from the samples were later aligned to
sequences from specimens with known and reliable species identification and assigned
to either K. breviceps or K. sima accordingly.
8.2.6 Analysis of population structure

For the phylogenetic analysis a maximum-parsimony tree was constructed for
both the cytochrome b and the control region with the sperm whale P. macrocephalus as
an outgroup (Figures 8.3 and 8.5).
For the phylogeographic analysis only the cytochrome b sequences were used
and the samples from the different locations were grouped into sub-populations (Table
8.4) in order to prevent the loss of any fine scale phylogeographic patterns in the data.
For South Africa the sub-populations were Namibia, as defined by its political
boundaries, as well as the West Coast and East Coast. As animal distributions do not
adhere to political borders, geographical boundaries rather than political ones were
applied in some cases in order to divide subpopulations. Thus Cape Agulhas was used as
the border between Western and Eastern South Africa rather than the political border,
since it is the point where the cold Benguela current from the West Coast meets the
8-19
warm Agulhas current from the East Coast. For Australia the sub-populations were
considered to be East Coast and South Coast and for New Zealand West Coast and East
Coast. Sample sizes for other geographical regions like South America and New
Caledonia were very small and therefore were excluded from this statistical analysis.
ΦST statistics were calculated for K. breviceps in order to examine intra-
population structure and for this purpose the sub-populations were pooled together by
region (Table 8.5).
8.2.7 Sex determination

For samples from animals without prior determination of gender based on
anatomical examination or necropsy (21 of the K. breviceps samples from New Zealand
as well as one K. sima from Australia) sex determination was carried out following the
methods of Gilson et al. (1998).
8.3 Results
8.3.1 Success of aDNA extractions

Out of a total of 148 aDNA samples, cytochrome b sequences were successfully
obtained for 69 specimens, which corresponds to 46.62%. Split up into species, out of 94
K. breviceps aDNA samples sequences were obtained for 43 specimens (45.7%) and out
of 54 K. sima aDNA samples sequences were obtained for 26 specimens (48.15%). The
number and geographic origin of the samples that yielded sequences for analysis is listed
in Table 8.2.
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Table 8.2: Sample sizes from successful extractions sorted by tissue types for the
different geographic locations in the Southern Hemisphere.
Collection Tissue* Teeth Total Sex Tissue* Teeth Total Sex
location and (M/F/ and (M/F/
bone unknown) bone unknown)
South Africa 3 26 29 12/ 11/ 6 1 24 25 6/ 13/ 5
Australia 6 16 22 11/ 11/ 0 2 1 3 1/ 2/ 0
New Zealand 42 - 42 21/ 19/ 2 - - - -
New
Caledonia 2 - 2 1/ 1/ 0 - - - -
Peru - 1 1 0/ 0/ 1 - - - -
Chile - - - - - 1 1 0/ 1/ 0
Total 53 43 96 45/ 42/ 9 3 26 29 7/ 16/ 5
*= Tissue samples include material from skin, muscle, liver and heart. Teeth and bone
samples were obtained from museum collections. M= male; F= female; unknown=
unknown sex.
8.3.2 Analysis of cytochrome b sequences

Fragments of the cytochrome b region of the mtDNA ranging from 300-430
base-pairs (bp) in length were successfully amplified using PCR for 96 K. breviceps
specimens and 29 K. sima specimens. A 279bp consensus region was examined for both
species.
In K. breviceps, 27 polymorphic sites were observed and 26 unique haplotypes
were identified from the 96 individuals examined. All the polymorphic sites were
transition substitutions, 15 of which were purines and 12 were pyrimidines. Eight of the
substitutions occurred in first codon position, one in the second position and 18 in the
third position. Eight amino acids were polymorphic.
In K. sima 12 polymorphic sites were found in the 279bp consensus region,
which related to 12 unique haplotypes among the 29 individuals examined. All the
polymorphic sites were transition substitutions, five of which were purine and seven
were pyrimidine transitions, with three of the substitutions occurring in the first codon
position, two in the second position and seven in the third position. Three amino acids
were found to be polymorphic.
The results indicate that K. breviceps and K. sima fall into two clearly separate
clades, with a high bootstrap support of 100 (Figure 8.2). In fact, only one specimen
originally identified as a K. breviceps fell into the K. sima clade. In contrast to the strong
division on the species level, there was no characteristic phylogeographic structure
8-21
+ one specimen
from W. North
Atlantic
Kogia breviceps
+ one specimen from California
+ one specimen from South Carolina
100
(+ one Genbank sequence)
Kogia sima
100 100 (1 Genbank sequence)
Physeter macrocephalus
South Africa
MP
New Zealand
1 % nucleotide difference
Australia
New Caledonia
Chile
Peru
Figure 8.2: Phylogenetic tree of unique Kogia cytochrome b sequences constructed

using the maximum-parsimony algorithm with Physeter macrocephalus as an
outgroup. Each box represents an individual with that particular haplotype, and
indicates the sampling location it originated from. Bootstrap values (based on 100
iterations) greater than 50% are also indicated.
8-22
within the two species.

The most common haplotype for K. breviceps (h1) included 26 individuals (nine
from South Africa, 11 from New Zealand, five from Australia as well as the individual
from Peru) and accounted for 27.08% of all the individuals sequenced. Thirteen
haplotypes (i.e. half of all the haplotypes for K. breviceps) were represented by only one
individual.
Interestingly, one of the specimens from New Caledonia grouped with
individuals from these three major sampling locations, while the other represented a
unique haplotype. The sequences obtained from Genbank for K. breviceps, which all
originated from the Northern Hemisphere, surprisingly grouped with rather common
haplotypes found in the Southern Hemisphere sample.
Unfortunately, the majority of samples for K. sima originated from South Africa,
so that not much can be said about the population structure of this species in the
Southern Hemisphere. However, it was interesting to see that the sample from Chile (i.e.
the eastern Pacific Ocean) shared a haplotype with specimens from South Africa. In fact
this was the most common haplotype (h2) and made up 51.72% of the individuals
sequenced. Another haplotype (h1) was shared by an individual from South Africa and
one of the animals from Australia (from Hobart, Tasmania). Nine haplotypes (i.e. three
quarters of all haplotypes identified) were represented by only one individual.
Unfortunately the geographical origin of the Genbank sequences included in the
phylogenetic reconstruction for K. sima could not be determined.
Minimum-spanning-networks for both the K. breviceps and K. sima cytochrome
b sequences were calculated by Arlequin and are shown in Figures 8.3 and 8.4,
respectively. The network for K. breviceps showed three major clusters (centered on h1,
h13 and h15), from which rarer haplotypes radiated out. In contrast, the network for K.
sima was more star-shaped, showing only one, dominating haplotype (h2), from which
all others, represented by fewer individuals, radiated out.
8.3.2 Analysis of control region sequences

For the analysis of the control region, sequences of 505bp were examined for 41
K. breviceps and three K. sima. 29 unique haplotypes were identified for K. breviceps
(nucleotide diversity (π): 2.07+/-1.1; haplotype diversity (h): 0.9810+/-0.0108) and three
for K. sima (π: 1.0; h: 1.0). As the majority of the K. breviceps samples originated from
8-23
Figure 8.3: Minimum spanning network for cytochrome b haplotypes of Kogia

breviceps. The numbers inside the circles indicate haplotype code numbers. The size
of the circles is approximately proportional to the number of individuals per
haplotype. Cross-bars indicate base substitutions.
8-24
Figure 8.4: Minimum-spanning network for cytochrome b haplotypes of Kogia sima.

The numbers inside the circles indicate haplotype code numbers. The size of the
circles is approximately proportional to the number of individuals per haplotype.
Cross-bars indicate base substitutions.
8-25
New Zealand only little can be said about the phylogeographic structure (Figure 8.5). It
is interesting to note, however, that individuals from South Africa and Australia included
in this analysis are nested among the New Zealand samples.
8.3.3 Comparison of cytochrome b and control region

For 39 K. breviceps sequences were available for both the control region and
cytochrome b. The comparison of the analyses for the two loci for the same specimens
showed that the 419bp consensus region for the control region had 37 variable sites and
identified 27 unique haplotypes, while the 279bp consensus region of the cytochrome b
gene showed 12 variable sites and identified 13 unique haplotypes. Overall a similar
grouping of sequences into haplotypes was found for both loci, although the control
region analysis subdivided individuals into more haplotypes. In one case the control
region analysis grouped different haplotypes from the cytochrome b analysis into one.
8.3.4 Comparison with other cetaceans

The overall nucleotide diversity in % for both samples of K. breviceps and K.
sima are shown in Table 8.3. The nucleotide diversity for the whole K. breviceps sample
is 0.82±0.5 and thus more than twice that of K. sima (0.40±0.3). For the control region,
overall nucleotide diversity for the subset of K. breviceps samples is relatively high
(2.07±0.011) compared to other odontocetes (Table 8.3). This is almost as high as that of
the humpback whale M. novaeangliae, which had a nucleotide diversity of 2.18
calculated for all three major ocean basins combined (Baker and Medrano-González,
2002) (Table 8.3). In contrast, the nucleotide diversity for the closest relative of the
Kogiidae, the sperm whale P. macrocephalus, was found to be extremely low and only
16 control region haplotypes have been identified for this species worldwide (Lyrholm
and Gyllensten, 1998) (Table 8.3). Although this is a similarly low nucleotide diversity
to that calculated here for K. sima from cytochrome b, it has to be kept in mind that the
K. sima data were calculated primarily from animals from South Africa, while the data
for the sperm whale are based on samples from all three major ocean basins. In contrast,
the data for the control region of K. sima were 2.5 times higher than that of the sperm
whale, although based only on three samples.
8-26
South Africa
New Zealand
Australia
Kogia breviceps
(Genbank)
92
Kogia sima
100
Physeter macrocephalus
MP 5 changes
Figure 8.5: Phylogenetic tree of unique Kogia control region sequences constructed
using the maximum-parsimony algorithm with Physeter macrocephalus as an
outgroup. Each box represents an individual with that particular haplotype, and
indicates the sampling location it originated from. Bootstrap values (based on 100
iterations) greater than 50% are also indicated.
8-27
Table 8.3: Nucleotide diversities (π) in % for cytochrome b and control region loci in
a number of cetacean populations.
Species Locus examined
cytochrome b control region
Kogia breviceps Pygmy sperm whale
(S. Hemisphere) (present study) 0.82+/- 0.5 2.07+/- 1.1
Kogia sima Dwarf sperm whale
(S. Hemisphere) (present study) 0.40+/- 0.3 1.0*
Physeter macrocephalus Sperm whale
(world-wide) (Lyrholm and Gyllensten, 1998) - 0.39 +/- 0.03
Phocoena phocoena Harbour porpoise
(Northwest Atlantic) (Rosel et al., 1999b) - 0.99+/-0.569
(Northeast Atlantic) (Rosel et al., 1999b) - 0.47+/-0.311
(western N. Atlantic) (Rosel et al., 1999a) - 0.99-1.26
Phocoenoides dalli Dall’s porpoise
(Bering Sea + western N. Pacific) - 0.45-0.64
(McMillan and Bermingham, 1996)
Phocoenoides dalli Dalls porpoise
(Sea of Japan and N. Pacific) - 1.06
(Hayano et al., 2003)
Cephalorhynchus hectori Hector’s dolphin
(North Island, New Zealand) - 0.0044
(Pichler and Baker, 2000)
Cephalorhynchus hectori Hector’s dolphin
(East Coast South Island, New Zealand) - 0.0030
(Pichler and Baker, 2000)
Delphinus delphis Common dolphin-short-
beaked form - 1.61
(California) (Rosel et al., 1994)
Delphinus delphis Common dolphin-long-
beaked form - 1.17
(California) (Rosel et al., 1994)
Lagenorhynchus obscurus Dusky dolphin
(New Zealand) (Harlin et al., 2003) - 2.2+/-1.1
Monodon monoceros Narwhal
(North-west Atlantic) (Palsbøll et al., 1997) - 0.17
Delphinapterus leucas Beluga whale
(Alaska + Canada) (Brown Gladden et al., - 1.0+/-0.6
1997)
Delphinapterus leucas Beluga whale
(Alaska + Canada) (O’Corry-Crowe et al., - 0.51
1997)
Orcinus orca Killer whale
Eastern N. Pacific(Hoelzel et al., 1998) - 0.54
Hyperoodon ampullatus Northern bottlenose
whale - 0.15
(western N. Atlantic) (Dalebout, 2002)
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Megaptera novaeangliae Humpback whale

(world-wide) (Baker and Medrano-González, - 2.18
2002)
Eubalaena australis Southern right whale
(S. Hemisphere) (Rosenbaum et al., 2000) - 2.68+/-1.40
Eubalaena glacialis Northern right whale
(N. Atlantic) (Malik et al., 2000) - 0.6
Eubalaena australis Southern right whale
(Southern Ocean) (Patenaude, 2002) - 2.68
*= Preliminary estimate from only three K. sima from South Africa and Australia.
8.3.5 Phylogeographic analysis of cytochrome b sequences

K. breviceps
The examination of the population structure of K. breviceps showed both a high

nucleotide and haplotype diversity within the sub-populations, with little difference
between locations (Table 8.4). The lowest nucleotide and haplotype diversities were
observed for the Eastern Cape region of South Africa (π: 0.61±0.4; h: 0.85±0.077) and
for the South coast of Australia (π: 0.74±0.5; h: 0.88±0.058) (Table 8.4).
Table 8.4: Intra- population diversity of Kogia breviceps sub-populations in the

Southern Hemisphere. Data in parentheses present the numbers of samples per sub-
population.
Geographical area Nucleotide diversity Haplotype diversity
(π in %) (h)
Namibia (5) 1.02+/-0.8 1.0+/-0.127
West coast South Africa (8) 1.01+/-0.7 0.96+/-0.077
East coast South Africa (16) 0.61+/-0.4 0.85+/-0.077
East coast Australia (8) 0.78+/-0.6 0.93+/-0.084
South coast Australia (14) 0.74+/-0.5 0.88+/-0.058
West coast New Zealand (8) 0.92+/-0.6 0.93+/-0.929
East coast New Zealand (26) 0.84+/-0.5 0.93+/-0.027
In order to examine whether significant genetic differences exist between

individuals of K. breviceps from the three major regions (i.e. South Africa, Australia and
New Zealand), the sub-populations were pooled accordingly and an Analysis of
Molecular Variance (AMOVA) was performed. The resulting ΦST’s indicate the
difference between two populations: a ΦST-value of 1 indicates that two populations are
completely different from each other, with no overlap, while 0 indicates that the two
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populations are the same, with no differences between them. In this respect the results
indicate that the difference between animals from Australia and New Zealand is virtually
zero i.e. the two populations being very similar (Table 8.5). Although there was some
genetic differentiation between the populations from South Africa and Australia, this
was not significant. The only significant difference was observed between South Africa
and New Zealand (0.0423, which was significant at the 0.05 level) (Table 8.5). However,
this ΦST-value is still quite small, indicating only little genetic differentiation between
these geographical regions. The overall FST-value value from the AMOVA was 0.02499;
it was not significant at the 0.05 level (p=0.078).
Table 8.5: Inter-population structure of Kogia breviceps populations in the Southern

Hemisphere as indicated by pair-wise ΦST statistics. Data in parentheses indicate the
number of samples analyzed per population. Data above the diagonal are the levels of
probability for the exact tests of population differentiation.
Geographical area South Africa Australia New Zealand
South Africa (29) - 0.1313 0.11420
Australia (22) 0.0293 - 0.29060
New Zealand (42) 0.0423* -0.0036 -
*= significant at the 0.05 level.
In summary, for K. breviceps high genetic diversity was observed within the sub-
populations, but little genetic structure was found between the major regions (Table 8.4
and Table 8.5). Only little genetic differentiation was found between the populations that
are the furthest apart, South Africa and New Zealand, and this was the only significant
difference observed (Table 8.5). No significant genetic differentiation was found
between the populations off New Zealand and Australia or Australia and South Africa.
As such the null hypothesis that these animals form part of the same population could
not be rejected.
K. sima
For K. sima both nucleotide and haplotype diversities varied greatly between the
different geographical regions analysed (Table 8.6). The results indicated a relatively
high genetic diversity within the sub-populations, although it is unclear to what extent
these results are influenced by differences in sample size (Table 8.6). It is interesting to
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note that both the nucleotide and haplotype diversity are substantially lower in the
Eastern Cape (π: 0.24±0.2; h: 0.57±0.127) than in the Western Cape region of South
Africa (π: 0.65±0.5; h: 0.89±0.111). However, Nei’s Student t-test for testing differences
between diversities showed that both the nucleotide and the haplotype diversities
between the Eastern and Western Cape were not significant at the 0.05 level (t=0.76 and
1.89, respectively) (Nei, 1987). On the other hand, analyses indicated significant genetic
differentiation between the Eastern and Western Cape of South Africa
(ΦST=0.077±0.018, p<0.05). However, a Nei’s Student T-test for testing differences
between diversities showed, that both the nucleotide and the haplotype diversities
between the Eastern and Western Cape were not significant at the 0.05 level (p=0.76 and
1.89, respectively) (Nei, 1987). The overall nucleotide diversity was lower in K. sima
than K. breviceps, but again this was not significantly different at the 0.05% level
(p=0.72) (Nei, 1987).
Table 8.6: Intra-population diversity of Kogia sima sub-populations in the Southern

Hemisphere. Data in parentheses present the numbers of samples per sub-population.
Geographical area Nucleotide diversity Haplotype diversity
(π in %) (h)
West coast South Africa (8) 0.65+/-0.5 0.89+/-0.111
East coast South Africa (17) 0.24+/-0.2 0.57+/-0.127
Australia (3) 0.72+/-0.7 1.0+/-0.272
8.4 Discussion
8.4.1 Species identification

The clear separation of K. breviceps and K. sima into two clades with a bootstrap
support of 100 not only indicates that there are two clearly distinct Kogia species, but
also that the morphological characteristics used for species identification are reliable and
provide a good guideline for researchers dealing with stranded animals. Only one sample
(SA PEM N1869, originally identified as a K. breviceps) out of the 214 samples
identified to species level based on morphological characteristics was misidentified. It
was subsequently placed with the other K. sima samples. Considering the overlap in
some morphological characters between the two species as well as the overall similarity
this result is encouraging for researchers dealing with stranded and/or dead animals on
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the beach as it supports the identification criteria currently used.
8.4.2 Success of aDNA extractions

In the present sample 46.62% of the extractions from “ancient” material resulted
in clean sequences, which could be used for analysis of population structure in Kogia,
with little difference between the two species. Data on the success of this technique are
scarce, but a number of factors like contamination with human material, leaching of
DNA from bones and teeth due to inadequate preparation or storage of the material, and
poor preservation of DNA in bones and teeth could all add to a potential failure in
extracting DNA successfully from this material. In view of the scarcity of tissue material
from the two Kogia species the present result from the aDNA extractions is encouraging
and once again indicates that “ancient” material presents a good source of material for
the molecular analysis of cetaceans.
8.4.3 Phylogeographic structure of K. breviceps in the Southern

Hemisphere
The distribution of mtDNA variation in K. breviceps from different geographical
locations in the Southern Hemisphere suggests a very close evolutionary relationship
among these populations. The presence of haplotypes common to all subpopulations
examined are an indication of ancestral mtDNA lineages that remain widespread
following the divergence of populations (Brown Gladden et al., 1997). According to
Avise et al.’s categorisation of possible phylogeographic patterns theoretically
observable in natural populations, the pattern shown here for K. breviceps would fall into
Category IV- phylogenetic continuity, with a lack of spatial separation (1987). This
transcribes into a number of closely related mtDNA haplotypes found within the species,
each being geographically widespread (Avise et al., 1987). Such a pattern would arise
due to extensive and historically recent gene flow in the absence of zoogeographic
barriers (Avise et al., 1987). In addition, it would require a life history strategy, which is
conducive to dispersal (Avise et al., 1987). Although less common among cetaceans, this
pattern has also been described for many marine fish species, birds and to a lesser extent,
humans (Avise et al., 1986; 1987; Graves, 1998). In the marine environment a number
of species have great dispersal abilities and there are often no obvious barriers to gene
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flow (Graves, 1998). In this context, cosmopolitan marine fishes with continuous
distributions exhibited far less genetic structuring than species with discontinuous
distributions (Graves, 1998).
A lack of significant phylogeographic structure and the high number of
haplotypes found may indicate a substantial gene flow among populations, which would
be facilitated by the movement of individuals among populations, thus inhibiting genetic
differentiation of local populations (Palumbi et al., 1991; Avise, 1994). In this respect
genetic data only present an average view of the recent genetic structure of a population
and not a snap-shot of the current ecological reality (Palumbi et al., 1991; Avise, 1994).
Over the short-term there appears to be some restriction to movement between the South
African and New Zealand populations as indicated by significant ΦST values. This
suggests that the South African population is somewhat isolated from others in the
Southern Hemisphere.
Cetaceans have evolved a high degree of motility and versatility in the marine
environment, and these characteristics are reflected in the genetic structure of cetacean
populations (Hoelzel, 1994). Social cohesion can affect genetic differentiation through
its effect on the range of dispersal and by the tendency for kin to associate in groups
(Hoelzel, 1994). K. breviceps are known to be solitary or occur in rather small groups
(Ross, 1979; 1984; Baird et al., 1996; see also Chapter 1). Such a social structure would
facilitate a high genetic diversity within species, but low phylogeographic diversity, if
animals travel independently and over wide ranges and do not have designated breeding
grounds.
There were no indications in the results that there was any greater
phylogeographic structure in females than in males for K. breviceps. If K. breviceps
exhibited a common mammalian pattern of male dispersal and female philopatry, one
would expect to see a high level of genetic structure in the maternally inherited mtDNA.
However, the results presented here appear to indicate that female K. breviceps have a
relatively high degree of dispersal. Unfortunately, mtDNA data reflect only the history
and movement of females (Hoelzel, 1994) and in this context it would be interesting to
examine some nuclear markers in order to elucidate male dispersal patterns of K.
breviceps.
As seasonal changes in prey distributions are more pronounced in temperate and
polar regions it would affect the seasonal movement of odontocetes inhabiting those
regions (Hoelzel, 1994). Unfortunately, little is known about migration patterns of
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cephalopods (the primary food source of Kogia) off the South African coastline (see
Chapter 6). There seems to be some indication that the chokka squid (Loligo vulgaris)
has an eastward migration off the South African coast as the year progresses (Augustyn
et al., 1994), but this species only contributes little to the diet of K. breviceps (see
Chapter 6). However, the stranding data of cow/calf pairs suggest that there may be a
slight seasonal eastward movement along the coast as the year progresses (see Chapter
7), which may be related to the movement of some of their prey species. In general, K.
breviceps has a very generalist diet (see Chapter 6), which suggests that the species is not
bound to a particular prey item, which may facilitate extensive movements reflected by
the phylogeographic pattern shown by the mtDNA data. The above results indicate what
a central role the ecological context and the knowledge of life history parameters play in
interpreting the genetic structure of a species (Hoelzel, 1994).
However, a lack of phylogeographic structure as determined by mtDNA analysis
may also indicate a lack of sufficient resolution by the genetic marker used. Not all
markers are equally informative, because the level of detectable polymorphisms varies
greatly between them (Palumbi et al., 1991; Scribner et al., 1997b). Furthermore, it may
reflect the inability of mtDNA analysis to detect genetic differentiation that occurs over
relatively short time scales e.g. less than about 50 000 years (Palumbi et al., 1991). The
relatively high evolutionary rate of animal mtDNA facilitates rapid development of
genetic differentiation among populations, but this rate is slow in comparison with
ecological and demographic processes. Thus a failure to detect genetic differences
among populations does not prove that there is currently ecological or demographic
exchange among them (Palumbi et al., 1991).
Furthermore, the reliance on a single locus may diminish the power to detect
significant spatial structure in the Kogia populations. This is due to the fact that genetic
drift in populations results in random changes in gene frequencies and these changes will
occur with differing frequencies at different loci (Baker and Palumbi, 1997). Therefore
an investigation of spatial or temporal genetic structure should ideally consider a number
of different loci and the resulting patterns (Baker and Palumbi, 1997). The concordance
or contrasts of these patterns across several loci provides the best insight into the
historical processes of the species considered (Baker and Palumbi, 1997).
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8.4.4 Phylogeographic structure of K. sima in the Southern

Hemisphere
In contrast to K. breviceps, the data on the phylogeographic structure of K. sima
are somewhat restrictive as the majority of the samples originate from South Africa.
Nevertheless, both nucleotide and haplotype diversities were markedly lower than in K.
breviceps and more similar to those for other small cetacean populations such as the
harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Rosel et al., 1999a), Dall’s porpoise P. dalli (Hayano et
al., 2003), and common dolphin D. delphis (Rosel et al., 1994). The minimum-spanning
network also indicated a central haplotype from which all the other haplotypes radiated
out, suggesting a recent founder effect. In this respect it is interesting to note that the
animal from Chile was included in the most common haplotype from South Africa, as
well as the grouping of an Australian and South African animal in a common haplotype.
This indicates that there is some gene flow between these populations. However,
additional samples of K. sima from other populations need to be included in the analysis
in order to determine the degree of isolation between them.
The above differences in population structure between K. breviceps and K. sima
may suggest a difference in population size between the two species. Unfortunately there
are no population estimates available for either K. breviceps or K. sima. However,
judging from stranding data K. breviceps appears to have a bigger distribution and higher
stranding rates than K. sima (see Chapter 7), which appears to support the notion that K.
breviceps has a bigger population size. This is consistent with the higher mtDNA
diversity within K. breviceps.
These data do once again support the fact that although both species of Kogia are
very similar in many aspects of their external appearance and general biology, there are
some pronounced genetic differences between the two.
8.4.5 Dispersal
Although there is not necessarily a simple relationship between dispersal and
genetic structure of metapopulations (Lidicker and Patten, 1987), the results of the
genetic analysis presented here seem to indicate a relatively wide dispersal of K.
breviceps in the southern Hemisphere. The detailed pattern of dispersal is of critical
importance to nearly all aspects of a species’ ecology and behaviour, from the dynamics
of its population to the nature of social interactions (Horn, 1983). There are a number of
8-35
reasons why animals move, including seasonal migrations related to changing

environmental conditions, foraging, predator avoidance and to find mates (Pyke, 1983).
The data on Kogia life histories are as yet not sufficient to make definite conclusions as
to why K. breviceps would disperse so widely in the southern Hemisphere. In
evolutionary terms, the species appears to have been even crossing the equator at some
stage as suggested by the fact that animals in both hemispheres share common
haplotypes. Furthermore, too little data are available on the potential impact of predators
(such as sharks) as well as on the dynamics of prey (i.e. cephalopod) distribution and
biology.
8.4.5.1 Possible factors influencing dispersal in K. breviceps
8.4.5.1.1 Nutritional requirements
However, there are three different possible explanations for the wide dispersal of
K. breviceps. One possibility is that the energetic requirements that facilitate annual
reproduction in female K. breviceps may be so high that reproductively active females
disperse in search of sufficient and high quality food. To date nothing is known about
Kogia home range sizes. Among adult female vertebrates the primary determinant of
home range size is access to food and thus the animals’ metabolic requirements as well
as food quality and food quantity should be the main determinants of home range size
(Greenwood and Swingland, 1983; Mace et al., 1983). Thus the closest relationship
between home range size and energetic need should be found in females (Mace et al.,
1983). There are no aseasonal habitats in any environment and certain periods of year are
relatively worse than others either due to climatic changes or fluctuations in population
density (Sinclair, 1983). Thus the food availability prior to birth is a very strong selection
for the female to place itself in an environment where there is a super-abundant food
supply prior to breeding (Sinclair, 1983). In addition, there is some evidence that
suggests that metabolic requirements may vary between the sexes in some species (e. g
K. breviceps females and calves feed on different prey than adult males and non-
reproductive females –see Chapter 6) and home range sizes can also vary with age and
seasonality (Mace et al., 1983).
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8.4.5.1.2 Prey abundance
Another possible explanation for the wide dispersal of K. breviceps is that the
abundance of squid (the main food source) may be cyclic, causing the majority of the
animals to migrate in search of food at times when food availability is low. One of the
main reasons why animals move is to find food and the distribution of animals in space
is intimately linked with the distribution and nature of the food supply (Greenwood and
Swingland, 1983; Mace et al., 1983). If resources are distributed patchily an animal will
have to forage over a much wider area, thus have a larger home range than an animal
which feeds on a more evenly and densely distributed food source (Mace et al., 1983). In
addition, dispersal is most favourable when the pattern of environmental fluctuations
varies from place to place- in such cases there will often be other places where
conditions are better (Stenseth, 1983). The relative merit of dispersal is higher when
resources change cyclically rather than randomly over time e.g. cyclic food production
would result in large litter size, high juvenile survival and low adult survival (Stenseth,
1983), which is a pattern observed in K. breviceps (see Chapters 3 and 4). Movement
may be the necessary consequence of the exploitation of a temporary habitat (Rogers,
1983). Habitat thus is the driving force for movement and migrants are therefore
refugees from deteriorating conditions as the habitat they live in becomes increasingly
crowded (Rogers, 1983)- the apparent “hot spots” found in Kogia distribution may be an
indicator of that. Migrants that are able to feed during migration will have increased
survival without reducing productivity i.e. reproduction (Rogers, 1983). If migrants are
escaping from deteriorating local conditions (e.g. due to lack of food or predation), it is
possible that, even allowing for migration losses, their average survival exceeds that of
resident animals (Rogers, 1983).
Most mammals need to find areas where resources are abundant for long enough
to allow successful reproduction (Sinclair, 1983). Resource superabundances that last for
shorter periods of time cannot be used by these species and thus there should be selection
for individuals that can reduce the period of breeding residency or young dependence in
environments which are changing rapidly (Sinclair, 1983). Such environments are
usually unpredictable in both timing and location of high resource areas and thus
selection would favour those that adopted a nomadic existence, moving in unpredictable
ways rather than following a prescribed regular migration (Sinclair, 1983). However,
there are some examples, like the wildebeest populations in the Tanzanian Serengeti,
8-37
where only a proportion of the population migrates, the rest being resident, suggesting
these animals are adopting a mixed evolutionary stable strategy (Sinclair, 1983). In
general, one should expect a proportion of the population to become resident whenever
year-round conditions allow it. The size of the resident and migrant portions of this
mixed strategy would depend on the relative abundances of resources available to them
(Sinclair, 1983). Just to what extent this may be the case for either Kogia species remains
to be speculated and more studies exploring the abundance of prey (i.e. cephalopods) as
well as predator/prey interactions need to be carried out to elucidate this issue. In
addition, studies on wild Kogia would help clarify whether animals are resident year-
round, or have a migratory phase during part of the year (and if so, whether all animals
migrate or just a proportion of the population).
8.4.5.1.3 Predation
Finally, predator/prey interactions between potential predators such as sharks and

Kogia may be cyclic, causing movement of Kogia to other localities. Locally unstable
predator-prey interactions may be regionally stabilized by the patchiness and contiguous
distribution of prey, and by aggregations of predators at sites of high prey density (Horn,
1983). Drawing predators (such as sharks) to areas of prey abundance allows them to
feed efficiently and to preserve their abundance, while it draws predators away from
precariously small prey populations and thus provides a refuge in which prey at low
density can escape predation (Horn, 1983). The prey (in this instance Kogia species)
may disperse to homogenize their populations, decreasing regional stability and possibly
lowering diversity or the prey may disperse to colonize areas recently denuded and
vacated by predators, promoting regional stability and heterogeneity (Horn, 1983). The
dispersal of predators can either homogenize their populations and cause regional
instabilities or allow predators to converge on areas of high prey abundance and stabilize
regional interactions between predator and prey (Horn, 1983). The differences in effect
of dispersal are not due to different levels of dispersal, but rather to the pattern of
dispersive responses of the prey and predator to their own and each others’ local
abundances (Horn, 1983). Frequent, copious dispersal is usually associated with species
formerly described as r-selected, which are subject to extreme fluctuations in numbers,
with high mortality, but also high rates of population growth through fecundity, early
breeding, rapid development, and small body size (Horn, 1983). These characteristics
8-38
have emerged to be true for the life history strategies of both Kogia species (see Chapter
9).
If an animal is at risk from predators when feeding in certain areas of its territory,
a resulting change in foraging behaviour to minimize that risk may alter its territorial
requirements i.e. one might expect the pattern of foraging and dispersion of individuals
to be substantially altered by a high predation risk (Greenwood and Swingland, 1983).
Food and predators are the two main factors influencing the diurnal migration of sockeye
salmon Oncorhynchus nerka (Greenwood and Swingland, 1983). During the day the
animals stay at depth, because low light levels protect them from predation at dusk they
rise to the surface to feed (Greenwood and Swingland, 1983). A similar combination of
finding large food supplies (for reproduction) and avoiding predators is also found in
some ungulate species. Large predators like lion and hyena are much more sedentary in
comparison to the ungulates they feed on (Sinclair, 1983). Thus the migratory strategy of
wildebeest in the Serengeti, which has one of the most extensive migrations among the
African ungulates, allows them to escape their predators in addition to finding a
sufficient food supply (Sinclair, 1983). Unfortunately, we have no data on which shark
species prey on Kogia and to what extent, and thus have no idea how large these
potential predators’ territories are. However, recent genetic studies on the great white
shark Carcharadon carcharias indicate that dispersal of individuals is more extensive
than has been indicated by tagging studies (Pardini et al., 2001). Great white sharks are
thought to inhabit primarily inshore continental shelf waters as well as do extensive
oceanic travel and were found to have a preference for depths between 0-5 metres and
300-500 metres, spending 90% of the day at these depths and little time at intermediate
depths (Boustany et al., 2002). Furthermore, they were found to be able to tolerate a
broad temperature range from 4.8°C to 26°C (Boustany et al., 2002). Both the depth and
temperature range coincide with the feeding depth and habitat of K. breviceps (see
Chapters 6 and 7) and would thus make it a prime prey target species for great whites.
Predation on Kogia by great white sharks has been reported (Long, 1991; Heithaus,
2001), but direct observations remain scarce.
As seen above the factors leading to a high dispersal rate are intricately
interwoven and it is therefore difficult to establish any form of causality. On the one
hand, the dispersal of the main food source of K. breviceps, namely squid, may have
caused the high dispersal rate, which was followed by an increase in predation risk from
8-39
sharks, resulting in high adult mortality and thus high reproductive rates. On the other
hand high predation pressure may have resulted in wide dispersal as well as an
opportunistic feeding behaviour and a high reproductive rate. This is perhaps a more
likely scenario as the combined characteristics of predator avoidance by “inking”,
predator mimicry by exhibiting “false-gill” markings, a generalist diet and a fast life
history strategy all suggest that predator avoidance is a primary selective force in this
species.
8.4.5.1.4 Additional factors
Other factors such as mating systems and habitat availability may also influence
dispersal patterns in Kogia. Mating systems of animals are inextricably linked to their
spatial and group dynamics and thus to their population structure. As such, the extent to
which animals move from area to area or group to group will have profound
consequences for a species’ social organisation (Greenwood, 1983). Thus it is argued
that patterns of dispersal are linked to the type of mating system and that differences
between mating systems have important implications for the population and social
structure of a species (Greenwood, 1983). In this respect the proposed roving-male
mating system for the two Kogia species (see Chapter 4) would facilitate dispersal of
males in search of receptive females. As females also appear to be solitary and not form
social groups as seen in other cetacean species with a roving-male strategy, such as the
sperm whale P. macrocephalus (Connor et al., 2000), dispersal of females may be
equally as high.
Furthermore, the movement behaviour of individuals can be determined by the
range of habitats available. A species can occupy a variety of environments either
because the species has a number of divergent individuals, each a habitat specialist, or
because individuals are habitat generalists (Swingland, 1983). If different sections of the
population or species are each adapted to their specialized habitat, then polymorphism
will result in populations or species with broad habitat use (Swingland, 1983). This
niche-variation hypothesis states that species with broader ecological niches should be
more variable than those with narrow niches because of the action of disruptive
selection. Some researchers believe that environments with high temporal heterogeneity
will select for individuals with broad ecological niches and that populations of such
individuals might be more likely to show intraspecific differences in movement. This
8-40
may be applicable to K. breviceps since they have a relatively broad ecological niche in a
temporally unstable environment (see Chapter 6). In addition it was shown that certain
parts of the population like reproductively active females and immature animals feed on
different prey than reproductively inactive females and mature males (see Chapter 6).
The corollary is that species in temporally homogenous environments should not show
dichotomy in movement patterns because they will have narrower niches, as is suggested
for K. sima (see Chapter 6) (Swingland, 1983). However, too little is known about Kogia
movements, in particular the differences in movement patterns between the two species,
to speculate too widely to what extent the different mating systems and habitats
influence dispersal patterns.
8.4.6 Comparison with other cetaceans

As already outlined in Chapters 3 to 5 the life history strategies of Kogia and the
harbour porpoise P. phocoena are very similar (see Chapter 9). However, the above data
indicate that, possibly contrary to expectations, the population genetic structures are very
different. Nucleotide diversities of harbour porpoises are higher than that of humpback
whales M. novaeangliae when averaged over all three ocean basins (Rosel et al., 1995)
(Table 8.3). But while at least K. breviceps has a wide distribution with interbreeding
populations in the Southern Hemisphere, the harbour porpoise shows distinct population
structuring throughout its range (Rosel et al., 1995; 1999a, b; Tolley et al., 1999). Thus
differences between the two Kogia species, in particular K. breviceps, and the harbour
porpoise, leading to a difference in the phylogeographic patterns, may be due to other
parts of their ecology. Rosel et al. (1995) suggest that the restricted distribution of the
harbour porpoise to coastal waters would have lead to the higher degree of reproductive
isolation between populations compared to other cosmopolitan species like the
humpback whale.
Investigating the diversity of the mitochondrial control region in sperm whales,
P. macrocephalus, Lyrholm et al. (1996) report an unusually low level of intraspecific
mtDNA diversity compared to that of other mammals. Both the nucleotide diversity and
the haplotype diversity are considerably lower than that of other mammals (see Table
8.3). To date only 16 haplotypes have been described worldwide for the species
(Lyrholm and Gyllensten, 1998), which is in stark contrast to the results presented here
for the closest relatives of the sperm whale. However, subsequent studies indicate that
8-41
significant differences between ocean basins in the maternally inherited mtDNA, while
little or no differentiation exists between ocean basins in the biparentally inherited
nuclear DNA, indicating a sex-biased dispersal pattern in the species (Lyrholm et al.,
1999). A similarly low nucleotide diversity was found in African savannah elephants
Loxodonta africana, which show a similar social structure with roving males and
matrilineal groups like the sperm whale (Weilgart et al., 1996; Nyakaana and Arctander,
1999). In this respect, the lack of social cohesion in Kogia would also present one of the
main differences between the sperm whale, P. macrocephalus, which travels in stable
social groups (Hoelzel, 1994; Lyrholm et al., 1999), and K. breviceps, and may to a large
extent account for the differences seen in the phylogeographic patterns of the two
species. Additional contributing factors would be the differences in reproductive rates as
well as the lack of matrilines in K. breviceps. These findings do not only show that even
closely related sister taxa like Physeter and Kogia can have quite different patterns in
genetic variability, but also suggest that, in addition to a possible dispersal by male
Kogia (see Chapter 4), female K. breviceps may disperse widely as well. As described in
Chapter 4 both the testis size and the group size suggest a roving male mating strategy
for both K. breviceps and K. sima, similar to that seen in bottlenose dolphins T. truncatus
or even the sperm whale. The above results for the maternally inherited mtDNA suggest
that Kogia females disperse widely in the Southern Hemisphere, and perhaps even across
the equator. This is an unusual pattern for female mammals (Greenwood, 1983), and in
this context it would be interesting to investigate the nuclear DNA of Kogia further in
order to shed more light on the male dispersal pattern.
Cetacean species, which have a similar offshore habitat to Kogia and disperse
widely in the Southern Hemisphere would be expected to show similarly high levels of
genetic diversity. Contrary to that, studies of beaked whales in the Southern Hemisphere
showed surprisingly low levels of nucleotide diversity compared to other wide-ranging
cetaceans and terrestrial mammals (Dalebout, 2002). Nucleotide diversity in most wide
ranging cetacean species is generally over 1%, even if only regional populations are
considered (Rosel et al., 1994; 1999a, b; Hayano et al., 2003). However, a survey of the
phylogeographic patterns of the Ziphidae in the Southern Hemisphere indicated that only
Cuvier’s beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris and the southern bottlenose whale
Hyperoodon planifrons had nucleotide diversities over 1% (π: 1.18%±0.68% and
3.73%±2.16%, respectively) (Dalebout, 2002). Similarly low levels of genetic diversity
8-42
have been attributed to either low abundance or declining population size (Rosel et al.,
1995; O’Corry-Crowe et al., 1997), or to a matrifocal social structure as was found in
sperm whales (Lyrholm and Gyllensten, 1998; Whitehead, 1998), killer whales O. orca
(Hoelzel et al., 1998) and narwhals Monodon monoceros (Palsbøll et al., 1997). In this
respect the results indicate once again that even species that appear superficially similar
in their life histories and distributions may have vast differences in population structure.
8.4.7 Recommendations for conservation and management strategies

Although the genetic structure of a population may often be considered of
secondary importance in deciding management strategies, such an analysis can be
extremely useful in the preceding decision of identifying populations that are highly
independent demographically (Lande, 1991). The above data do indicate that the Kogia
populations off South Africa are somewhat reproductively isolated from other
populations in the Southern Hemisphere. The absence of any detectable genetic
differences between a number of populations such as the New Zealand and Australian
populations does not necessarily imply that the interchange of individuals between them
is so large that the populations could be treated as a single unit for management purposes
(Anonymous, 1991). Although these data are reassuring in a time when numerous
populations of large and small mammals are under threat from human related causes
world-wide, the fact remains that certain locations in the Southern Hemisphere present
“hot-spots” for Kogia. In the absence of any data from live, wild animals these “hot-
spots” are currently indicated by high stranding rates of both live and dead animals,
including a high occurrence of cow/calf pairs. Both South Africa and New Zealand
represent such “hot-spots” and may present possible breeding grounds for either Kogia
species (Ross, 1979; 1984; Tuohy et al., 2001). In this context, the continued health of
these Kogia populations should be monitored closely and the populations should be
treated conservatively as separate stocks in the case of any signs of threats (Dizon et al.,
1992).
In the absence of detectable genetic differentiation it is also necessary to consider
possible morphological, behavioural, geographical and demographic differences
(Anonymous, 1991). As these data are widely lacking for most populations of the two
Kogia species and only basic data are available for the two Kogia populations off South
Africa, it is at this stage not possible to nominate the populations analysed here as
8-43
panmictic super-populations (Dizon et al., 1997a). It is still unknown whether there are
differences in life history or morphology between the so-called “hot spots”. Until more
data can be gathered to answer these questions unequivocally the continued survival of
these “hot spot” populations of these two rare species should be ensured through further
research and protection.
8.4.8 Further research

There are two possible reasons for the lack of significant population structure in
K. breviceps as determined by the mtDNA analysis: a) substantial gene flow may be
present among populations or b) there is a lack of sufficient resolution to detect slight
genetic differentiation.
Although the analysis of maternally inherited mtDNA is appropriate for
determining the population substructure as it represents the female component of a
species, the recommendations of the IWC workshop on the genetic ecology of cetaceans
clearly states that “a failure to detect genetic differentiation should not be a reason for
pooling two putative populations into a single management unit” (Dizon et al., 1997a). A
thorough investigation of population structure should involve both nuclear and mtDNA
markers (Lande, 1991; Dizon et al., 1997a).
Because mtDNA is maternally inherited, differences in dispersal between males
and females can lead to differences in patterns of population differentiation for
biparentally versus maternally inherited genes (Palumbi et al., 1991). As the present
study only examined maternally inherited mtDNA, examination of nuclear markers may
present a very different picture and provide additional information about dispersal
patterns of Kogia males. Unfortunately the extraction of nuclear DNA from ancient
material is still problematic, but a concerted effort could be made to obtain tissue
material from contemporary strandings of Kogia, which would facilitate the analysis of
nuclear DNA in the two species.
In addition, the sample size available from South America was very small.
Although it is possible to detect fixed genetic differences between populations with
sample sizes of about 20 animals per population, it is recommended to use larger
samples than that (between 20 and 50 animals from each population), which should
originate from throughout the geographic range, as cetacean populations are often
structured into groups of closely related animals (Anonymous, 1991). In this respect, the
8-44
addition of further samples, in particular from South America, would elucidate the
population structure in the Southern Hemisphere further. Finally, a comparison with
populations from the Northern Hemisphere would prove interesting as the current data
indicate extensive movement not just throughout the Southern Hemisphere, but possible
also across the equator. Genetic exchange across the equator has to date not been shown
for any cetacean population and in this respect an examination of this phenomenon
would further elucidate the unusual life history strategies employed by the two Kogia
species.
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“The only true voyage of discovery is not to go to new places, but to have other eyes”
-
Marcel Proust
9.1 Summary of the results from the present study
9.1.1 Sample
The size-frequency analysis for Kogia breviceps showed that the sample was
biased towards immature males and mature females, while the sample for K. sima was
normally distributed.
9.1.2 Age and growth

Teeth from 80 K. breviceps and 45 K. sima from South African animals were
used in the age determination. In addition, age estimates were also available for 27 K.
breviceps and one K. sima from Australia. A good correlation between cemental and
dentinal age estimates was found for both species, although cemental readings may not
be as reliable in K. sima as they are for K. breviceps. The clearer GLGs in K. breviceps
with less accessory layers may reflect the differences in distribution patterns between the
two Kogia species, with K. breviceps inhabiting cooler waters than K. sima. Age
estimates from Ross’ 1979 study and from the present study were not significantly
different. No seasonal pattern in dentinal deposition was found for either species of
Kogia. The pulp cavity started to become occluded as early as 288cm body length and
14 years in K. breviceps, while it started to close at 196cm body length and 11 years in
K. sima. The von Bertalanffy growth equation gave the best fit for the data based on the
smallest residual sums of squares values in both K. breviceps and K. sima. Length at
birth for K. breviceps was about 120cm and the weight around 53kg, while it was about
103cm and 14kg for K. sima. These data indicated that K. breviceps neonates were born
at 40.5% of mean adult asymptotic length (296cm), whereas it was 40.2% in K. sima
(mean adult asymptotic length: 256.5cm). The results for the foetal growth rate in
cm/day during the linear part of the growth curve using Kasuya’s (1977) formula
indicated that growth was slightly faster in K. breviceps (0.34cm/day) than K. sima
(0.31cm/day). The asymptotic length for K. breviceps females was calculated as
306.04cm by the growth model and for males as 286.08cm. Both sexes reached physical
maturity at about the same age of 15 years. The longest female K. breviceps in the
sample measured 327.6cm and the longest male 330.5cm. The oldest female K.
breviceps in the sample was estimated to be 22.4 years old. The oldest K. breviceps male
from South Africa was estimated to be 13.33 years old and the oldest Australian male
9-2
was 16 years old. This indicated a life expectancy between 16 and 23 years in K.
breviceps. The heaviest female weighed 480kg and the heaviest male weighed 374.03kg.
The asymptotic length calculated by the growth model was 249.14cm in K. sima
females, while the males reached physical maturity at a slightly larger body size of
263.75cm. This corresponds to 13 and 16 years of age for females and males,
respectively. The longest animal in the sample was a 274.3cm long female and for male
K. sima the longest animal measured 260.4cm. The oldest female was 21.5 years and the
oldest male was estimated to be 17 years old. These data indicated a life expectancy of
17-22 years in K. sima. The heaviest female in the sample weighed 264kg, and the
heaviest male weighed 303kg. In K. breviceps age at ASM and age at physical maturity
was the same for both sexes. In contrast, length at both sexual and physical maturity was
shorter in males than in females. Thus these results would indicate that females are larger
in body size than males in K. breviceps. A different pattern could be seen in K. sima,
where females were both older and longer at ASM, but males “overtook” them and were
older and longer at physical maturity. K. breviceps females had a smaller growth rate
constant (k) than K. sima, which is in agreement with the general trend that smaller
species have higher growth rates than larger ones. The data for males did not support this
trend. Growth constants for both male K. breviceps and female K. sima were remarkably
higher than for other odontocetes of similar size. Appendages such as pectoral fins,
dorsal fin, and flukes were larger in K. sima than K. breviceps.
9.1.3 Male reproduction

Reproductive organs from 19 K. breviceps and 19 K. sima males were examined
to determine the reproductive status of the individual animals. The histology of the testes
of immature males, animals in early spermatogenesis, and animals in late
spermatogenesis was described and histological and morphological parameters for the
individual stages of sexual maturity were given. In male K. breviceps ASM occurred
between 2.5 and 5 years, 241-242cm and 210.0- 233.6kg, while it occurred between 2.55
and three years of age in male K. sima, a body length of 197cm and body weights
between 111.8kg-124.0kg. The maximum combined testis weight made up 1.04% of the
total body weight in K. breviceps and 2.00% in K. sima. Based on data on testes size,
sexual size dimorphism, signs of intraspecific fighting, and group size a polygynous
mating system with a roving male strategy was proposed for both species. A detailed
9-3
examination of seasonality of spermatogenesis was not possible due to the small sample
size, but the year-round presence of K. sima males in late spermatogenesis suggested an
absence of seasonal testicular activity in this species. Examination of sperm morphology
indicated that the spermatozoa of K. breviceps and K. sima were similar in shape and
size, with K. breviceps having a more rounded sperm head, while it was more bullet-
shaped in K. sima. In both species the surface area of the sperm head was the same and
the midpiece was short and comprised of spherical mitochondria arranged in rows and
columns. Both species had five to six rows of spherical mitochondria, with five
mitochondria per row, resulting in 25 to 30 mitochondria. While the mean total length of
the sperm was larger in K. breviceps, the mean length of the head of the spermatozoon
was slightly but significantly larger in K. sima.
9.1.4 Female reproduction

Reproductive organs from 25 female K. breviceps and 26 female K. sima from
South Africa were examined to determine the reproductive status of the individual
animals. The morphological characteristics and colour of the ovaries in both species of
Kogia were in agreement with previous reports. Ovulations occurred equally in both
ovaries in K. breviceps. The onset of sexual maturity in female K. breviceps was
estimated to be at about 262cm and around five years and the weight at the onset of
sexual maturity was between 272.2kg and 301kg. The ovulation rate of 0.9 per year for
K. breviceps indicated that, on average, ovulations occurred about every 13.3 months.
The gestation length calculated based on a neonate length of 120cm was 353.3 days or
11.8 months, while the monthly occurrence of foetuses and juveniles suggested a
gestation period of approximately 11 months. There was a reproductive season with
conceptions occurring from April to September and births possibly occurring from
March to August in K. breviceps. Weaning may start after a year of lactation, but
lactation may continue for two years. The foetal sex ratio in K. breviceps was biased
towards males and this trend was even stronger in the juvenile sex ratio. In K. sima the
left ovary was significantly more active than the right one. The onset of sexual maturity
for K. sima females occurred at about 215cm and around five GLGs and between
155.6kg and 169kg. K. sima females had an ovulation rate of 0.7 per year, which means
that ovulations occurred about every 17.1 months (or roughly one and a half years).
Using Kasuya’s (1977) formula the estimated gestation length, based on a neonate length
9-4
of 103cm, was 333.3 days or 11.1 months, while the monthly occurrence of foetuses and
neonates suggested a gestation length of 12 months. For K. sima both conceptions and
births occurred between December and March. Lactation may last at least one year, but
weaning can start as early as six months.11.5% of mature female K. sima that stranded
along the Southern African coast were found to be simultaneously lactating and
pregnant. These data indicated that K. sima may also show annual reproduction, if the
conditions are right, although that may be facultative and some animals may only
reproduce every two years. The reproductive strategy determined for both Kogia species
indicated that lactation lasts about one year in both species, but may extend to two years.
A relatively high percentage of females was simultaneously lactating and pregnant in
both species, but the accumulation rate of corpora indicated that although K. breviceps
may have an annual reproduction, at least some K. sima females may only reproduce
every two years. Both species exhibited seasonal reproduction, but while K. breviceps
appeared to have a protracted mating and calving season of six months, K. sima exhibits
a shorter mating and calving season over the period of four months with births occurring
during the warmest part of the year. The mating and calving seasons overlapped slightly
between the two Kogia species off South Africa. Post-partum ovulation was suggested
for both species.
9.1.5 Diet
Stomach contents of 42 K. breviceps (21 females, 20 males and one animal of
unknown sex) and 33 K. sima (20 females and 13 males) stranded along the South
African coastline were examined. The diet of K. breviceps comprised 50 different
cephalopod species from 22 families and 17 other prey species including fish (12
species), crustaceans (five species), and colonial salps (one species). In contrast, K. sima
fed on a smaller range of prey species made up of 32 cephalopod species from 17
families and six others (three fish and three crustacean species).
The results of the dietary analysis indicated that both Kogia species, which are
sympatric off the coast of Southern Africa, shared the same ecological niche in terms of
prey species. Statistical analyses using both the Simpson and Shannon-Weaver diversity
indices showed that the diets of K. breviceps and K. sima were significantly different in
terms of diversity of prey species (p<0.0005 and p<0.0001, respectively). In addition, the
diet of the two Kogia species was also significantly different in terms of species richness
9-5
(p<0.0001). However, the niche overlap index of 0.86 (where 1.0 indicates complete
overlap and 0.0 indicates none) indicated that the diet and therefore the foraging areas of
the two species overlapped to a great extent. While both Kogia species fed on the same
main prey items (Histioteuthis sp. and Lycoteuthis diadema), each whale species fed on a
suite of prey species which differed between the two whale species. An examination of
prey size indicated that little difference existed between the sizes of prey consumed by
K. breviceps and K. sima. However, the data indicated some separation of the niche in
the form of trophic segregation, spatial segregation, and temporal segregation. K.
breviceps was more of a generalist feeder than K. sima, which could be considered a
specialist feeder, and the data on prey size indicated that K. sima fed on slightly larger
prey than K. breviceps, although the latter fed on a larger range of prey sizes. No clear
preference for either ammoniacal or muscular squid could be observed in either whale
species. The diet of both Kogia species included benthic prey, indicating that they could
dive to the bottom at least in coastal waters up to 200m in depth. Furthermore, they also
fed over the continental shelf and over the slope. The presence of some deep-water
species in the diet of K. breviceps indicated that this species also foraged over the lower
slope and slope edge, while K. sima foraged at lesser depths. This segregation of the
niche along the spatial dimension does not only concentrate on depth, but also resulted in
an inshore/offshore segregation. Deep-diving species are able to exploit more offshore
areas and gain access to prey that is unavailable to the shallower diving species and are
thus often found over deep ocean areas, while the shallower foraging/diving species, in
this case K. sima, is restricted to the shallower inshore waters. These results also have
implications for the distribution ranges of the two Kogia species. The ultimate
controlling factor for the distribution of cetaceans is food and offshore species of
cetaceans feed on a higher variety of prey, allowing them to be distributed over a wide
range. Equally, a large range results in the animal encountering more types of prey and
thus in having a larger niche breadth, thus the causality in this case is unclear. In this
respect the generalist diet of K. breviceps allows it to have a larger distribution than K.
sima and travel more widely. In terms of temporal segregation the feeding strategy
(being either generalist or specialist) can have an effect on the pattern of reproduction. K.
breviceps, being the generalist feeder, had a longer mating and calving period extending
over a period of six months, while K. sima, which was more of a specialist feeder, had a
shorter mating and calving period of four months. The observed differences in
reproductive seasonality in the two Kogia species off South Africa may have been
9-6
selected for in order to prevent utilisation of the same resource at a time when energetic
demands are the highest.
In addition, the diets of males and females, immature and mature animals, and
animals belonging to group 1 (sexually mature males and sexually mature females
neither lactating, pregnant or accompanied by a calf) and group 2 (immature animals of
both sexes and females that were lactating and/or pregnant and/or accompanied by a
calf) within each species were also overlapping to great extent as indicated by niche
overlap indices. It is thought that the partitioning into subgroups and the use of different
foraging ranges, different prey sizes, and different prey species aids in resource
partitioning and thus segregation of the niche. In both Kogia species females fed to a
larger extent on Histioteuthis sp. than males, which had a more diverse diet. In K.
breviceps males fed to a larger extent on fish than females, which in turn showed a
preference for crustaceans. The sexual dimorphism found in K. breviceps was also
reflected in the prey size preferences in K. breviceps, with females taking same-sized as
well as slightly larger prey than males. In both species of Kogia mature animals
consumed more fish than immature animals. In addition, in K. breviceps mature animals
foraged predominantly on a different species of fish (Phosichthys argenteus) to
immature animals (Merluccius capensis). In K. sima there was also some difference in
the type of cephalopod consumed: while mature animals consumed mainly Loligo
vulgaris, immature animals fed predominantly on Sepia papillata. While in both species
mature animals fed mainly on larger prey than immature animals (80-100mm), immature
K. sima foraged predominantly on much smaller prey (0-20mm) than immature K.
breviceps (60-80mm). This may present further subtle differences in niche segregation
between the two Kogia species. In K. breviceps animals belonging to group 1 showed a
clear preference for Loligo vulgaris reynaudii and for fish. Animals of both Kogia
species from group 2 foraged predominantly on Sepia sp. and Sepia papillata. It is
interesting to note that group 1 in K. sima fed almost twice as much on Lycoteuthis
diadema than group 2, while animals from group 2 in K. breviceps consumed more
Lycoteuthis diadema than those from group 1. This seems to present a further overlap
between the two Kogia species with K. breviceps from group 2 and K. sima from group
1 feeding to large extents on Lycoteuthis diadema, and may indicate some spatial overlap
in foraging area between the two groups of the two Kogia species. Interestingly, the size-
frequency analysis of the prey indicated that in both species animals belonging to group
1 fed predominantly on prey that was 80 to 100mm in size, while animals from group 2
9-7
fed on prey 60-80 mm in size. In addition, K. sima from group 2 also fed on smaller prey
0-20mm in size. In both Kogia species females accompanied by calves and immature
young fed on smaller prey and closer inshore than mature males and non-reproducing
mature females. This inshore movement may be due to the fact that the cow would not
have to dive as deep in search of prey as she would over the edge of the continental
shelf. Thus she would not have to leave her calf unattended on the surface for too long or
reduce her own foraging success, because the calf would not be able to dive for as long
or as deep. The preferred prey of animals belonging to group 1 (Sepia sp.) inhabits
shallower waters and contains more calcium than other cephalopods and may thus be
important in the diet of lactating females and growing immature animals.
9.1.6 Stranding patterns

In order to determine stranding patterns of the two Kogia species along the South
African coastline 106 strandings of K. breviceps and 85 strandings of K. sima between
1880 and 1995 were analysed. Strandings of male and female K. breviceps occurred in
more or less equal numbers, whereas K. sima had a slightly higher rate of female
strandings. This may be due to the fact that females seem to move closer inshore with
their young in order to feed or due to reproductive stress as females of both species may
ovulate up to once a year and are often found to be simultaneously lactating and
pregnant. The majority of the stranded animals were mature and strandings comprised
mainly dead animals. The fact that the majority of the strandings for each species were
single animals is probably a reflection of the group size of the two species, which appear
to be mainly solitary. The maximum number of animals that stranded together was three
for K. breviceps (composed of a pregnant and lactating female accompanied by two
smaller, unsexed individuals) and four for K. sima (composed of one immature male and
three immature females). The temporal analysis of Kogia strandings over the years
showed clearer peaks for K. sima than for K. breviceps strandings. This may indicate
some correlation with environmental factors influencing inshore/offshore movement of
K. sima, which does not influence K. breviceps. A general decrease in the number of
strandings of both species was observed in the 1990’s. K. breviceps stranded more
frequently during the austral winter and spring (July to October), while K. sima stranded
in more or less equal numbers throughout the year, with small peaks in late summer and
winter (April and July, respectively). Although no strong seasonal changes were found in
9-8
the flow of the Agulhas Current off the South African coastline, it may be possible that
meanders and plumes shooting off the current and travelling towards the coast are more
prevalent at a certain time of year, resulting in an increased number of strandings. Peaks
in the number of live strandings in relation to month in both Kogia species appeared to
be associated with reproductive events such as calving and weaning as they occurred just
after the end of the calving season, probably resulting from a combination of factors such
as difficulties during birth, unsuccessful weaning of the calf, reproductive stress for the
cow associated with simultaneous pregnancy and lactation, and, lastly, a slight migration
further inshore. In addition, the inshore movement in relation to feeding observed in
cow/calf pairs and immature animals may also increase the possibility of stranding as the
animals find themselves in a more complex environment than the one they are used to.
No strandings of K. sima were recorded during June over the last 30 years. June is the
coldest month in the austral winter and therefore sea surface temperatures (SST’s) are
the lowest off the Southern African coastline during this month. The analysis of Kogia
peak stranding locations by longitude indicated that K. breviceps stranded in both the
Western and Eastern Cape regions, but had a “peak” location at around 20°E in the
Western Cape. In contrast, K. sima almost exclusively stranded in the Eastern Cape at
around 26°E and was only found to strand in the Western Cape during the summer
months. This indicated a clear preference of K. sima for the Eastern Cape region and
shows that the species preferred warmer water temperatures, especially as it was only
found in the cooler waters of the Western Cape during the summer months, when water
temperatures were the highest. In contrast, K. breviceps appeared to frequent both the
Western and Eastern Cape almost equally, perhaps with a slight preference for the
Western Cape. This difference in habitat preference and distribution was further
supported by the general stranding distribution of the two species: the shorter strip of
coastline along which K. sima stranded was still influenced by the warm Agulhas
Current, whereas K. breviceps had a much broader stranding range, occurring even along
the coast of Namibia, which is predominantly influenced by the cold Benguela system.
An eastward movement of strandings of K. breviceps cow/calf pairs throughout the year
may have been a result of the eastward migration of the main prey item of the cow/calf
pairs and/or may have been related to the reported eastward movement of Benguela
water at the same time as the strandings occurred. In contrast cow/calf strandings of K.
sima occurred exclusively in two bays in the Eastern Cape, namely Algoa Bay and
Jeffrey’s Bay, which are strongly influenced by the Agulhas Current. These differences
9-9
in the stranding distribution of cow/calf pairs between the two species together with the
observed differences of the general stranding distribution indicated that the Agulhas
Current may in fact play a greater role in the general ecology of K. sima, since it is the
major oceanographic feature influencing the marine environment off the Eastern Cape
coast. The more “clumped” distribution of strandings of immature Kogia along the South
African coastline, which was particularly pronounced in K. sima, indicated that mature
and immature animals form different groups. Differences in sea-surface temperatures at
the stranding location of live K. breviceps and K. sima further supported the above
indication that K. sima appears to prefer warmer temperatures and probably has a closer
association with the Agulhas Current than K. breviceps. Survey data in combination with
the stranding data indicated that both Kogia species had an affinity for western boundary
currents, which are usually warm currents and provide the necessary oceanographic
conditions of thermal fronts that the two species need for foraging. Previous
morphological studies on both Kogia species indicated that although K. breviceps had
the bigger body length of the two species, K. sima had larger extremities such as flippers,
dorsal fin, and flukes. These data supported the idea that K. breviceps has a more
temperate, cold-water habitat and therefore smaller extremities in order to conserve body
heat, while K. sima has a more tropical, warm water habitat, thus no need to conserve as
much heat and subsequently has larger extremities. Conservation of body heat may be
especially important for species, which undertake long and deep dives as is indicated by
the diet data for K. breviceps. In contrast K. sima forages in shallower waters, which
probably results in shorter dive times and a lesser need to conserve body heat. This in
turn may lead to larger appendages. Strandings of both species of Kogia may also be
related to the migration of their main prey, but too little is known about the biology and
distribution of most cephalopod species off Southern Africa to draw any conclusions.
9.1.7 Population structure

In order to analyse the population structure of both Kogia species in the Southern
Hemisphere cytochrome b sequences were available for 96 K. breviceps and 29 K. sima.
For comparative purposes sequences of the control region were available for 41 K.
breviceps and three K. sima. 46.62% of the extractions from “ancient” material resulted
in clean sequences, which could be used for analysis of population structure in Kogia. A
clear separation of K. breviceps and K. sima into two clades with a bootstrap support of
9-10
100 indicated that there were two clearly distinct Kogia species and that the
morphological characteristics used for species identification were reliable and provided a
good guideline for researchers dealing with stranded animals. The distribution of
mtDNA variation in K. breviceps from different geographical locations in the Southern
Hemisphere suggested a very close evolutionary relationship among these populations
and the presence of haplotypes common to all subpopulations examined were an
indication of ancestral mtDNA lineages that remain widespread following the
divergence of populations. Such a pattern would arise due to extensive and historically
recent gene flow in the absence of zoogeographic barriers and would require a life
history strategy, which is conducive to dispersal. A lack of significant phylogeographic
structure in K. breviceps and the high number of haplotypes found indicated substantial
gene flow among populations, which would be facilitated by the movement of
individuals among populations, thus inhibiting genetic differentiation of local
populations. Over the short-term there appeared to be some restriction to movement
between the South African and New Zealand populations, which suggested that the
South African population is somewhat isolated from others in the Southern Hemisphere.
K. breviceps are known to be solitary or occur in rather small groups and such a social
structure would facilitate a high genetic diversity within species. However, it would also
result in a low phylogeographic diversity, if animals travel independently and over wide
ranges and do not have designated breeding grounds. There were no indications in the
results that there was any greater phylogeographic structure in females than in males for
K. breviceps. In contrast to K. breviceps, the data on the phylogeographic structure of K.
sima were somewhat restrictive as the majority of the samples originated from South
Africa. Nevertheless, both nucleotide and haplotype diversities were markedly lower
than in K. breviceps and more similar to those for other small cetacean populations. The
grouping of samples from Chile and Australia with common haplotypes from South
Africa indicated that there is some gene flow between these populations. Additional
samples of K. sima from other populations need to be included in the analysis in order to
determine the degree of isolation between them. The higher mtDNA diversity within K.
breviceps than within K. sima suggested a bigger population size for the former. The
results of the genetic analysis indicated a relatively wide dispersal of K. breviceps in the
southern Hemisphere. In evolutionary terms, the species appeared to have even crossed
the equator at some stage as suggested by the fact that animals in both hemispheres
shared common haplotypes. The following three different possible explanations for the
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wide dispersal of K. breviceps were explored: the energetic requirements that facilitate
annual reproduction in female K. breviceps may be so high that reproductively active
females disperse in search of sufficient and high quality food, the abundance of squid
(the main food source) may be cyclic, causing the majority of the animals to migrate in
search of food at times when food availability is low, or predator/prey interactions
between potential predators such as sharks and Kogia may be cyclic, causing movement
of Kogia to other localities. In comparison with other cetaceans, such as the sperm whale
Physeter macrocephalus, which shows very low levels of nucleotide diversity in the
mitochondrial control region, K. breviceps had levels comparable to those exhibited by
the humpback whale M. novaeangliae, which has the highest nucleotide diversity
observed in a cetacean. The lack of social cohesion in K. breviceps compared to the
sperm whale, P. macrocephalus, which travels in stable social groups, may to a large
extent account for the differences seen in the phylogeographic patterns of the two
species. Additional contributing factors would be the differences in reproductive rates as
well as the lack of matrilines in K. breviceps. The data resulting from the genetic
analysis indicated that the Kogia populations off South Africa are somewhat
reproductively isolated from other populations in the Southern Hemisphere. The absence
of any detectable genetic differences between a number of populations such as the New
Zealand and Australian populations does not necessarily imply that the interchange of
individuals between them is so large that the populations could be treated as a single unit
for management purposes. As data on the morphological, behavioural, geographical and
demographic differences between different Kogia populations are widely lacking and
only basic data are available for the two Kogia populations off South Africa, it is at this
stage not possible to nominate the populations analysed here as panmictic super-
populations.
While chapters 3 to 5 give indications of the life history strategies of the two
Kogia species, chapters 6 to 8 present information on the general ecology. However,
both the life history strategies and ecologies of K. breviceps and K. sima are intimately
linked as is discussed in detail in the following sections.
9.2 Life history theory

Determining the status and natural history of a species is important in order to
9-12
acquire a basic understanding about its biology as well as to determine its conservation
status and ensure its continued survival. On a broader scale natural history data gain
importance when viewed in terms of general mammalian or evolutionary biology.
9.2.1 The slow-fast continuum

In recent years the theory of the evolution of life histories and in particular about
its determining factors has changed dramatically (Charnov, 1991; Stearns, 1992;
Kozlowski and Weiner, 1997). Previously body size, as well as brain size (Sacher and
Staffeldt, 1974; Sacher, 1980), and metabolic rate (McNab, 1980) were believed to be
key determinants of life history variation. In particular, body size appeared to be a strong
determining factor and these thoughts led to the concept of the “slow-fast continuum” of
life histories in mammals (Stearns, 1992) (Figure 9.1). In general larger bodied mammal
species live slower lives, have lower mass-specific metabolic rates, longer gestation
lengths, wean later, reach sexual maturity at a higher age, produce a lower number of
young less frequently, and have longer maximum recorded lifespans, while smaller
species are shorter lived, attain sexual maturity at an earlier age and shorter body length,
have larger litter sizes and reproduce more frequently and have lower maximum
lifespans (Read and Harvey, 1989; Promislow and Harvey, 1990; Purvis and Harvey,
1995) (Figure 9.1). This slow-fast continuum, driven by body size, seemed to explain the
great variation in life history strategies observed throughout the mammalian orders, and
this allometric relationship can also be seen within the Cetacea. Small odontocetes like
the porpoises and small dolphins of the Genus Cephalorhynchus are located closer to the
fast end of the slow-fast continuum as they reach sexual maturity relatively early and
have a life expectancy of around 20 years (Gaskin et al., 1984; Slooten, 1991; Read and
Hohn, 1995; Hohn et al., 1996) (see Appendix F). At the slow end of the continuum are
the large mysticetes, like the bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus, that reach sexual
maturity as late as 15 years of age and live up to a hundred years or longer as recent
studies have shown (George et al., 1997) (see Appendix F). The most diverse cetacean
group with respect to body size and longevity are the Delphinidae, with ages at
attainment of sexual maturity ranging from five years in female Commerson’s dolphins
9-13
Proboscidea
Sirenia
Cetacea
Primates
Life history parameters
Carnivora Artiodactyla
Pinnipedia
Chiroptera
Insectivora
Rodentia
Lagomorpha
small large
Body size
Figure 9.1: Slow-fast continuum of life histories for mammals.

After Harvey and Purvis, 1999.
9-14
Cephalorhynchus commersonii, six years in common dolphins Delphinus delphis, and

seven years in Hector’s dolphins Cephalorhynchus hectori, to 16 years in killer whales
Orcinus orca (Appendix F). However, most medium-sized delphinids attain sexual
maturity between eight and 12 years of age (Perrin and Reilly, 1984). In this context it
has been argued that porpoises, in particular the harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena,
represent one extreme of life history strategies among cetaceans in that they have an
extremely short life span (maximum recorded age is 24 years) (Hohn and Brownell,
1990; Lockyer, 1995), early maturity (between three and four years of age) (Read,
1990a; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994; Read and Hohn, 1995), and very high reproductive
rates (annual reproduction) (Sørensen and Kinze, 1994; Read and Hohn, 1995)
compared to other cetaceans like the larger odontocetes or mysticetes (Read and Hohn,
1995). Similar results have also been presented for the Dall’s porpoise Phocoeinoides
dalli (Ferrero and Walker, 1999). Furthermore, it was suggested that this trend represents
part of the general allometric pattern observed in mammals as outlined above (Western,
1979; Read and Hohn, 1995).
9.2.2 The new model

However, during the last decade the general thinking about mammalian life
history strategies and in particular the factors influencing them has changed dramatically
(Harvey and Purvis, 1999) and recent research indicates that in fact the ecology of a
species plays a more prominent role in shaping its life history strategy than was
previously assumed (Austad and Fischer, 1991; Charnov, 1991; Austad and Fischer,
1992; Kozlowski and Weiner, 1997). Although the general perception that body size is
an indicator of life history strategy holds true, the slow-fast continuum remains even
when the effects of body size are removed (Read and Harvey, 1989). Thus body size
alone is not a reliable indicator for life history strategies. It rather appears that species
with a high mortality rate (either extrinsic or intrinsic) mature early (Charnov, 1990;
Promislow and Harvey, 1991) and that size at sexual maturity is determined by growth
rates, which in turn are set by assimilation and respiration rates (Charnov, 1991; Purvis
and Harvey, 1995; Kozlowski and Weiner, 1997) (Figure 9.2). Age at maturity, adult
and juvenile mortality rates, and annual fecundity were all shown to be linked in
mammalian life history strategies, even when body size was held constant (Harvey and
Zammuto, 1985; Read and Harvey, 1989; Promislow and Harvey, 1990; Charnov, 1991)
9-15
(Figure 9.2). Higher adult mortality rates result in a lower age at maturity (Charnov,
1990) and in fact mortality rates may represent the primary link between ecology and life
history evolution (Promislow and Harvey, 1991) (Figure 9.2). High rates of both
extrinsic and
intrinsic mortality were found to be correlated not only with low age at sexual
maturation, but also with other life history traits such as large litters and short gestation
lengths and short inter-birth intervals (Promislow and Harvey, 1991). Factors affecting
the extrinsic mortality rate include predators and parasites, whereas intrinsic mortality
can be understood as resulting from choices of resource allocation for reproduction and a
high reproductive turnout may increase the intrinsic mortality rate (Promislow and
Harvey, 1990; 1991).
(intrinsic/extrinsic)
Adult mortality
Age at maturity
Growth law
Adult body size Longevity
Environmental
parameters
Fecundity
(Water temperature,
diet)
Juvenile mortality
Figure 9.2: Model for mammalian life history strategies, after Charnov (1991) and
Harvey and Purvis (1999).
The importance of knowledge of animal life histories for the development of

conservation strategies has become ever more evident in recent years. Relating life
history variation to environmental predictability and population processes may provide
insights into species specific conservation as species with “slow” life histories (with
characteristically late onset of maturity, slow growth, and low reproductive rates) require
9-16
larger areas and live at lower densities in more unpredictable environments (Ferguson
and Larivière, 2002). As a result such species are more susceptible to the exploitation of
adults in comparison to related species with “faster” life histories (Ferguson and
Larivière, 2002).
9.3 Life history strategy of Kogia

Little comparative work has been done on the life history strategies of cetaceans
(Kasuya, 1995) and previously, little information was available on the natural history of
the genus Kogia. However, the data from the present study allow first conclusions to be
drawn about the life history strategies of both Kogia species. Both species of Kogia are
regarded as belonging to the medium to larger sized odontocetes and are located close to
the similar sized dephinids on the slow-fast continuum (Figure 9.3a). The maximum
recorded lengths for animals from Southern Africa show that K. sima has similar body
lengths to the bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus off South Africa (Cockcroft and
Ross, 1990), while K. breviceps is somewhat larger (Table 9.1). Thus when age
parameters are considered (like age at sexual maturity versus maximum age, Figure
9.3b) one would expect the age at sexual maturity and the lifespan of Kogia to be similar
to that of a similar-sized odontocete, like the bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus. However,
both Kogia species exhibit surprisingly fast life histories, with low ages at sexual
maturity (between three and five years), relatively short lifespans (around 22 years), and
high reproductive rates (annual reproduction) (Table 9.1). Thus they group closer with
the smaller odontocetes like the porpoises and the Hector’s dolphin C. hectori when age
parameters are considered (Figure 9.3b). In contrast, most medium-sized odontocetes,
like the bottlenose dolphin, reach sexual maturity between eight and 12 years of age and
dolphins of similar size reach maximum ages of between 40 and 60 years (Perrin and
Reilly, 1984) (see Appendix F). A female K. breviceps stranded in Florida exhibited a
total of 29 corpora in her ovaries (Jenness and Odell, 1978). Unfortunately no age
estimate was available for this female, but if we assume attainment of sexual maturity
around five years and annual ovulation as found in the present study, this female would
have been around 34 years old. So, although Kogia elsewhere may well reach higher
maximum ages overall they do not live as long as one would expect of an animal their
size and similar life histories are usually only found in much smaller odontocetes, for
example in some porpoises. Therefore the allometric explanation of the slow-fast
9-17
a)
r2=0.96
P. catodon
3.0
Log10 maximum recorded
O.orca
H. ampullatus
G. melas
length (cm)
G. macrorhynchus
T. truncatus
2.5 K. breviceps
P. dalli K. simus
P. phocoena
C. commersonii
P. sinus
2.0
2.0 2.5 3.0
Log10 mean body length at

sexual maturity (cm)
b)
r2=0.42 G.macrorhynchus
1.8
Log10 maximum recorded
T. truncatus
age (GLG's/years)
P. catodon
1.6
O. orca
1.4 P. phocoena
K. simus K. breviceps H. ampullatus
P.sinus
C. hectori
1.2
P. dalli
1.0
0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 1.2
Log10 mean age at
sexual maturity (GLGs/years)
Figure 9.3: Slow-fast continuum for female odontocetes as indicated by

length at sexual maturity versus maximum body length (a) and age at
sexual maturity versus maximum age (b). The data are based on
mean values calculated from publications listed inAppendix F. If a
range was provided the median of that range was used.
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continuum does not satisfactorily explain the life history strategies of Kogia.
Table 9.1: Summary of life history parameters of Kogia from South Africa from the
present study.
Life history parameter K. breviceps K. sima
Length at birth (cm) ♂/♀ 120 103
Age at sexual maturity ♀ ~5 ~5
(GLGs) ♂ 2.5-5 2.55-3
Length at sexual maturity ♀ 262 215
(cm) ♂ 241-242 197
Maximum age (GLGs) ♀ 22.4 21.5
♂ 13 (16*) 17
Maximum body length ♀ 327.6 274.3
(cm) ♂ 330.5 260.4
Gestation length (months) 11-12 11-12
Ovulation rate/ year 0.9 0.7
(1 every 13.3 mths) (1 every 17.1 mths)
Lactating and pregnant
females (%) 24.1 11.5
According to the new model for life history evolution, however, the life history
parameters of low ages at sexual maturity, short lifespans, and high reproductive rates
observed in the two Kogia are indicative of high mortality rates (Figure 9.4). These
could be a result of high intrinsic mortality, due to the demands and resource allocation
necessary for annual reproduction, or they could be ascribed to high extrinsic mortality
such as predation pressure or parasitism. These scenarios are described in detail below
(see section 9.3.2). And although mortality is not the single driving force in the evolution
of life histories it does serve as an important link between various demographic and
ecological factors. Body size is largely determined by environmental variables such as
water temperature and prey quantity and quality, which in turn affect the so-called
growth law or growth rate (Figure 9.4). Although the two Kogia species follow the
general trend seen in mammals, with smaller species (K. sima) having higher growth rate
constants than larger ones (K. breviceps), the growth rate constants for male K. breviceps
and female K. sima were remarkably higher compared to those of other similar-sized
odontocetes (see Chapter 3). In considering the role that ecological factors play in
shaping mammalian life histories the new model (Figure 9.2) based on Charnov’s (1991)
and Harvey and Purvis’ (1999) ideas now explains the previously little understood
9-19
observation how different sized species may exhibit rather similar life history strategies.
High adult mortality
Low age at maturity

(~3-5 yrs)
Growth law Reduced lifespan
Medium/large adult (~16-22 yrs)
body size
Environmental
parameters
Annual
(Water temperature, reproduction
diet)
Figure 9.4: Life history strategy for Kogia.
9.3.1 Annually reproducing cetaceans

And in fact the range in body size observed in cetacean species that commonly
exhibit annual reproduction is rather impressive. Those species range from the smallest
odontocetes, like the Dall’s porpoise P. dalli and harbour porpoise P. phocoena, over
Kogia, which are large to medium sized odontocetes as already established, to the larger
baleen whales like the minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata and the humpback
whale Megaptera novaeangliae (Table 9.2). All have relatively low ages at sexual
maturity as well as short lifespans. And it is also remarkable that those species that do
not have a strictly annual reproduction, like K. sima and the humpback whale, also show
longer gestation periods than those species with a strictly annual reproduction (Table
9.2). Estimates for mortality rates in cetaceans are difficult to obtain for obvious reasons
and we know little about the mortality rates of these species, but considering the
similarities between the other life history parameters one would expect them to be
similarly high. Additionally, the demands of resource allocation to maintain annual
reproductive rates in these species would also lead to increased intrinsic mortality rates.
9-20
One species listed here that does not exhibit annual reproduction is the blue
whale, which is the largest mammal on earth. Unfortunately, no data are available on its
longevity, but the low age at sexual maturity of five years is remarkable (Table 9.2). This
wide range of body sizes found in cetaceans that live the fast life reflects how each
species optimal body size depends upon its combination of ecological parameters.
Table 9.2: Comparison of cetacean species that commonly exhibit pregnancies in

successive years.
Species Gestation Lactation Annual Age at Lifespan Mortality
(months) (months) reproduction? sexual (yrs) rates
maturity
(yrs)
Dall’s
porpoise 10-11 - yes 4-5 15/22 ?
Phocoenoides
dallii 1
Harbour
porpoise 10.5 9 yes 3-4 24 ?
Phocoena
phocoena 2
Dwarf sperm
whale 12 6-12 yes 3-4 21.5 ?
K. sima 3 (facultative)
Pygmy sperm
whale 11 ~12 yes 5 22.4 ?
K. breviceps 4
Minke whale
Balaenoptera 10 3-6 Yes 6-7 50 ?
acutorostrata 5
Humpback
whale 10-12 10-12 sometimes 5-7 48 ?
Megaptera
novaeangliae 6
Blue whale
Balaenoptera 11 7 No 5 - ?
musculus 7
1
: Newby, 1982 in: Ferrero and Walker, 1999; Ferrero and Walker, 1999; 2: Gaskin et
al., 1984; Hohn and Brownell, 1990; Read, 1990a,b; Sørensen and Kinze, 1994;
Lockyer, 1995; Read and Hohn, 1995; 3: present study; 4: present study;
5
: Williamson, 1975; Masaki, 1979; Best, 1982; 6: Chittleborough, 1965; Clapham and
Mayo, 1990; Clapham, 1992; 7: Lockyer, 1984; Evans, 1987.
It is interesting to note that most species listed in Table 9.2 in which the females
are commonly observed to reproduce in successive years and consequently possibly have
high mortality rates (namely the harbour porpoise P. phocoena (Read, 1990b), Dall’s
porpoise P. dalli (Ferrero and Walker, 1999), the humpback whale M. novaeangliae
(Clapham and Mayo, 1990; Straley et al., 1994; Clapham, 1996) and K. breviceps) also
9-21
show reversed sexual size dimorphism (Ohsumi, 1966; Gaskin et al., 1984; Kasuya,
1995; Clapham, 1996). Reversed sexual size dimorphism would be in agreement with
the proposed life history strategy for Kogia. It has been suggested that mortality may
influence the evolution of sexual size dimorphism, because if sexual dimorphism is
costly to achieve in males due to delays in growth to maturity, and if, in addition, these
costs must be offset by increased fecundity, species with high mortality rates may not be
able to afford sexual dimorphism (Promislow and Harvey, 1991). In these cases males
with low probabilities of survival cannot afford to delay growth because they run the
chance of dying before beginning to reproduce (Promislow and Harvey, 1991). As other
traits in the life history of Kogia indicate that both species may suffer high mortality
rates, the little sexual size dimorphism or even possible lack thereof (i.e. both sexes
being of equal size) may be explained by the idea that the resources are rather allocated
to reaching sexual maturity early and beginning to reproduce than in reaching a larger
body size. Ralls (1976), reviewing mammalian species in which females are larger than
males, concluded that this phenomenon can be explained by the fact that larger females
are better mothers. In this context the argument that the body condition of females
determines the length of the reproductive cycle holds true as well. Since reversed sexual
dimorphism may appear counter intuitive in a species where males fight over access to
females, as in the humpback whale M. novaeangliae (Clapham, 1996) suggests that the
relative size of the two sexes may be the result of two very different selective forces as
the energetic constraints of lactation may to a greater degree favour larger size in females
than does competitive ability in males.
Further similarities observed in those cetacean species that frequently exhibit
annual ovulation are a relatively short gestation and lactation period and a low age at
ASM. Kasuya (1995), listing similarities between the life history strategies of mysticetes
and phocoenids, remarks on the short parental investment in both groups, which may
also be true for Kogia as data from the present study indicate. He furthermore suggests
that the maximum reproductive output of over 20 calves found in mysticetes may have
evolved to compensate for the high juvenile mortality resulting from short parental
investment. Indeed it has been suggested that species with a low probability of adult
survival should be selected to produce large numbers of offspring and invest small
amounts in any one offspring (Promislow and Harvey, 1991). Thus the same species will
raise offspring from conception to independence as quickly as possible and consequently
have small offspring with relatively short gestation and lactation lengths (Promislow and
9-22
Harvey, 1991). In porpoises the short calving interval suggests a high lifetime production
(Kasuya, 1995). Although the low age of sexual maturity at three to four years and a
maximum longevity of up to 24 years (Gaskin et al., 1984; Hohn and Brownell, 1990;
Sørensen and Kinze, 1994; Lockyer, 1995) suggests that the harbour porpoise P.
phocoena may have up to 20 offspring per lifetime it was suggested that only a few
offspring are produced per lifetime (Gaskin et al., 1984; Read, 1990a). Due to the annual
ovulation rate and facultative annual ovulation rate found in K. breviceps and K. sima,
respectively, one can expect a high number of offspring per lifetime for the two Kogia
species. However, the success rate of pregnancies and calf and juvenile mortality rates
are unknown for the two Kogia species and it may well be that only a few offspring
produced per lifetime survive to adulthood and reproduce. Another similarity found
between mysticetes and porpoises was that apart from the mother-calf bond no other
stable or long lasting social associations are reported for the two groups (Kasuya, 1995).
Both stranding data and observations in the wild as well as the genetic data indicate that
this is also the case in Kogia.
Although the proposed high mortality rate of Kogia may explain the low age at
sexual maturity and low life expectancy it does not explain the differences in female
reproductive strategy observed between the two species. When phylogenetically related
species have similar physiologies and live in similar environments slight differences
among the species may be due to an accumulation of small differences in morphology,
physiology, ecology or behaviour (Harvey and Purvis, 1999). One possible explanation
may be that the two species are threatened to differing degrees by predation due to their
different group sizes. K. breviceps are solitary animals and may therefore be more prone
to predation than K. sima, which occur in small groups. Previous studies on variation of
predation pressure with varying group size in antelope would support this argument
(Jarman, 1974). An additional explanation may be that a combination of ecological
factors such as prey density and quality as well as temperature regimes have an influence
on the reproductive strategy employed in cetaceans.
In conclusion the new model for life history evolution based on the ideas of
Charnov (1991) and Harvey and Purvis (1999) explains how species with different body
sizes may have similar life history strategies and reproductive strategies. It also shows
how similar-sized species, like for example the bottlenose dolphin T. truncatus and K.
sima, can exhibit very different strategies. The model indicates that body size is an
adaptation to the life history of a species rather than a determinant and that ecological
9-23
processes play more important roles in the evolution of mammalian life histories than
allometric constraints. In this respect the comparison of life history strategies in
cetaceans may present an underlying model for testing the effects of different
environments on the shaping of their life histories.
9.3.2 Extrinsic mortality rates in Kogia –predation and parasitism

A lowered age at sexual maturity resulting from high mortality rates as a result of
exploitation has been reported for populations of spotted striped dolphins (Perrin et al.,
1976; Kasuya, 1985) and exploited species often compensate by producing more
offspring (Kasuya, 1985; Myrick et al., 1986; Chivers and Myrick, 1993). However,
conflicting reactions to exploitation have been reported in cetacean reproductive
parameters and not all parameters behaved as expected with change in population
density (Perrin and Henderson, 1984; Perrin and Reilly, 1984; Barlow, 1985; Chivers
and Myrick, 1993). Furthermore there is no unequivocal evidence whether a species life
history represents a strategy that has evolved over time or is a reaction to
overexploitation (Kasuya, 1995). However, there is no evidence that either Kogia species
has been subjected to excessive exploitation, but both exploitation as well as predation
pressure result in higher mortality rates, thus putting the same pressure on the population
(Kasuya, 1985).
9.3.2.1 Predation
One rather fascinating aspect of the biology of Kogia that is quoted frequently is
the fact that both species appear to squirt ink in a similar way as do squid and other
cephalopods (Baird et al., 1996; Willis and Baird, 1998). This behaviour has previously
been described as a “startle response” (Yamada, 1954; Scott and Gordaro, 1987;
Caldwell and Caldwell, 1989; Baird et al., 1996; Willis and Baird, 1998) and may
represent a predator escape mechanism, similar to that found in cephalopods. A
comparable mechanism in terrestrial mammals is found in the skunk, but such behaviour
has to date not been reported for any other cetacean and it seems possible that the inking
behaviour of Kogia has evolved as a camouflage mechanism to avoid predation by
sharks or killer whales. In addition, the false gill marking characteristic for Kogia as well
as the underslung jaw may represent a form of mimicry and consequently stranded
9-24
Kogia have often been mistaken for sharks by laymen (Baird et al., 1996; Willis and
Baird, 1998; Graham Ross, pers. com.). Credle (1988) noted that the resemblance to
sharks may result in incorrect information concerning a stranding to be passed on to
local authorities. Although predator mimicry is often observed in terrestrial invertebrates,
for example in a number of moths, to date there is no report on a mammal exhibiting this
phenomenon. Shark attacks on Kogia have been reported before for K. breviceps (Long,
1991), and in the present study two K. breviceps (one live animal, one dead animal) and
two K. sima (one live animal, one dead animal) were reported to have stranded with
signs of shark bites. Although these observations suggest that both Kogia species may be
preyed upon by sharks even prior to death, the suggestion that extensive predation
pressure has lead to a fast life history strategy in Kogia remains a hypothesis that will be
hard to test.
However, there are a number of factors in addition to the signs of predator
avoidance and mimicry that may suggest that predation pressure plays an important role
in the shaping of the life histories of the two Kogia species.
Predation risk is a major factor influencing group composition, size, and habitat
use and it furthermore has been suggested as the selective pressure leading to the
evolution of sociality in odontocetes (Heithaus, 2001). However, due to the logistic
difficulties involved the interactions between predators and marine mammal prey have
been little studied. A number of natural predators have been identified to prey on marine
mammals. These include the killer whale O. orca, false killer whale Pseudorca
crassidens, pygmy killer whale Feresa attenuata, polar bear Ursus maritimus and a
variety of sharks (Heithaus, 2001). Examining the predator-prey interactions between
sharks and odontocetes, Heithaus (2001) found evidence that the great white shark
Carcharodon carcharius, tiger shark Galeocerdo cuvier, dusky shark Carcharinus
obscurus, bull shark Carcharinus leucas, oceanic whitetip shark Carcharinus
longimanus and shortfin mako Isurus oxyrinchus all can be considered predators of
marine mammals. In addition, the sixgill shark Hexanchus griseus and sevengill shark
Notorhynchus cepidianus may be considered as predators (Heithaus, 2001). Although
only the great white shark has been found to prey on Kogia, in particular the sixgill shark
may be a potential predator as it is a large deepwater species, which is the dominant
predator along the outer continental shelf and upper slope (Heithaus, 2001) and thus has
a similar habitat to Kogia. However, recent genetic studies on the great white shark
indicate that dispersal of individuals is more extensive than has been indicated by
9-25
tagging studies (Pardini et al., 2001). In addition, recent data indicate that great white
sharks inhabit primarily inshore continental shelf waters as well as undertake extensive
oceanic travel and have a preference for depths between 0-5 metres and 300-500 metres,
spending 90% of the day at these depths and little time at intermediate depths (Boustany
et al., 2002). Furthermore, they are able to tolerate a broad temperature range from 4.8°C
to 26°C (Boustany et al., 2002). Both the depth and temperature range coincide with the
feeding depth and habitat of K. breviceps (see Chapters 6 and 7) and would thus make it
a prime prey target species for great whites. However, the extent of predation by sharks
on odontocetes remains difficult to quantify. As Heithaus points out, the lack of scars in
an odontocete population does not necessarily indicate a low predation rate, because
smaller individuals or species will be taken more often and thus scarred less frequently
than large ones (2001). In South Africa marine mammals were found to be the most
important prey of large juvenile white sharks between 1983 and 1988, with dolphins
making up the majority of the marine mammal prey (Cliff et al., 1989).
Group formation is one way animals can reduce predation risk, but groups may
also form for other reasons entirely, such as food finding and reproduction (Krebs and
Davies, 1981). Another way to reduce predation risk is to avoid encounters with
predators and therfore many species select habitats where predation risk is relatively low
(Heithaus, 2001). However, predation risk is not purely determined by the number of
predators in a given location, the ability of predators and prey to detect each other and
the probability of capture after detection play important roles as well (Heithaus, 2001).
One possibility in the pelagic environment is for predation risk to be vertically stratified,
due to changes in light level and the vertical stratification of shark species (Heithaus,
2001). Upper water layers would be frequented by oceanic whitetip and mako sharks and
occasionally tiger, dusky and white sharks, while deep-diving cetaceans would face large
deep water sharks such as sleeper and sixgill sharks (Heithaus, 2001).
Thus if predation pressure is a real factor in the shaping of life histories of the
two Kogia species it remains unclear why they do not form groups as a preventative
mechanism to predation. However, the mechanisms of predator avoidance and mimicry
described above should prove efficient against predators like sharks in a pelagic
environment. While inking would help at the surface where light levels are high,
resulting in a visual camouflage mechanism, it would also aid at depth if it paralizes the
olfactory sense of predator, as suggested for squid ink and, similarly, for skunk
secretions. The latter would be particularly effective for predators like sharks which rely
9-26
more on olfactory than visual cues to locate their prey. In addition, shark-like appearance
would give them a shark-like resemblance at low light levels.
It is interesting to note that harbour porpoises P. phocoena, which show a similar
life history strategy to Kogia, are also frequently preyed upon by sharks (Arnold, 1972)
and that the effects of shark predation were largely ignored in assessing the status of
harbour porpoises in the north-western Atlantic (Brodie, 1995). In this respect the
postpartum oestrus described for harbour porpoises (Read, 1990b), which was also
considered to be possible in Kogia, would indicate that calving and subsequent mating
takes place over a very brief time period compared to other cetaceans, which in turn may
also present an adaptation to high predation pressure in Kogia. In addition, Rutberg
(1987) speculated that a highly synchronized calving season may represent an adaptation
to avoid predation on the young. A study on 27 lizard species showed that species that
use flight to escape predators and actively hunt for their prey have a smaller clutch mass
for a given body weight than species that use crypsis and obtain their food more
passively (Vitt and Congdon, 1978). This indicates that reproductive effort may have co-
evolved with predator escape and foraging strategies and therefore ecologically
analogous species (i.e. species with similar adult mortalities, environmental conditions,
and resource abundance and quality) should exhibit similar reproductive efforts (Vitt and
Congdon, 1978).
9.3.2.2 Parasitism
Another factor that may result in increased extrinsic mortality in Kogia is

parasitism as many of the animals in the present study as well as those documented in
the literature appeared very heavily parasitised. However, no quantitative studies have
been carried out on the parasite load of Kogia to date and therefore this point also
remains unsupported.
One question that remains unanswered in this evaluation of life history strategies
in cetaceans in general and Kogia in particular is why Kogia should be more vulnerable
to predation than other cetaceans? If it is assumed that predators were the main cause of
high mortality rates in the other cetacean species, which share similar life history traits to
Kogia, what evolutionary pressure lead to Kogia developing mimicry and camouflage or
escape mechanisms while the other species did not develop similar mechanisms? Only
9-27
further research into the elements that shape life history variation in cetaceans will lead
to satisfactory clarification of this issue. Mortality is not the single driving force in the
evolution of life histories, but it does serve as an important link between the various
demographic and ecological factors and as such may provide further insight in the future
as will additional data on the relative importance of intrinsic versus extrinsic sources of
mortality in natural populations (Promislow and Harvey, 1991).
9.4 Ecology of Kogia

As already established according to the new model on the evolution of life
histories phylogenetically closely related species with similar physiologies inhabiting
similar environments may express slight differences in life history strategies as a result
of the accumulation of small differences in morphology, physiology, ecology or
behaviour. However, few cetacean studies have compared life history strategies between
two species of the same genus (Perrin et al., 1976; 1977; Kasuya et al., 1988; Slooten,
1991; Hohn et al., 1996) or different populations of the same species (Kasuya and Tai,
1993; Read and Hohn, 1995). Ecological parameters like distribution range, water
temperature and food availability are intimately linked and a synthesis of the few data
available from the literature reveals an interesting trend in the variation of life history
parameters between closely related odontocetes (Table 9.3). The vaquita P. sinus, which
is slightly smaller than the closely related harbour porpoise P. phocoena, inhabits waters
with a higher mean temperature, has a smaller distribution range and exhibits a two year
reproductive cycle (Hohn et al., 1996). In contrast, the harbour porpoise inhabits cooler
waters, has a larger distribution range, and exhibits annual reproduction (Read and Hohn,
1995). Similarly the data for the smaller Kogia species, K. sima, indicate that it prefers
warmer waters and has a more limited distribution than K. breviceps, which is found in
cooler waters. Accordingly, the larger species exhibits an annual ovulation rate, while
the smaller one appears to have facultative annual ovulation. There are further
similarities between the harbour porpoise and the vaquita and K. breviceps and K. sima.
Both porpoise species have a strongly seasonal reproductive cycle (Read and Hohn,
1995; Hohn et al., 1996) as do K. breviceps and K. sima. The seasonal pattern in the
vaquita, which inhabits warmer waters, is shifted two to three months earlier than in the
harbour porpoise (Hohn et al., 1996) and a similar trend was also seen in K. sima.
Additional data on the two forms of short-finned pilot whales Globicephala
9-28
macrorhynchus off Japan support the trend that in pairs of closely related species of the
same genus or two populations of the same species the larger species or form appears to
inhabit cooler waters, shows a shorter reproductive cycle, and has a higher percentage of
simultaneously lactating and pregnant females in the population (Table 9.3).
Table 9.3: Comparison of some life history and environmental parameters of closely
related odontocetes. The larger species of a genus is always listed first.
Species Total Preferred Morphology Reproductive
length temperature/ parameters
(cm) distribution
range
Harbour 160-184 <20°C, larger larger total 1yr reproductive cycle
porpoise range length
Phocoena
phocoena1
(w. North
Atlantic)
Vaquita 140.6♀ >20°C, smaller total 2yr reproductive cycle
Phocoena 134.9♂ restricted length
sinus2 range
(Gulf of
California)
Pygmy 327.6♀ colder waters, larger total 1yr reproductive cycle
sperm whale 330.5♂ larger range length, but
K. breviceps3,4 smaller
(South flippers and
Africa) dorsal fin
Dwarf sperm 274.3♀ warmer smaller total 1yr (2yr) reproductive
whale 260.4♂ waters, length, but cycle
K. sima 3,4 smaller range larger flippers
(South and dorsal fin
Africa)
Short-finned 395♀ colder waters larger total length @ ASM:3.9-4m;
pilot whale 560♂ <24°C length mean calving interval:
Northern summer 5.1-7.1yrs;
form5,6 8-21°C % females
(Japan) winter, larger simultaneously pregn. +
range lact.: 9.6%;
ann. pregn. rate: 14-
20%
Short-finned 316♀ warmer smaller total length @ ASM:3.16cm;
pilot whale 422♂ waters length mean calving interval:
Southern >24°C 7.78yrs;
form5 summer females simultaneously
(Japan) >20°C winter, pregn. + lact.: n=3;
smaller range ann. pregn. rate: 12.8%
9-29
1
= Read and Hohn, 1995; 2= Hohn et al., 1996; 3= present study; 4= Ross, 1979;
5
= Kasuya and Tai, 1993; 6= Kasuya and Marsh, 1984.
It may be possible to explain the differences in body size in terms of the

thermoregulatory requirements in relation to surface area to volume ratios. A larger
distribution range indicates that a larger area can be utilized in search of food and thus
body condition may overall be better in these animals. Larger bodies can store more fat
reserves, which would in turn mean a better physiological condition for the maintenance
of pregnancies in successive years (Ralls, 1976; Wiley and Clapham, 1993). The
majority of the world’s oceans have very low temperature regimes and in the marine
environment colder waters are more nutrient rich than warmer waters (Mann and Lazier,
1991). Thus the data presented in Table 9.3 would indicate that the species inhabiting
colder waters have access to more food for two reasons: colder waters are richer in
biomass and the animals may have access to a larger area for foraging. This may also
explain the larger body size for animals in cooler waters as the thermoregulatory
requirements can more easily be met with a smaller surface-area to volume ratio. Harvey
and Zammuto (1985) suggested that larger animals can defend themselves better against
predators and survive longer without food and that higher nutrition levels can result in
early maturation and decreased lifespan within and among mammal species. Three
allometric components reflect a species’ ecology, namely mortality rate, assimilation rate
and respiration rate (Harvey and Purvis, 1999). Growth rates (or assimilation rates) are
governed by the resources available as well as other environmental conditions and thus
one can surmise that the resources and ecology determine the growth rate and thus the
size at sexual maturity, as well as the body condition and reproductive rate. The annual
reproduction observed in some cetaceans is a result of a combination of environmental
factors, like resource availability and/or quality, which in turn affects body condition, as
well as juvenile and adult mortality rates since higher prey availability would result in
higher assimilation and respiration rates. Higher food availability for the harbour
porpoise P. phocoena population in the western North Atlantic was suggested to be the
reason for annual reproduction as opposed to a two year reproductive cycle for the
population found off California (Hohn and Brownell, 1990; Read and Hohn, 1995).
Similarly the principal factor determining the length of the calving interval in humpback
whales M. novaeangliae, which frequently show reproduction in successive breeding
seasons (Clapham and Mayo, 1990; Straley et al., 1994), was suggested to be food
9-30
availability (Clapham, 1996).

As adult mortality rates influence the age at ASM as well as the lifespan of a
species it can be assumed, looking at the data in Table 9.3, that species with similar age
at ASM and similar lifespans, like for example K. breviceps and P. phocoena experience
similar adult mortality rates. This does, however, not imply that species which are
similar in that respect have to exhibit similar body size. It is rather the case that growth
(assimilation) and metabolic rate (respiration) are determined, in part, by the
environment and therefore different availability, utilization as well as quality of
resources lead to different body sizes. Furthermore the characteristics of the habitat
itself, as discussed above in relation to water temperature, almost certainly play a role as
well. A review of existing life history models shows that differences in trophic
conditions and mortality are the main sources of inter- and intraspecific variation in body
size (Kozlowski, 1992). Production rate and mortality always act together in determining
age and size at maturity (Kozlowski, 1992). This explains why, after the effects of body
size are removed, a positive interspecific relationship exists between the age at maturity
and adult lifespan (Kozlowski, 1992).
Different reproductive strategies can be exhibited by species that have otherwise
similar life history traits. This can be observed when comparing the life histories of the
harbour porpoise P. phocoena and the vaquita P. sinus, which show different life history
strategies, but are similar in most other respects. The main reason for these differences
can be put down to energetic constraints. It is costly to reproduce annually and therefore
such a strategy will only evolve and be maintained in an environment that holds
sufficient high quality resources. This scenario is supported by data from two different
harbour porpoise populations off California and in the western North Atlantic which
show similar ages at sexual maturity (around four years), but exhibit a two year and an
annual reproductive cycle, respectively (Hohn and Brownell, 1990; Read and Hohn,
1995). The reason for this difference was thought to be the higher prey abundance in the
western North Atlantic (Read and Hohn, 1995). Therefore the list of cetacean species
presented here which have some similar life history traits, but differ in others (like body
size and reproductive rates) may present an underlying model for testing the effects of
different environments on the shaping of life history strategies in cetaceans in the future
as new results on that subject become available.
In summary the life history strategy of K. sima may represent an intermediate
strategy between that of harbour porpoises and K. breviceps on the one hand and most
9-31
delphinids on the other hand. Factors that may have lead to a longer calving interval in
K. sima than in K. breviceps include a larger group size, presumably resulting in a
somewhat reduced predation pressure and a smaller habitat due to preferred higher water
temperatures (see Chapter 7), which may result in lower food availability. Further
differences between the two species may be a slightly different male mating strategy as
indicated by the somewhat larger relative testis weight in K. sima (see Chapter 4). The
opportunistic mating system proposed for both Kogia species supports the opportunistic
lifestyle observed for both species. Although both species appear to share the same
ecological niche as indicated by the stomach content analysis (see Chapter 6) different
peaks in the seasonality of reproduction may have evolved to avoid direct competition
for the same resources at a time when energetic demands are the highest (see Chapter 5
and 6).
As the above data indicate, although life histories are often regarded as strategies
employed by animals, they may well have arisen as an effect of environmental
conditions and demographic constraints (Sutherland et al., 1986; Purvis and Harvey,
1997). A more detailed understanding of cetacean as well as mammalian life history
evolution will emerge as more information on the combined roles of the environment
and demography as well as behaviour, genetics and physiology becomes available.
However, it is still unknown in which way the environment affects mortality rates and
influences life history strategies, both directly and indirectly (Promislow and Harvey,
1991). Environmental factors are not easily quantified and there are likely to be many
environmental factors that influence each other in complex ways and affect life history
traits (Promislow and Harvey, 1991).
9.5 Additional factors influencing life history strategies

The social system of a species can modify life histories in terrestrial mammals
(for example the hunting dog with a colonial social structure has unusually large litters)
and new social systems are found in cetaceans that do not appear to have an equivalent
in terrestrial mammals (Marsh and Kasuya, 1986; Kasuya, 1995; Kasuya et al., 1997).
Therefore it would not be surprising to find modified life history strategies in cetaceans.
In fact, recent evidence for the life history of Baird’s beaked whale suggests that
members of the Ziphiidae may exhibit very different strategies to other cetaceans
9-32
(Kasuya et al., 1997). Furthermore, the aquatic environment may present different
evolutionary constraints on species than the terrestrial environment.
9.6 Conclusions
Although Kogia would be placed near the slow end of the fast-slow continuum
when all mammals are considered they can be placed nearer the fast end of life history
strategies of Cetacea. However, a fast life history does by no means ensure a healthy
population. The harbour porpoise P. phocoena populations in the North Sea and western
North Atlantic, which exhibit a very similar life history strategy to Kogia, are currently
under threat due to extensive bycatch in fishing gear. Although there are very few reports
of Kogia getting entrapped in fishing gear, both species are known to swallow plastic
bags, which they probably mistake for squid. As these present major obstructions in the
digestive tract the animals almost invariably starve to death. However, the threat posed
to Kogia populations from these sources of pollution has to be monitored more closely in
the future before a definite assessment of its impact can be made. In the meantime the
data presented here, in particular the relatively high reproductive rates should not be seen
as an insurance for the continued survival of the Kogia populations off southern Africa,
but rather be interpreted as a starting point for more research efforts into the biology of
these two little understood species.
The above data for cetaceans support Charnov’s (1991) and Harvey and Purvis’
(1999) model of life history strategies in mammals as they show that mortality rates and
ecological parameters like water temperature and, possibly related to that, food
availability determine not just body size, but also other related parameters like age at
ASM and reproductive rates. Although the slow-fast continuum still holds among
cetaceans, it is intriguing to note that there appears to be a pattern between closely
related species of the same genus or two populations or ecotypes of the same species.
Additionally, the evidence presented for Kogia in the present study reflects the
possibility of closely related species inhabiting a similar environment (and thus being
subject to similar environmental constraints), but showing slightly differing life history
strategies, which would further support Charnov’s (1991) and Harvey and Purvis’ (1999)
model. Ultimately the data from the present study support the idea that optimal body size
varies among species due to ecological differences, because it corresponds to a particular
growth rate, age at maturity, adult and juvenile mortality, and other related parameters
9-33
(Purvis and Harvey, 1997). Therefore each species’ optimum size depends upon its
combination of ecological parameters. The reason why it has proved so hard to correlate
life history differences with ecology is that related species with differing ecologies are
expected to be of different sizes and life history variation correlated with size differences
is commonly factored out in comparative studies (Purvis and Harvey, 1997).
Although the present study may have resulted in more additional questions being
asked about the general biology of Kogia than were answered, it presents a first insight
into the biology of these two lesser known cetacean species and it is hoped that the
resulting questions will inspire and initiate further research on these truly fascinating
whales.
9.7 Bibliography
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Austad, S. N. and Fischer, K. E. 1992. Primate longevity: its place in the mammalian
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Baird, R., Nelson, D., Lien, J. and Nagorsen, D. W. 1996. The status of the pygmy
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Credle, V. R. 1988. Magnetite and magnetoreception in stranded dwarf and pygmy
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London. 343 pp.
Ferguson, S. H. and Larivière, S. 2002. Can comparing life histories help conserve
carnivores? Animal Conservation 5: 1-12.
Ferrero, R. C. and Walker, W. A. 1999. Age, growth, and reproductive parameters of
Dall’s porpoise (Phocoenoides dalli) in the central North Pacific Ocean.
Reproduction in the porpoises (Phocoenidae): Implications for management.
George, J. C., Bada, J., Zeh, J., Scott, L., Brown, S. E. and O’Hara, T. 1997.
Preliminary age estimates of bowhead whales via aspartic acid racemization.
Working paper SC/50/AS10 to the Scientific Committee of the IWC, 1997.
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Harvey, P. H. and Purvis, A. 1999. Understanding the ecological and evolutionary
reasons for life history variation: mammals as a case study. In: McGlade, J.
(ed.) Advanced Ecological Theory. Blackwell Science, Oxford, p. 232-248.
Harvey, P. H. and Zammuto, R. M. 1985. Patterns of mortality and age at first
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Appendices
APPENDIX A
Stranding records of pygmy sperm whales Kogia breviceps along the South African
coastline in reverse chronological order.
No. Date Sex Length Lat Long Locality Event
(cm) (S) (E) Condition
N2758 19/10/99 M 231 34° 03’ 23° 03’ Knysna single, live,
unsuccessfully
refloated
N2757 12/10/98 M 246 34° 00’ 25° 53’ Blue Horizon Bay single, live,
unsuccessfully
refloated, died in
rehabilitation
N2754 02/09/98 M 183 33° 42’ 26° 41’ Kenton-on-Sea single, live,
unsuccessfully
refloated
N2641 20/08/97 F 242 33° 58’ 22° 34’ Wilderness single, live
96/17 20/05/96 F 184 34° 30’ 20° 29’ 3km E of cow/calf?
Klipkoppie, De fresh
Hoop Nature
Reserve
96/16 19/05/96 Fp 281.5 34° 30’ 20° 29’ 3km E of cow/calf?
Klipkoppie, De decomposing
Hoop Nature
Reserve
95/13 18/10/95 M 268 34° 31’ 20° 28’ Klipkoppie, De single,
Hoop Nature decomposing
Reserve
94/09 25/06/94 Flp 263 34° 24’ 20° 50’ Breede River double?,
Mouth fresh
- 29/06/94 - 180 34° 24’ 20° 50’ Breede River double?
Mouth (cow/calf?),
refloated
N2115 18/10/93 M 275 34° 14’ 21° 56’ 6km W of single,
Danabaai, Mossel decomposed
Bay
N1888 18/10/93 F 324 33° 43’ 26° 30’ 10km E of single,
Alexandria State decomposed
Forest Station
93/16 01/09/93 M 195 34° 48’ 20° 03’ Struisbaai single, live
93/14 ?06/07/93 M 180.5 34° 25’ 20° 24’ De Hoop Nature single,
Reserve decomposing
92/14 16/09/92 Flp 300 34° 24’ 20° 50’ Breede River triple, live
Mouth
N1863 05/09/91 Mc 213 34° 00’ 23° 27’ Keurboomsstrand, cow/calf?, live
Plettenberg Bay
N1862 02/09/91 F 320 34° 00’ 23° 27’ Keurboomsstrand, cow/calf?
Plettenberg Bay
91/26 08/06/91 F 285 34° 20’ 21° 54’ East bank of single, live
Gouritz River
Mouth
N1831 26/01/91 F 221 33° 59’ 23° 34’ Natures’ Valley single, live
N1707 23/07/90 Fp 286 34° 08’ 22° 10’ Batnon, between single
Lusbaai and
Boggansbaai
N1377 19/05/87 M 229 28° 24’ 32° 22’ 3km N of St. single
Lucia, Natal
1
87/10 ?05/03/87 M? ca320 34° 31’ 20° 28’ Klipkoppie, De single,
Hoop Nature decomposing
Reserve
87/06 03/03/87 M 232.7 34° 08’ 22° 10’ Bokkumsbaai, single, live
Mossel Bay
86/22 25/05/86 M 218 33° 25’ 18° 18’ 15km S of single, live
Ysterfontein
86/17 09/04/86 F 321 34° 31’ 20° 28’ Klipkoppie, De single, freshish
Hoop Nature
Reserve
N1174 12/07/85 F 290 34° 05’ 22° 58’ Buffels Bay, double?
Knysna
N1079 12/09/84 Mc 194 33° 59’ 25° 18’ Beach View cow/calf
N1078 12/09/84 Fpl 262 33° 59’ 25° 18 Beach View cow/calf
84/26 04/09/84 F 238 22° 57’ 14° 30’ Walvis Bay, single, freshish
Namibia
84/24 10/08/84 F 301 34° 21’ 19° 02’ Kleinmond single,
decomposing
N1011 08/12/83 M 301 34° 02’ 25° 45’ Cape Recife single,
decomposed
N989 26/09/83 M - 34° 01’ 25° 22’ Seaview, PE -
83/33 23/09/83 F 256.5 34° 25’ 19° 14’ Hermanus single, fresh
83/27 11/06/83 M 147+ 34° 23’ 18° 52’ Holbaai, False Bay single
83/26 03/06/83 - 300 34° 07’ 22° 07’ Hartenboos River single, fresh
Mouth, Mossel
Bay
83/21 06/05/83 Mc 191 34° 24’ 20° 50’ Breede River cow/calf, fresh
Mouth
83/20 06/05/83 Flp 301 34° 24’ 20° 50’ Breede River cow/calf, fresh
Mouth
82/21 26/09/82 M 215+ 34° 24’ 20° 50’ Breede River cow/calf?, live
Mouth
82/20 26/09/82 F 299 34° 24’ 20° 50’ Breede River cow/calf?
Mouth
82/27 31/08/82 Fp 300 22° 40’ 14° 34’ Swakopmund, single,live
Namibia
N854 23/07/82 Mc 202 34° 04’ 22° 56’ 1.5km W of cow/calf, fresh
Goukamma River
Mouth
N853 23/07/82 Fl 297 34° 04’ 22° 56’ 1.5km W of cow/calf, fresh
Goukamma River
Mouth
82/04 06/02/82 Flp 288 32° 52’ 17° 52’ Noordwesbaai, N double(cow/calf?)
of Saldanha Bay live
81/22 31/12/81 F 301 34° 06’ 18° 29’ Sunrise Beach, single, live
Muizenberg
N771 29/08/81 F 216 34° 00’ 24° 56’ Kabeljous River single, live
Mouth
80/26 ?29/10/80 F ca255 34° 29’ 19° 22’ De Plaat, Walker single
Bay
N16 08/02/80 - - 33° 43’ 25° 51’ Sundays River skull on beach
Mouth
79/18 ?06/08/79 ? 246.4 22° 50’ 14° 34’ 20km N of Walvis single,
Bay, Namibia decomposing
2
80/03 01/08/79 ? 339 21° 15’ 13° 14’ Dunrissa Bay, single, freshish
Namibia
N408 18/07/79 F 276 34° 02’ 25° 34’ 1.2km E of single
Skoenmakerskop
N378 23/09/78 - - 34° 11’ 24° 33’ Gibson Bay, 10km -*
W of Oyster Bay
N377 23/09/78 M 270 34° 08’ 24° 27’ Huisklip, single,
Tsitsikamma River decomposed
Mouth
78/26 01/09/78 M 229 33° 06’ 18° 02’ Langebaan single,
decomposing
78/25 ca27/8/78 Fp - 22° 51’ 14° 34’ 18km N of Walvis single
Bay, Namibia
N368 25/07/78 F 247 33° 43’ 25° 57’ 7.9km E of single,
Sundays River decomposing
Mouth
78/20 07/07/78 F ca295 34Ε39’ 19Ε29’ Pearly Beach, near single, fresh
Gaansbaai
78/19 12/06/78 Fl 292.5 34° 07’ 18° 28’ Muizenberg, False single, live
Bay
78/13 22/03/78 M 242 34° 06’ 18° 29’ Sunrise Beach, single, live
Muizenberg, False
Bay
N342 11/02/78 M 276 34° 03’ 24° 55’ Jeffrey’s Bay single, live
76/24 ?30/11/76 M 186 33° 40’ 18° 24’ 7.6km N of single,
Melkbosstrand decomposing
N284 03/10/76 F 304 34° 13’ 24° 50’ Cape St. Francis, single, live
between E St.
Francis and
Lighthouse
76/19 16/09/76 M 179 34° 10’ 18° 52’ Gordons Bay, single, live
False Bay
N278 21/08/76 Fc 204 33° 58’ 22° 34’ Wilderness cow/calf
N277 21/08/76 Flp 266 34° 00’ 22° 34’ Wilderness cow/calf
76/17 30/07/76 M 167 34° 11’ 18° 26’ Simons Town single, live
Naval Dockyard
76/04 late02/76 F? 306 34° 35’ 20° 22’ 16km E of single,
Arniston decomposing
75/12 15/12/75 M 310 33° 43’ 18° 26’ Melkbosstrand single, fresh
75/07 07/10/75 M 241 22° 57’ 14° 30’ Walvis Bay, single, live
Namibia
N225 25/12/74 M 234 33° 59’ 25° 39’ King’s Beach, PE single, live
74/08 10/08/74 F ca236 34° 29’ 19° 22’ De Plaat, Walker single,
Bay decomposing
N179 18/07/72 M 197 34° 01’ 25° 31’ Skoenmakerskop, cow/calf?
in Reserve nearer
to Sardinia Bay
than
Skoenmakerskop
N178 18/07/72 Fp 309.5 34° 01’ 25° 31’ Skoenmakerskop, cow/calf?
in Reserve nearer
to Sardinia Bay
than
Skoenmakerskop
3
N177 11/07/72 M 202 33° 48’ 25° 42’ Salnova, Coega cow/calf?
River Mouth
N176 11/07/72 Fp 305.5 33° 48’ 25° 42’ Salnova, Coega cow/calf?
River Mouth
N172 02/04/72 F? 327.6 33° 42’ 26° 40’ 640m W of single,
Bushmans River decomposed
Mouth
N152 18/07/71 F 289.6 34° 02’ 25° 33’ Skoenmakerskop, single
PE
N138 14/03/71 Fp 305 33° 59’ 25° 18’ 457m from single,
Maitlands River decomposed
Mouth
- Jan/Feb - ca305 21° 47’ 14° 01’ 7km S of Cape -*
1971 Cross, Namibia
N132 21/11/70 M 325 33° 58’ 25° 14’ Van Stadens River single,
Mouth decomposed
N110 29/08/70 M 196.6 34° 02’ 25° 33’ Skoenmakerskop, single
PE
72/14 end07/beg - 275 34° 29’ 20° 31’ Koppie Alleen, De double, fresh
08 1970 Hoop Nature
Reserve
- end07/beg - 34° 29’ 20° 31’ Koppie Alleen, De double, fresh
08 1970 Hoop Nature
Reserve
N85 06/12/69 - 305 33° 59’ 25° 18’ Beach View, PE single,
decomposed
N82 07/11/69 F 188 33° 23’ 27° 19’ Bira River Mouth, (single?)-,live
near East London
69/15 06/11/69 M 304.8 34° 42’ 20° 15’ 3.22km W of single,
N68 Jan 1969 - - 33° 46’ 26° 20’ Woody Cape, skull only *
Algoa Bay
37126 1969 - - 21° 45’ 13° 57’ Cape Cross, partial skeleton *
Namibia
68/13 30/04/68 M 194.31 34° 29’ 19° 22’ De Plaat, Walker double(cow/calf?),
Bay live
1513/87 22/07/67 M 293.5 33° 50’ 25° 40’ St. Georges Strand, -
PE
N42 08/03/67 M 270 33° 58’ 23° 34’ Natures’ Valley -
66/08 03/12/66 M 266.7 34° 02’ 18° 21’ Hout Bay single, live
- Oct 1966 - ca366 26° 38’ 15° 10’ Lüderitz, Namibia -*
- Sep1966 - - Natal North Coast -cow/ calf *
N41 ?/10/65 Fpl 269.5 33° 58’ 23° 34’ Natures’ Valley cow/calf?
N40 ?/10/65 -c 211 33° 58’ 23° 34’ Natures’ Valley cow/calf?
- 14/04/65 F ca305 34° 17’ 21° 55’ Vleesbaai, Mossel -*
Bay
- 10/06/64 M 330.5 33° 23’ 27° 19’ Bira River Mouth, -*
near East London
N425 24/01/64 F - 33° 02’ 27° 55’ East London -*
N27 20/11/63 M 297 33° 51’ 25° 38’ Amsterdamhoek, single, live *
PE
- 11/04/62 - ca270 33° 58’ 22° 34’ Wilderness -*
4
N424 Aug/Sep M ca275 32° 59’ 27° 57’ Nahoon Beach, -*
ELM 1960 East London
674
ELM 31/05/58 F - 32° 27’ 28Ε39’ Mazeppa Bay, -*
616a Transkei
- 24/10/56 - ca305 29° 56’ 31° 01’ Brighton Beach, -*
Durban
282 01/1955 - - 34° 03’ 23° 22’ Plettenberg Bay -*
- 1951/52 Fp ca305 34° 03’ 23° 22’ Plettenberg Bay -*
- ca1940 - - 33° 58’ 22° 34’ Wilderness -*

17690 02/08/33 - - 33° 53’ 18° 27’ Table Bay -double, sighting?
*
34018 15/12/30 - - 33° 52’ 18° 27’ Milnerton Beach, -*
Cape Town
3912 1899 - - 34° 02’ 23° 02’ Knysna -*
3911 1896 F 175.5 33° 55’ Green Point, Table - *
18° 24’
Bay
35074 1880 - - 34° 05’ 22° 58’ Buffels Bay, -*
Knysna
*: taken from Ross (1979). F: female; M: male; p: pregnant; l: lactating; c: calf
Remarks:
-94/09 was possibly associated with a 1.8m individual, which stranded live 4 days later ca 600m east of it. It
may have been its calf.
-92/14 stranded live with at least two other, smaller individuals, one of which may have been its calf. The two
other individuals got refloated.
-N1174 stranded apparently with a calf.
-82/04 stranded live with a smaller, ca. 1.5m individual, which may have been its calf.
-N408 was possibly pregnant and foetus was removed.
-N278 had eight plastic bags and one paper bag in the stomach on autopsy.
-N82 had three pieces of string and two plastic bags in its stomach on autopsy.
Stranding records of dwarf sperm whales Kogia sima along the South African coastline in chronological
order.

N2774 11/04/99 -c 160 34° 08’ 22° 10’ Bokkumsbaai, Mossel cow/calf
Bay
N2773 11/04/99 F 286 34° 08’ 22° 10’ Bokkumsbaai, Mossel cow/calf
Bay
N2772 21/04/99 M 262 Hartenbos single, live
N2760 09/02/99 M 220 34° 03’ 24° 55’ Jeffrey’s Bay single
N2755 30/07/98 F 165 34° 01’ 25° 23’ Kini Bay single
- 29/02/96 M 198 29° 50’ 31° 02’ Central Beaches, single, live
Durban
N2243 04/08/94 M 197 33° 59’ 25° 18’ 500m E of Maitland single
Caravan Park
N2041 17/05/93 M 202.5 29° 51’ 31° 02’ Snake Park Durban, single
Natal
(North Beach)
N1869 04/10/91 - 215 33° 09’ 27° 41’ Kidd’s Beach, East single
London
5
90/41 ?07/12/90 - ca400? 32° 47’ 18° 10’ Velddrif, St. Helena single,
Bay decomposing
90/34 16/10/90 M 238 32° 36’ 18° 18’ Rocher Pan, N of single
Dwarskersbos
N1564 05/01/89 M 230 33° 59’ 25° 41’ Flat Rocks Road single,live
House
88/20 ?14/07/88 F 231 34° 36’ 19° 24’ Uilkraalmond, near single,
Franskraal, Gansbaai fresh
88/02 27/01/88 Fp 225.5 34° 23’ 20° 51’ Eastern Side of single,live,
Breede River Mouth refloated
unsuccessfully
N1322 01/12/86 Fp 236 33° 58’ 25° 39’ King’s Beach, PE single
86/34 ?14/09/86 - 244.4 34° 48’ 20° 03’ Struisbaai single,
decomposing
N1248 02/11/85 M 196 33° 59’ 24° 59’ 5km E of Kabeljous single, v. fresh
River Mouth
85/02 08/03/85 F 251 34° 31’ 20° 28’ Klipkoppie, De Hoop single,
Nature Reserve decomposing
N1132 17/01/85 F - 34° 02’ 25° 45’ 0.5-1km N of Cape double, propeller
Recife wound?
N1131 17/01/85 M 228 34° 02’ 25° 45’ 0.5-1km N of Cape double
Recife
84/36 26/11/84 M 178 34° 07’ 18° 28’ Muizenberg, False double
Bay
84/35 26/11/84 M 230 34° 07’ 18° 28’ Muizenberg, False double
Bay
84/21 16/07/84 M 211 34° 13’ 21° 58’ Between Mossel Bay single, fresh
and Vlees Baai
N1082 - - - 11km S of Sodwana no record
Bay, Natal
N884 29/10/82 F 234 33° 58’ 25° 02’ 8km E of Kabeljous single
River Mouth decomposing
N837 05/05/82 M 220 34° 00’ 23° 27’ Keurboomsstrand single,live
N832 08/04/82 Fl 232 33° 58’ 22° 34’ Wilderness double, calf?
refloated
N830 27/03/82 Fc 103 33° 48’ 25° 42’ Salnova Pipeline, cow/calf
Coega River Mouth live,refloated
unsuccessfully
N829 30/03/82 Fl 238 33° 48’ 25° 42’ Salnova Pipeline, cow/calf,
Coega River Mouth live
N687 25/04/81 M 216 34° 05’ 22° 58’ Buffels Bay single,live
N682 27/03/81 F 265 33° 44’ 25° 50’ 3km W of Sundays single
River Mouth
81/03 24/03/81 Fp 215 34° 02’ 18° 21’ Hout Bay, Cape single, live
Peninsula
N679 03/03/81 Mc 103.5 33° 58’ 25° 02’ 8km E of Kabeljous cow/calf
River Mouth, near
Gamtoos River Mouth
N678 03/03/81 Fl 241 33° 58’ 25° 02’ 8km E of Kabeljous cow/calf
River Mouth, near
Gamtoos River Mouth
80/10 19/05/80 M 204.5 34° 29’ 19° 22’ De Plaat, Walker Bay single,live
River Mouth
N372 27/08/78 M 256 34° 03’ 24° 55’ Jeffrey’s Bay single
6
78/17 20/04/78 F 255 34° 30’ 20° 28’ 7.3km E of Skipskop, single,
N338 22/11/77 M 171 33° 59’ 25° 18’ Maitlands River single,live
Mouth
River Mouth decomposed
N317 01/08/77 Fl 220 33° 34’ 26° 58’ Port Alfred, between cow/calf,
Riet Point and prev.night,
Rufanes River very thin
N318 30/07/77 Fc 147 33° 34’ 26° 58’ Port Alfred, between cow/calf
Riet Point and
Rufanes River
N440 21/12/76 Fp 250 33° 01’ 27° 54’ Orient Beach, East single,live
London
76/18 09/08/76 F 209 34° 07’ 18° 50’ The Strand, False Bay single,live
76/14 08/04/76 M 225 34° 25’ 19° 17’ Grotto Beach, single, fresh
Hermanus
76/09 03/04/76 M 190.5 34° 06’ 18° 22’ Noordhoek, Cape single, fresh
Peninsula
76/03 29/02/76 Fl 264 34° 29’ 19° 22’ De Plaat, Walker Bay single,
freshish
76/02 ?15/02/76 F 255 34° 08’ 18° 19’ Kommetjie, Cape single,
Peninsula decomposing
N244 17/09/75 Fc 161 33° 43’ 25° 51’ Sundays River Mouth cow/calf, live
N243 17/09/75 Fp 224 33° 43’ 25° 51’ Sundays River Mouth cow/calf
75/06 12/07/75 F 222 34° 07’ 18° 26’ Clovelly, False Bay single,
prob. died at sea
N239 10/07/75 M 201 34° 10’ 24° 50’ Sea Vista Beach, quadruple,
Cape St. Francis fresh
N238 10/07/75 F 209 34° 10’ 24° 50’ Sea Vista Beach, quadruple,
Cape St Francis fresh
Cape St. Francis live
Cape St. Francis fresh
N228 09/02/75 M 181 33° 58’ 25° 14’ 0.5km W of Van single,
Stadens River Mouth decomposing
N227 Feb1975 - - 33° 58’ 25° 10’ Between Van Stadens bleached skull
River Mouth and
Gamtoos River Mouth
N224 19/08/74 M 252 33° 56’ 25° 36’ North End Beach, PE single,
fresh
N207 26/02/74 F 189 33° 58’ 25° 39’ King’s Beach, PE single,
fresh,live?
N205 05/02/74 F 215 33° 56’ 25° 36’ North End Beach, PE single
72/16 31/12/72 M ca245 33° 03’ 17° 58’ Blouwaterbaai, double,?
Saldanha Bay
72/15 31/12/72 F 264 33° 03’ 17° 58’ Blouwaterbaai, double,live
Saldanha Bay
36729 SAM got - - 34° 07’ 18° 28’ Muizenberg, False -*
it in Aug Bay
‘72
N185 23/08/72 Fp 240 33° 43’ 25° 57’ 8.05km E of Sundays double
River Mouth cow/calf?
decomposing
7
N185a 23/08/72 -c ca130 33° 43’ 25° 57’ 8.05km E of Sundays double
River Mouth cow/calf?
decomposing
72/09 13/05/72 - - 33° 54’ 18° 27’ Between Woodstock single,
and Milnerton, Table decomposed
Bay
N154 04/09/71 F 274.3 33° 58’ 25° 18’ Between Beachview single
and Maitlands Beach decomposed
- 18/07/71 - - 34° 08’ 18° 26’ Fish Hoek, False Bay -*
N149 April’71 - - 34° 11’ 22° 08’ Mossel Bay decomposed *
N148 02/05/71 M 238.8 34° 01’ 25° 22’ Seaview, P.E. single
N146 14/04/71 Fc 152.4 33° 51’ 25° 38’ Amsterdamhoek, P.E. cow/calf, live
N145 14/04/71 Fpl 235 33° 51’ 25° 38’ Amsterdamhoek, P.E. cow/calf,live
N140 24/03/71 Fc 135.9 33° 46’ 26° 27’ 1.61km W of Cape cow/calf, live
Padrone
N139 24/03/71 Fpl ca244 33° 46’ 26° 27’ 1.61km W of Cape cow/calf,
Padrone decomposed
N104 10/05/70 Mc 152.4 33° 44’ 24Ε49’ 9.65km E. of cow/calf
Hougham Park, P.E. decomposed
N103 10/05/70 Fl 230.5 33° 44’ 24° 49’ 9.65km E. of cow/calf
Hougham Park, PE decomposed
N102 28/04/70 Mc 151.9 33° 49’ 25° 39’ St. Georges Strand, cow/calf
PE
N101 28/04/70 Fpl 231.2 33° 49’ 25° 39’ St. Georges Strand, cow/calf
PE
70/04 01/02/70 M 197.5 33° 55’ 18° 28’ Woodstock Beach, single,live
Table Bay
N88 01/01/70 M 254 34° 04’ 24° 55’ 3.22km W. of single
Jeffrey’s Bay
69/17 30/11/69 M 177.8 34° 08’ 18° 26’ Fish Hoek, False Bay single,live
N77 20/10/69 M 260.4 34° 05’ 24° 55’ Seeköe River Mouth single,
fresh
68/10 02/12/68 M 215.3 33° 48’ 18° 27’ Bloubergstrand, Table single,
Bay decomposing
63/01 20/05/63 M 247 33° 03’ 18° 02’ Leentjies Klip Beach, single
Saldanha Bay
- 1962? - - 33° 48’ 18° 27’ Bloubergstrand, Table -
Bay
N43 April’62 - 241 33° 40’ 26° 02’ Springmount, Algoa -*
Bay
- 16/07/60 M ca244 33° 01’ 27° 55’ Eastern Beach, East -*
London
N423 12/01/55 - - 33° 06’ 27° 48’ Kaiser’s Beach, East -*
London
- 1954 M 252 34° 05’ 22° 58’ Buffels Bay, Knysna -*
- - M 185 - - - -
*: taken from Ross (1979). F: female; M: male; p: pregnant; l: lactating; c: calf
Remarks:
-N1322 stranded with a large shark bite.
-N1132 stranded with an adult male (N1131).
-N832 stranded with a calf, which was successfully refloated.
-N244 had a shark bite.
-72/16 was reported fighting with 72/15 prior to stranding.
-N139 possibly had a shark bite.
8
APPENDIX B
Specimens and associated samples available for the present study.
Kogia breviceps
Port Elizabeth Museum (PEM).

No. Sex Date of Total Body Teeth Gonads Stomach
stranding length weight contents
(cm) (kg)
N2641 F 20/08/97 242 - - - √
N1888 F 18/10/93 324 - √ - -
N1862 F 02/09/91 320 480 - - √
N1831 F 26/01/91 221 - √ - -
N1707 Fp 23/07/90 286 372 √ - √
N1174 F 12/07/85 290 - √ - -
N1078 Fpl 12/09/84 262 - √ √ √K
N853 Fl 23/07/82 297 - - √ √K
N771 F 29/08/81 216 - √ √ √K
N408 F 18/07/79 276 - √ - √K
N368 F 25/07/78 247 - √ - √K
N284 F 03/10/76 304 - √ - -R
N278 Fc 21/08/76 204 130 - * √R
N277 Fpl 21/08/76 266 301 √ √ √R
N178 Fp 18/07/72 309.5 - √ √ -R
N176 Fp 11/07/72 305.5 - √ √ -R
N172 - 02/04/72 327.6 - √ - -R
N152 F 18/07/71 289.6 - * √ -R
2
N138 Fp 14/03/71 305 - √ -R
N82 F 07/11/69 188 83.5 - √ -
N41 Fpl ?/10/65 269.5 - - - -
N2757** M 12/10/98 246 220 1 1 1
N2754** M 02/09/98 183 77 1 1 1
N2115 M 18/10/93 275 - - - √

N1863 Mc 05/09/91 213 168 √ √ √
N1377 M 19/05/87 229 210 √ √ √K
N1079 Mc 12/09/84 194 122 √ √ √K
N1011 M 08/12/83 301 - - - √K
9
N989 M 26/09/83 - - √ - √K
N854 Mc 23/07/82 202 123 √ √ √K
N377 M 23/09/78 270 - √ - √K
N342 M 11/02/78 276 374.03 √ √ √K
N225 M 25/12/74 234 - √ √ -R
N179 M 18/07/72 197 - * - -R
N177 M 11/07/72 202 - √ √ -R
N132 M 21/11/70 325 - * - -
N110 M 29/08/70 196.6 145.2 - - -
1513/87 M 22/07/67 293.5 - - - -
N42 M 08/03/67 270 - √ - -
N424 M 30/08/60 275 - √ - -
N85 - 06/09/83 305 - - - -
N40 -c ?/10/65 211 - * - -
F= female; M= male; l= lactating; p= pregnant; c= calf
**
= animal stranded at the time of write-up and was therefore not included in the analysis.
However, length and weight data were included in the growth analysis (Chapter 3).
1
= stranded at the time of write-up, samples not yet available for analysis.
2
= incomplete i.e. only one ovary/testis available.
*= original tissue not available, results taken from Ross 1979, 1984.
√K= original stomach contents not available, but raw data were available from Klages et al.,
1989.
√R= original stomach contents not available, but raw data were available from Ross, 1979.
-R= original stomach contents not available, results taken from Ross, 1979.
-= no data.
Foetuses from the Port Elizabeth Museum (PEM).
No. of mother Sex Date Length (cm) Weight (g)
N1707 M? 23/07/90 27.5 288.6

N1078 M 14/09/84 48 2950
N277 - 21/08/76 31 -
N178 M 18/07/72 17.9 160.8
N176 M 11/07/72 45.8 -
N138 M 14/03/71 113.5 2300*
N41 F ?/10/65 19.5 -
10
South African Museum (SAM).
(cm) (kg)
96/17 F 20/05/96 184 - √ √ -
96/16 Fp 19/05/96 281.5 - √ √ -
94/09 Flp 25/06/94 263 - √ √ -
92/14 Flp 16/09/92 300 394.1 √ √ -
91/26 F 08/06/91 285 - √ - -
86/17 F 09/04/86 321 480 √ √ √S
84/26 F 04/09/84 238 est159 √ √ √S
84/24 F 10/08/84 301 - √ √ √S
83/33 F 23/09/83 256.5 272.2 √ √ √S
83/20 Flp 06/05/83 301 - √ √ √S
82/27 Fp 31/08/82 300 - √ - √S
82/20 F 26/09/82 299 328 - √ √S
82/04 Flp 06/02/82 288 343.6+ √ √ -
81/22 F 31/12/81 301 425 √ √ √S
80/26 F ?29/10/80 ca255 - √ - -
78/25 Fp ca27/8/78 - - √ √ -
78/20 F 07/07/78 ca295 - √ - √S
78/19 Fl 12/06/78 292.5 445.5 - √ √S
2
74/08 F 10/08/74 ca236 - √ -R
95/13 M 18/10/95 268 - √ - -
93/16 M 01/09/93 195 123.1 √ √ -
93/14 M ?06/07/93 180.5 - √ - -
87/06 M 03/03/87 232.7 182 √ √ √S
86/22 M 25/05/86 218 185.9 √ √ √S
83/27 M 11/06/83 147+ 69 √ √ √S
83/21 Mc 06/05/83 191 127 √ √ √S
82/21 M 26/09/82 215+ 160.8+ √ √ √S
78/26 M 01/09/78 229 182.8 - √ √S
78/13 M 22/03/78 242 233.6 - √ √S
76/24 M ?30/11/76 186 - √ - -
76/19 M 16/09/76 179 72.6 √ √ √S
76/17 M 30/07/76 167 85.3 √ √ √S
11
(cm) (kg)
75/12 M 15/12/75 310 - - - √S
75/07 M 07/10/75 241 197.4 √ √ √S
69/15 M ?06/11/69 304.8 - √ - -R
68/13 M 30/04/68 194.31 - √ - -
66/08 M 03/12/66 266.7 - √ √ -R
87/10 M? ?05/03/87 ca320 - √ - -
83/26 - 03/06/83 300 - √ - -
80/03 - 01/08/79 339 - √ - -
79/18 - ?06/08/79 246.4 - √ - -
76/04 F? late02/76 306 - √ - √S
F= female; M= male; p= pregnant; l= lactating; c= calf
2
= incomplete material i.e. only one ovary/testis available.
√S= original stomach contents not available, but raw data were available from Sekiguchi et
al., 1992.
-= no data.
Foetuses from the South African Museum (SAM).

96/16 M 19/05/96 23 265.9
94/09 M 25/06/94 28.6 -
92/14 F 16/09/92 38 -
83/20 F 06/05/83 21 -
82/04 F 06/02/82 49 -
78/25 F ca27/08/78 27 -
Kogia sima
Port Elizabeth Museum (PEM).

(cm) (kg)
** 1 1 1
N2755 F 30/07/98 165 75
N1322 Fp 01/12/86 236 169 √ √ √K
N1132 F 17/01/85 - 38.7 - - -
N884 F 29/10/82 234 - √ - √K
12
(cm) (kg)
N832 Fl 08/04/82 232 178 - √ √K
N830 Fc 27/03/82 103 31.5 √ - empty
N829 Fl 30/03/82 238 175 - √ √K
N682 F 27/03/81 265 - - √ √K
N678 Fl 03/03/81 241 183.3 - √ √K
N440 Fp 21/12/76 250 - √ * -
N384 F 12/01/79 181 - - - √K
N323 F 05/09/77 216 - - - √R
N318 Fc 30/07/77 147 62.5 - √ √R
N317 Fl 01/08/77 220 - √ √ √R
N244 Fc 17/09/75 161 59.42 √ √ √R
N243 Fp 17/09/75 224 - √ √ √R
N238 F 10/07/75 209 142.4 - √ √R
N237 F 10/07/75 206 155.6 √ √ √R
N236 F 10/07/75 189 112.9 √ √ √R
N207 F 26/02/74 189 129.3 - √ √R
N205 F 05/02/74 215 - √ √ -
N185 Fp 23/08/72 240 - - - -
N185a -c 23/08/72 ca.130 - - - -
N154 F 04/09/71 274.3 - - - -
N146 Fc 14/04/71 152.4 61.7 √ √ √R
N145 Fpl 14/04/71 235 208.7 - √ √R
N140 Fc 24/03/71 135.9 47.2 √ - -
N139 Fpl 24/03/71 ca.244 - √ - -
N103 Fl 10/05/70 230.5 - - - -
N101 Fpl 28/04/70 231.2 - - √ √R
N2760** M 09/02/99 220 - 1 1 1
- M 29/02/96 198 106 - - -

N2243 M 04/08/94 197 124 - √ -
N2041 M 17/05/93 202.5 128 √ - -
N1564 M 05/01/89 230 240 √ - -
N1248 M 02/11/85 196 - √ √ √K
N1131 M 17/01/85 228 202.5 √ √ √K
N837 M 05/05/82 220 - √ - √K
N687 M 25/04/81 216 186 - √ √K
13
N679 Mc 03/03/81 103.5 14.5 - - empty
N372 M 27/08/78 256 303 √ √ √K
N338 M 22/11/77 171 98.5 - √ √R
N239 M 10/07/75 201 135.9 √ √ √R
N228 M 09/02/75 181 - √ - √R
N224 M 19/08/74 252 - √ √ √R
N148 M 02/05/71 238.76 - √ √ √R
N104 Mc 10/05/70 152.4 - - - -
N102 Mc 28/04/70 151.9 - - - -
N88 M 01/01/70 254 - √ - -
N77 M 20/10/69 260.4 272.2 √ - -
- M - 185 111.8 √ √ √
N1869 - 04/10/91 215 - √ - -
N1082 - - - - √ - -
F= female; M= male; p= pregnant; l= lactating
**
= animal stranded at the time of write-up and was therefore not included in the analysis.
However, the length and weight data were included in the growth analysis (Chapter 3).
*=original tissue not available, results taken from Ross (1979, 1984).
√K= original stomach contents not available, but raw data were available from Klages et al.,
1989.
√R= original stomach contents not available, but raw data were available from Ross 1979.
1
= stranded at time of write-up, samples not yet available for analysis.
-= no data.
Foetuses from the Port Elizabeth Museum (PEM).

N101 - 28/04/70 - -
N139 - 27/03/71 - -
N145 F 14/04/71 7.2 6.4
N243 F 18/09/75 32.5 -
N440 M 21/12/76 108 1297.5
N185 - 23/08/72 20-25 -
N1322 M? 01/12/86 9.1 29
14
South African Museum (SAM).
stranding length weight Contents
(cm) (kg)
88/20 F ?14/07/88 231 173.4 √ √ √S
88/02 Fp 27/01/88 225.5 177.7 √ √ √S
85/02 F 08/03/85 251 - √ - √S
81/03 Fp 24/03/81 215 176.9 √ √ √S
78/17 F 20/04/78 255 - √ √ -
76/18 F 09/08/76 209 142.9 √ √ √S
76/03 Fl 29/02/76 264 264 √ √ √S
2
76/02 F ?15/02/76 255 - √ √S
75/06 F 12/07/75 222 135.2 √ √ √S
72/15 F 31/12/72 264 - √ - -R
90/34 M 16/10/90 238 190.5 - √ -
84/36 M 26/11/84 178 109.5 √ √ √S
84/35 M 26/11/84 230 199.6 √ √ √S
84/21 M 16/07/84 211 114.5+ √ √ √S
80/10 M 19/05/80 204.5 151 √ √ √S
76/14 M 08/04/76 225 176.9 √ √ √S
76/09 M 03/04/76 190.5 - √ √ √S
70/04 M 01/02/70 197.5 - - √ -R
69/17 M 30/11/69 177.8 104.3 - √ -R
68/10 M 02/12/68 215.3 - √ - -R
63/01 M 20/05/63 247 - √ - -R
90/41 - ?07/12/90 ca400? - √ - -
86/34 - ?14/09/86 244.4 - √ - -
F= female; M= male; p= pregnant; l= lactating
2
= incomplete i.e. only one ovary/testis available.
√S= original stomach contents not available, but raw data were available from Sekiguchi et
al., 1992.
-= no data.
Foetuses from the South African Museum (SAM).

88/02 M 27/01/88 57.5 -
81/03 M 24/03/81 11.1 -
15
16
APPENDIX C
Australian specimens of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima
Museum of Victoria: provided by Lina Frigo
Kogia breviceps
No. Sex Length Date Lat.(S) Long.(E) Locality Sample

C23489 M 323 09/07/79 39°02’ 146°20’ Mouth of Tidal River, teeth
Norman Bay, Victoria
C23565 M 161 04/05/93? 38°49’ 146°07’ Sandy Point, Victoria teeth
C24972 M - 22/06/75 37°49’ 148°44’ Cape Conran tooth
C24975 M - 19/08/75 37°49’ 148°36’ Nr Point Ricardo teeth
C24976 M 330 21/01/80 37°52’ 148°04’ Shelly Beach teeth
C29469 F 210 18/08/90 38°20’ 142°01’ Lake Yambuk teeth
CSIRO Australia, Division of Wildlife & Ecology: provided by Richard Schodde and John
Wombey
Kogia breviceps
No. Sex Length Date Lat/Long Locality Sample

ANWC
M16210 F - 11/03/79 34°25’S/150°52’E North Beach, Wollongong tooth
South Australian Museum: provided by Catherine Kemper
Kogia breviceps

(cm)
M050101,2 F(c?) 171 25/04/37 34°30’ 137°29’ Port Victoria tooth
1,2
M05009 Fpl 290 25/04/37 34°30’ 137°29’ Port Victoria -
M050111,2 M 19.3 25/04/37 34°30’ 137°29’ Port Victoria -
M05197 - 213-244 Aug. ‘44 34°54’ 135°47’ Sleaford Bay, nr Port tooth
Lincoln
M06156 Mc 172 07/08/57 34°54’ 135°47’ Sleaford Bay tooth
M14157 F 293 07/08/57 34°54’ 135°47’ Sleaford Bay tooth
M062563 F - 28/06/59 35°33’ 138°37’ Victor Harbour, tooth
nr Franklin Parade
M06257 M - 28/06/59 35°33’ 138°37’ Victor Harbour, tooth
nr Franklin Parade
M06266 3 M 273 29/09/59 34°58’ 138°32’ Glenelg tooth
17
(cm)
M063104 F 192 12/09/61 34°50’ 138°29’ 2 miles N of Grange tooth
M10095 - 284.48 15/05/74? 33°00’ 138°30’ Stony Point, 0,5 km tooth
N of Point Lowly
M10097/ Fp 278 20/07/73 36°05’ 139°33’ opp. Policemans’ tooth
001 Point, on Ocean side
of peninsula
M10097/ M 30 20/07/73 36°05’ 139°33’ opp. Policemans’ -
002 Point, on Ocean side
of peninsula
M12915 - 300 July ‘80 32°43’ 134°05’ Cape Bauer tooth
M15814 M 242 28/10/89 33°18’ 137°50’ 5km SSW of Port tooth,
Davis testis,
stomach
contents
M16393 F 210 15/08/88 38°20’ 142°02’ Yambuk, W of outlet stomach
to sea contents
M16471 M 289 13/02/91 35°13’ 138°28’ 2km NNE of Gull tooth,
Rock testis,
stomach
contents
M16967 M 267 10/11/91 32°13’ 133°08’ Point Bell tooth
s0082 Fp 214 16/11/92 43°28’ 147°13’ Cloudy Bay, -
Tasmania
1
: published in Hale (1939).
2
3
4
Australian Museum: provided by Sandy Ingleby
Kogia breviceps
M19687 M 289.5 7/05/88 33°13’ 151°38’ Nth Birdie Beach, 6km N teeth
of Budgewoi
M23800 - - Feb 1982 29°49’ 153°17’ 5 mls N Wooli, SE of dentaries
Grafton
M23823 F 152 26/03/88 30°13’ 153°09’ Moonee Beach, 10km N of dentaries
Coffs Harbour
M25479 F - 02/12/91 29°29’ 153°22’ Angourie Back Beach dentaries
M25869 F 160 20/08/91 30°09’ 153°12’ Sandys’ Beach, 20km N of dentaries,
Coffs Harbour teeth
18
Queensland Museum: provided by Steve van Dyk
Kogia breviceps

(cm)
JM5698 F 477 15/01/87 24°43’ 152°17’ Bundaberg, Moore Park teeth,
Township, 2km N uterus
JM10000 Fp 279 08/09/93 26°37’ 153°06’ Mudjimba Beach teeth
JM11586 F 340 30/04/97 24°20’ 152°17’ Moore Park, Bundaberg teeth
JM11587 Fc 157 30/04/97 24°20’ 152°17’ Moore Park, Bundaberg teeth
Western Australian Museum: provided by John Bannister
Kogia sima

(cm)
M4519 F 216 19/09/59 36°01’ 115°44’ Freemantle teeth
(Leighton Beach)
19
20
APPENDIX D
Genetic samples of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima
Kogia breviceps
Specimen Sex Country Date of Lat./Long. Sample Sequenced

number of origin stranding used successfully
N2758 M SA (PEM) 19/10/99 34°03’S/ 23°03’E muscle Y
N2641 F SA (PEM) 20/08/97 33°58’S/ 22°34’E tooth Y
N1888 F SA (PEM) 18/10/93 33°43’S/ 26°30’E tooth N
N1863 M SA (PEM) 05/09/91 34°00’S/ 23°27’E tooth N
N1862 F SA (PEM) 02/09/91 34°00’S/ 23°27’E mammary N
tissue
N989 M SA (PEM) 26/09/83 34°01’S/ 25°22’E tooth Y
N424 M SA (PEM) Aug/Sep1 32°59’S/ 27°57’E tooth, N
960 bone
21
N40 -c SA (PEM) ?/10/65 33°58’S/ 23°34’E bone N
96/24 F SA (SAM) 13/09//96 32°18’S/ 18°21’E tooth Y
94/09 F SA (SAM) 25/06/94 34°24’S/ 20°50’E tooth N
93/16 M SA (SAM) 01/09/93 34°48’S/ 20°03’E tooth N
93/14 M SA (SAM) 06/07/93? 34°25’S/ 20°24’E tooth Y
92/14 F SA (SAM) 16/09/92 34°24’S/ 20°50’E tooth N
91/26 F SA (SAM) 08/06/91 34°20’S/ 21°54’E tooth N
88/05 M SA (SAM) 16/02/88 34°31’S/ 20°28’E tooth N
87/26 - SA (SAM) ?/1986 32°36’S/ 18°17’E tooth N
87/12 - SA (SAM) 09/05//87 34°07’ S/ 22°07’ E tooth N
87/10 M? SA (SAM) 05/03/87 34°31’S/ 20°28’E tooth Y
87/06 M SA (SAM) 03/03/87 34°08’S/ 22°10’E tooth Y
86/22 M SA (SAM) 25/05/86 33°25’S/ 18°18’E tooth N
86/17 F SA (SAM) 09/04/86 34°31’S/ 20°28’E tooth N
84/26 F SA (SAM) 04/09/84 22°57’S/ 14°30’E tooth Y
84/24 F SA (SAM) 10/08/84 34°21’S/ 19°02’E tooth N
83/33 F SA (SAM) 23/09/83 34°25’S/ 19°14’E tooth Y
83/27 M SA (SAM) 11/06/83 34°23’S/ 18°52’E tooth Y
83/26 - SA (SAM) 03/06/83 34°07’S/ 22°07’E tooth Y
83/21 M SA (SAM) 06/05/83 34°24’S/ 20°50’E tooth N
83/20 F SA (SAM) 06/05/83 34°24’S/ 20°50’E tooth Y
82/27 F SA (SAM) 31/08/82 22°40’S/ 14°34’E tooth Y
82/21 M SA (SAM) 26/09/82 34°24’S/ 20°50’E tooth Y
82/04 F SA (SAM) 06/02/82 32°52’S/ 17°52’E tooth Y
81/22 F SA (SAM) 31/12/81 34°06’S/ 18°29’E tooth Y
80/26 F SA (SAM) 29/10/80? 34°29’S/ 19°22’E tooth Y
80/03 - SA (SAM) 01/08/79 21°15’S/ 13°14’E tooth N
79/18 - SA (SAM) 06/08/79? 22°50’S/ 14°34’E tooth Y
78/25 F SA (SAM) ca27/8/78 22°51’S/ 14°34’E tooth Y
78/20 F SA (SAM) 07/07/78 34°39’S/ 19°29’E tooth N
76/24 M SA (SAM) 30/11/76? 33°40’S/ 18°24’E tooth Y
76/19 M SA (SAM) 16/09/76 34°10’S/ 18°52’E tooth N
76/04 F? SA (SAM) late02/76 34°35’S/ 20°22’E tooth N
72/14 - SA (SAM) end07/ 34°28’S/ 20°30’E tooth Y
beg08
1970
75/07 M SA (SAM) 07/10/75 22°57’S/ 14°30’E tooth Y
69/15 M SA (SAM) ?06/11/69 34°42’S/ 20°15’E tooth N
22
68/13 M SA (SAM) 30/04/68 34°29’S/ 19°22’E tooth N
66/08 M SA (SAM) 03/12/66 34°02’S/ 18°21’E tooth N
#34018 - SA (SAM) 15/12/30 33°52’S/ 18°29’E tooth Y
#33577 - SA (SAM) - 34°05’S/ 23°36’E tooth N
#3912 - SA (SAM) 1899 34°03’S/ 23°03’E tooth N
#35074 - SA (SAM) 1880 34°05’S/ 23°36’E tooth N
C30959 M AUS 26/09/97 37°59’S/ 147°43’E tooth Y
(MOV)
C- F AUS August 38°17’S/ 144°30’E liver Y
(MOV) ‘99
C29469 F AUS 18/08/90 38°20’S/ 142°01’E tooth N
(MOV)
C24976 M AUS 21/01/80 37°52’S/ 148°04’E tooth Y
(MOV)
C24975 M AUS 19/08/75 37°49’S/ 148°36’E tooth N
(MOV)
C24972 M AUS 22/06/75 37°49’S/ 148°44’E tooth N
(MOV)
C23489 M AUS 09/07/79 39°02’S/ 146°20’E tooth Y
(MOV)
C23565 M AUS 04/05/93? 38°S49’/ 146°07’E tooth Y
(MOV)
M16967 M AUS 15/08/88 32°13’S/ 133°08’E muscle Y
(SAUSM)
M16471 M AUS 13/02/91 35°13’S/ 138°28’E muscle Y
(SAUSM)
M15814 M AUS 30/10/89 33°18’S/ 137°50’E liver Y
(SAUSM)
M14157 F AUS 07/08/57 34°54’S/ 135°47’E tooth N
(SAUSM)
M12915 - AUS July ‘80 32°43’S/ 134°05’E tooth N
(SAUSM)
M10097/001 F AUS 20/07/73 36°05’S/ 139°33’E tooth Y
(SAUSM)
M10095 - AUS 15/05/74? 33°00’S/ 138°30’E tooth N
(SAUSM)
M06310 F AUS 12/09/61 34°50’S/ 138°29’E tooth N
(SAUSM)
M06266 M AUS 29/09/59 34°58’S/ 138°32’E tooth N
(SAUSM)
M06257 M AUS 28/06/59 35°33’S/ 138°37’E tooth N
(SAUSM)
M06256 F AUS 28/06/59 35°33’S/ 138°37’E tooth Y
(SAUSM)
M06156 M AUS 07/08/57 34°54’S/ 135°47’E tooth Y
(SAUSM)
M05197 - AUS August 34°54’S/ 135°47’E tooth N
(SAUSM) ‘44
M05010 F AUS 25/04/37 34°30’S/ 137°29’E tooth N
(SAUSM)
M19963 F AUS 27/12/96 31°45’S/ 131°49’ skin Y
(SAUSM)
M16393 F AUS 15/08/88 38°20’S/142°02’E muscle Y
(SAUSM)
23
Bol592 F AUS 18/11/88 30°13’S/153°09’E liver Y
(SAUSM)
ANWC F AUS 11/03/79 34°25’S/150°52’E tooth N
M16210 (CSIRO)
JM11587 F AUS 30/04/97 24°43’S/ 152°17’E tooth N
(QM)
JM11586 F AUS 30/04/97 24°43’S/ 152°17’E tooth Y
(QM)
JM10000 F AUS 08/09/93 26°37’S/ 153°06’E tooth Y
(QM)
JM5698 F AUS 15/01/87 24°43’S/ 152°17’E tooth Y
(QM)
M25869 F AUS November 30°09’S/ 153°12’E muscle Y
(AM) ‘91
M25479 F AUS 02/12/91 29°29’S/ 153°22’E tooth Y
(AM)
M23823 F AUS 26/03/88 30°13’S/ 153°09’E tooth Y
(AM)
M23800 - AUS February 29°49’S/ 153°17’E tooth N
(AM) ‘82
M19687 M AUS 07/05/88 33°13’S/ 151°38’E tooth Y
(AM)
M9722 F AUS 02/08/75 35°05’S/ 138°30’E cartilage Y
(AM)
Kbr01 M NZ 24/03/94 39°09’S/ 177°54’E skin Y
Kbr 02 M NZ 29/03/94 - skin Y
Kbr 03 M NZ 16/12/94 38°20’S/ 175°10’E skin Y
Kbr 04 F NZ 25/02/95 41°13’S/ 174°53’E skin Y
Kbr 05 Fc NZ 16/05/95 - skin N
Kbr 06 F NZ 16/05/95 - skin Y
Kbr 08 M NZ 12/04/95 39°02’S/ 177°35’E skin Y
Kbr 09 M NZ 18/02/94 39°20’S/ 177°20’E skin Y
Kbr 10 F NZ March ‘94 38°40’S/ 178°01’E skin N
Kbr 11 M NZ 08/01/97 39°04’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
Kbr 12 F NZ 20/08/97 34°53’S/ 173°04’E skin Y
Kbr 13 F NZ May ‘97 34°53’S/ 173°04’E skin Y
Kbr 14 F NZ 21/04/97 39°20’S/ 177°20’E skin Y
Kbr 15 M NZ 05/05/97 - skin Y
Kbr 16 M NZ - - skin Y
Kbr 17 M NZ 07/04/98 - skin Y
Kbr 18 F NZ 05/01/98 - skin Y
Kbr 19 F NZ 05/01/98 - skin Y
Kbr 20 F NZ 28/03/98 39°04’S/ 177°25’E skin Y
Kbr 21 M NZ 28/03/98 39°04’S/ 177°25’E skin N
Kbr 22 M NZ 18/02/99 36°22’S/ 174°12’E skin Y
Kbr 23 - NZ 22/03/99 40°50’S/ 175°57’E skin Y
24
Kbr 24 Fl NZ 02/05/99 39°29’S/ 176°53’E skin Y
Kbr 25 Fc NZ 02/05/99 39°29’S/ 176°53’E skin N
Kbr 28 M NZ 29/04/98 39°05’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
Kbr 29 Mc NZ 30/04/98 39°05’S/ 177°52’E skin N
Kbr 30 M NZ 14/05/98 39°04’S/ 177°50’E skin Y
Kbr 31 M NZ 02/06/99? 39°09’S/ 177°54’E skin Y
Kbr 32 F NZ 02/06/99 39°05’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
Kbr 33 F NZ 09/06/99? 39°09’S/ 177°54’E skin Y
Kbr 34 F NZ 09/06/99? 39°09’S/ 177°54’E skin Y
Kbr 35 M NZ - 39°09’S/ 177°54’E skin Y
Kbr 36 M NZ 12/06/99 39°04’S/ 177°25’E skin Y
Kbr 38 F NZ - 39°05’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
Kbr 39 Mc NZ 09/03/00 39°09’S/ 177°54’E skin N
Kbr 40 F NZ 09/03/00 39°09’S/ 177°54’E skin Y
Kbr 41 M NZ 18/03/00 39°29’S/ 176°55’E skin Y
Kbr 42 F NZ 22/02/00 39°04’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
Kbr 43 Fc NZ 14/05/00 39°09’S/ 177°54’E skin N
Kbr 44 F NZ 14/05/00 39°09’S/ 177°54’E skin Y
Kbr 45 F NZ 16/11/99 38°20’S/ 178°20’E skin Y
Kbr 46 F NZ 20/02/00 39°05’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
Kbr 47 M NZ 19/02/99 39°04’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
Kbr 48 M NZ 27/05/00 39°04’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
Kbr 49 M NZ 11/06/00 39°04’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
Kbr 50 F NZ 30/04/98 39°04’S/ 177°52’E skin Y
97-41 F NC 27/09/97 20°45’S/165°08’E skin Y
97-42 M NC 02/10/97 Magenta, Noumea skin Y
KVW1500 - PE 06/02/87 13°52’S/76°17’W tooth Y
Kogia sima
Specimen Sex Country Date of Lat./Long. Sample used Sequenced

number of origin stranding successfully
N2774 - SA (PEM) 11/04/99 34°08’S/ 22°10’E - N
N2772 M SA (PEM) 21/04/99 - tooth N
25
N2755 F SA (PEM) 30/07/98 34°01’S/ 25°23’E muscle N
N1869 - SA (PEM) 04/10/91 33°09’S/ 27°41’E tooth Y
N1082 - SA (PEM) - - tooth Y
N830 F SA (PEM) 27/03/82 33°48’S/ 25°42’E tooth, bone N
tissue
N317 F SA (PEM) 01/08/77 33°34’S/ 26°58’E tooth, bone N
tissue
No no. M SA (PEM) - - tooth N
90/41 - SA (SAM) ~07/12/90 32°47’S/ 18°10’E tooth Y
88/20 F SA (SAM) 14/07/88 34°36’S/ 19°24’E tooth Y
88/02 F SA (SAM) 27/01/88 34°23’S/ 20°51’E tooth N
86/34 - SA (SAM) 14/09/86 34°48’S/ 20°03’E tooth N
85/02 F SA (SAM) 08/03/85 34°31’S/ 20°28’E tooth N
84/36 M SA (SAM) 26/11/84 34°07’S/ 18°28’E tooth Y
26
84/35 M SA (SAM) 26/11/84 34°07’S/ 18°28’E tooth Y
84/21 M SA (SAM) 16/07/84 34°13’S/ 21°58’E tooth N
81/03 F SA (SAM) 24/03/81 34°02’S/ 18°21’E tooth Y
80/10 M SA (SAM) 19/05/80 34°29’S/ 19°22’E tooth N
78/17 F SA (SAM) 20/04/78 34°30’S/ 20°28’E tooth Y
76/18 F SA (SAM) 09/08/76 34°07’S/ 18°50’E tooth N
76/17 M SA (SAM) 30/07/76 34°11’S/ 18°26’E tooth N
76/14 M SA (SAM) 08/04/76 34°25’S/ 19°17’E tooth N
76/09 M SA (SAM) 03/04/76 34°06’S/ 18°22’E tooth N
76/03 F SA (SAM) 29/02/76 34°29’S/ 19°22’E tooth N
76/02 F SA (SAM) 15/02/76 34°08’S/ 18°19’E tooth Y
75/06 F SA (SAM) 12/07/75 34°07’S/ 18°26’E tooth N
72/15 F SA (SAM) 31/12/72 33°03’S/ 17°58’E tooth N
72/09 - SA (SAM) 13/05/72 33°52’S/ 18°29’E tooth Y
68/10 M SA (SAM) 02/12/68 33°48’S/ 18°27’E tooth N
SFRI2000/4 F SA (SFRI) 05/05/00 32°47’S/ 18°10’E skin Y
M4519 F AUS 19/09/59 36°01’S/ 115°44’E tooth N
(WAM)
99.260 F AUS 27/11/99 - liver Y
(SAUSM)
NT0126 M AUS 21/08/95 - skin Y
PWW2 Ff TAS 16/11/92 - skin Y
(UTAS)
Ce004 F CH 02/02/96 33°50 ‘S/71°51’W tooth Y
F= Female; M= Male; f=foetus

SA= South Africa
NZ= New Zealand
AUS= Australia
TAS= Tasmania
CH= Chile
PE= Peru
NC= New Caledonia
PEM= Port Elizabeth Museum (now Bayworld), Port Elizabeth, South Africa
SAM= South African Museum, Cape Town, South Africa
SFRI= Sea Fisheries Research Institute (now Marine and Coastal Management), Cape Town,
South Africa
UA= University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
MNZ= Museum of New Zealand, Te Papa Tongarewa, Wellington, New Zealand
MOV= Museum of Victoria, Abbotsford, Australia
SAUSM= South Australian Museum, Adelaide, Australia
CSIRO=Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation, Canberra, Australia
QM= Queensland Museum, Brisbane, Australia
AM= Australian Museum, Sydney, Australia
WAM= Western Australian Museum, Perth, Australia
UTAS= University of Tasmania, Hobart
27
28
APPENDIX E
Variable sites for Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima haplotypes for the cytochrome b region of
the mitochondrial DNA. Haplotype number relate to haplotypes shown in Figures 8.3 and 8.4
and are in order of appearance from the top downwards as in Figure 8.2.
Variable sites
1111111111111122222222222222222222333333333333333333333333
1123335567778901112223333444567778001112222334455566666789
4732483611240210362581478069010395362581789798978901346820
Kbrh1 GTACCAATACAACCATTTCTTCCAGGACCCCACCGGATTCCACGACAGGTTCGCAGAT
Kbrh2 .................................................C........
Kbrh3 .............................................T............
Kbrh4 .................................T........................
Kbrh5 ......................................................G...
Kbr6 ............................................G.............
Kbrh7 ...............................G..........................
Kbrh8 ...............................................A..........
Kbrh9 ..................................A.......................
Kbrh10 ...........................................A........A....?
Kbrh11 ....................................................A.....
Kbrh12 ..G......T..............A.................................
Kbrh13 ..G......T................................................
Kbrh14 ..G......T......................T.........................
Kbrh15 ..G......T...............A................................
Kbrh16 ..G......T...............AG...............................
Kbrh17 ..G......TG..............A....................G...........
Kbrh18 ..G......T...............A..T.............................
Kbrh19 ..G......T...............A......................A..T....??
Kbrh20 ..G......?.............................T...............?..
Kbrh21 ........................A.................................
Kbrh22 ..............................T.................A........?
Kbrh23 ................C.........................................
Kbrh24 .......C........C.......................................G.
Kbrh25 .......C..................................................
Kbrh26 .......C.....T............................................
Ksih1 AC.T.GG.G..CTTGC.CTCCT.GAA.TTT.G..AT.CC.TGT....AA.CTA..A.C
Ksih2 AC.T.GG.G..CTTGC.CTCCT.G.A.TTT.G..AT.CC.TGT....AA.CTA..A.C
Ksih3 AC.T.GG.G..CTTGC.CTCCT.G.A.TTT.G..AT.CC.TGT....AA.CTAT.A.C
Ksih4 AC.T.GG.G..CTTGC.CTCCT.G.A.TTT.G..ATGCC.TGT....AA.CTA..A.C
Ksih5 AC.TTGG.G..CTTGC.CTCCT.G.A.TTT.G..AT.CC.TGT....AA.CTA..A.C
Ksih6 AC.T.GG.G..CTTGC.CTCCTTG.A.TTT.G..AT.CC.TGT....AA.CTA..A.?
Ksih7 AC.T.GG.G..CTTGC.CTCCT.G.A.TTT....AT.CC.TGT....AA.CTA..A.C
Ksih8 AC.T.GG.G..CTTGC.CTCCT.G.A.TTT.G..AT.CC.TG.....AA.CTA..A.C
Ksih9 AC.T.G..G..CTTGC.CTCCTTG.A.TTT.G..AT.CC.TGT....AA.CTA..???
Ksih10 AC.T.GG.G..CTTGC.CTCCT.G.A.TTT.G..AT.CC.TGT....AA.C.A..A.?
Ksih11 AC.T.GG.G..C.TGC.CTCCT.G.A.TTT.G..AT.CC.TGT....AA.CTA..A.C
Ksih12 AC.T.GGC...CTTGC.CTCCT.G.A.TTT.G..AT.CC.TGT....AA.CTA..A.C
29
Variable sites for Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima haplotypes for the control region of the
mitochondrial DNA. Haplotype number relate to haplotypes shown in Figure 8.5 from the top
downwards.
Variable sites
1111111112222222222222222222222233333334444444
12223346666890001148990011145666666778888899927799990155555
27811594624567672674549045624800016789080258935650301345124578
Kbrh1 GAACACATTTTGTCAACCATCTACACCAATGAAGACCTTGTCTCTCGTTCCTACTCAATTCT
Kbrh2 .............T......T.....T.G.A.....T.C....T.T...........G.C..
Kbrh3 ............?T......T.....T...A.?...T.C....T.T...........G.C..
Kbrh4 ..........................T.G.AG....TCC......T.............C..
Kbrh5 ............................G.AG....T.C......T.............C..
Kbrh6 ..............................AG......C....T.T..C..........CT.
Kbrh7 ............................G.AG......C....T....C........G.CT.
Kbrh8 ...............G............G.AG......C...C..T..C........G.C..
Kbrh9 .........................T..G.......T.C.C.C......TT...........
Kbrh10 ............................G.A.....T.C...C...............C...
Kbrh11 A...........................G..GG...T.C...C............???????
Kbrh12 ....................................T.CA..C...A............C..
Kbrh13 A...........................G.A.....T.C...C................C..
Kbrh14 ............................G.AG....T.C...C.C...C..........C..
Kbrh15 ............................G.AG....T.C...C.C...CT.........C..
Kbrh16 .................T..........G.A.....T.C.........C.......T..C..
Kbrh17 ..........................T.G.A.G...T.C.........C.......TG.C..
Kbrh18 ...................C...TG...G.A....T..CA...................C..
Kbrh19 ????........................G.AG.A..............C..........C..
Kbrh20 ..G...GC.........T......G.....A..........TC..T........C....C..
Kbrh21 ..G...GC.........T......G.....A....T.....TC..T........C....C..
Kbrh22 ..G...GC.........T......G.....A..?......CT...T........C....?..
Kbrh23 ..G...GC.........T......G.....A.........CTC..T........C....C..
Kbrh24 ..G...GC.........T......G.....AG.......A.TC..T.......TC....C..
Kbrh25 ..G...GC.........T..........?.A...........C..T...........?????
Kbrh26 ..G...GCC........T........T...A..A........CT.T...........G.C..
Kbrh27 ..G...GC.........T............AG...........T.T......G....G.C..
Kbrh28 ????..GC.........T............AG....T.....C..T......G....G.C..
Kbrh29 ??????????????????????????????AG..GG.C.............???????????
Ksih1 .GGTGT.C.CCAC.GGTTG.TCC...TG.CA..A..TG..C.C..TTG...C.T...T.C..
Ksih2 .G.TGT.C.CCAC.GGTTG.TCC...TG.CA..A..TA....C..TTG...C.T.T.T.C.C
Ksih3 .GGTGT.CCCCAC.GGTTG.TCC...TG.CAG.A..TC....C..TTG...C.T...T.C.C
30
APPENDIX F
Length and age at attainment of sexual maturity of different families of cetacea.
Common Name Species Name Male Female Male age Female Source
length at length at at ASM age at
ASM (cm) ASM (cm) ASM
Phocoenids
Vaquita Phocoena sinus 127* 131.9* 4.5y 4.5y Hohn et al.,
1996
Harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena 130.8 144.2 2.93y 3.64y Sørensen and
Kinze, 1994
Dall’s porpoise Phocoenoides dalli 179.7 172 5y 4.2y Ferrero and
Walker, 1999
Pontoporiidae
Franciscana Pontoporia blainvillei 131 140 2.5y 2.7y Brownell, 1984
Platanistidae
Susu Platanista 170* 200* 10y 10y Brownell, 1984
Delphinidae
Hector’s dolphin Cephalorhynchus 140* 125* 7.5y 7y Slooten, 1991
hectori
Commerson’s Cephalorhynchus 165 165 8y 5y Collet and
dolphin commersoni Robineau, 1988
Atlantic white-sided Lagenorhynchus 249 218 9y 8y Rogan et al.,
dolphin acutus 1997
Common dolphin Delphinus delphis 175 160 3y 4y Perrin and
200 190 6G 6.5G Reilly, 1984
Spinner dolphin Stenella longirostris 165 164 7.5y 4.5y Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata 194 182 12y 9y Perrin and
195 181 11G 8G Reilly, 1984
Striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba 219 216 9y 9y Perrin and
- - 8.9y 8.8y Reilly, 1984;
Miyazaki, 1984
Bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus 238* 225* 14.5y 10.3y Cockcroft and
252.5 227.5 11y 12y Ross, 1990;
Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Melon-headed whale Peponocephala - - 3G 4G Perrin and
electra Reilly, 1984
False killer whale Pseudorca crassidens 426.5 396.5 12y 12y Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Short-finned pilot Globicephala 422 316 17y 9y Kasuya and
whale macrorhynchus 560 395 17y 8.5y Marsh, 1984;
Kasuya and
Tai, 1993
31
Long-finned pilot Globicephala melas 490 365 12y 6.5y Perrin and
whale Reilly, 1984
Killer whale Orcinus orca 579 472.5 16y 10y Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Monodontidae
Beluga Delphinapteras
leucas - - 8.5y 5.5y Braham, 1984
Narwhal Monodon monoceros 390 340 12y 6.5y Braham, 1984
Ziphiidae
Northern bottlenose Hyperoodon 750 690 9G 11G Mead, 1984

whale ampullatus
Baird’s beaked whale Berardius bairdii 945 1025 8.5y 10.25y Kasuya et al.,
1997
Physeteridae Best, 1968,

Sperm whale Physeter catodon 1190 880 18.5y 9.5y 1969, 1970;
Best et al.,
1984; Evans,
1987
Pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps 242 262 5G 6G Present study
Dwarf sperm whale Kogia sima 197.25 215 4.5G 2.925G Present study
Eschrichtiidae -
Gray whale Eschrichtius robustus 1110 1170 Lockyer, 1984
Balaenidae -
Southern right whale Eubalaena australis 1450 1450 Lockyer, 1984
Bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus 1160 1310 15y 15y Lockyer, 1984;
George et al.,
1997; 1999
Balaenopteridae
Minke whale Balaenoptera 720 800 Lockyer, 1984;
acuturostrata 6y 6y Williamson,
1975
Bryde’s whale Balaenoptera edeni 1200 1250 - - Lockyer, 1984
Humpback whale Megaptera 1160 1200 6.5y 5y Lockyer, 1984;
novaeangliae Clapham, 1992
Sei whale Balaenoptera 1360 1400 - - Lockyer, 1984
borealis
Fin whale Balaenoptera 1900 2000 - - Lockyer, 1984
physalus
32
Pygmy blue whale Balaenoptera 1890 1920 - - Lockyer, 1984

musculus brevicauda
Blue whale Balaenoptera 2260 2400 - - Lockyer, 1984
musculus
LSM= mean length at attainment of sexual maturity; ASM= mean age at attainment of sexual maturity; G= GLG’s;
y= years.
*
= data were not supplied by the author(s), but estimated (i.e. read off curves and tables) from the paper.
If no mean length/age at sexual maturity was supplied in the literature, data for the shortest/youngest mature animal
were used. For females the age at first ovulation, not first calf, was used. If the age at first conception was supplied,
the gestation time (roughly 12 months) was substracted. If a range was supplied the median value was used.
Only complete data sets were used. When complete data sets for different populations were available, only the
largest data set was used.
Life expectancy data (i.e. maximum ages) of different families of cetaceans. Note that the data
presented are maximum age estimates.
Common Name Species Name Males Females Males Females Source

(cm) (cm)
Phocoenidae
Vaquita Phocoena sinus 16y 21y 144 148.2 Hohn et al.,1996
Harbour porpoise Phocoena phocoena 24y 24y 160 184 Gaskin et al.,
1984; Hohn and
Brownell, 1990;
Read and
Gaskin, 1990;
Read and Hohn,
1995; Sørensen
and Kinze, 1994;
Lockyer, 1995
Finless porpoise Neophocaena phocaenoides 23y* - 192 175 Gaskin et al.,
1984
Dall’s porpoise Phocoenoides dalli 18y 16y 219 209 Gaskin et al.,
1984
Pontoporiidae
Franciscana Pontoporia blainvillei 16y 13y 158 174 Brownell, 1984
Iniidae
Boto Inia geoffrensis 18+y 28y 255 228 Brownell, 1984
Platanistidae
Susu Platanista 28y - 211 252 Brownell, 1984
Delphinidae
Hector’s dolphin Cephalorhynchus hectori 20y 19y - - Slooten, 1991
33
(cm) (cm)
Commerson’s dolphin Cephalorhynchus 15G 11G 166.5 174 Perrin and

commersoni 9y 10y Reilly, 1984;
Collet and
Robineau, 1988
Dusky dolphin Lagenorhynchus obscurus 7y 21y 211 193 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Atlantic white-sided Lagenorhynchus acutus 22G 27G 275 243 Perrin and
dolphins 17y 15y Reilly, 1984;
Rogan et al.,
1997
Common dolphin Delphinus delphis 22y 20y 260 230 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Spinner dolphin Stenella longirostris 12-19y 15-23y 235 204 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Spotted dolphin Stenella attenuata 40y 46y 257 242 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Striped dolphin Stenella coeruleoalba 45.5y 37.5y 256 245 Miyazaki, 1984;
32y 28y Calzada et al.,
1994
Rough-toothed dolphins Steno bredanensis 32y 30y 265 255 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Bottlenose dolphin Tursiops truncatus 42y 43y 381 367 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984;
Cockcroft and
Ross, 1990
Risso’s dolphin Grampus griseus >13G >17G 383 366 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Pygmy killer whale Feresa attenuata 14G - 264 243 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Melon-headed whale Peponocephala electra 47G 12G 273 257 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
False killer whale Pseudorca crassidens 20y 22y 596 506 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
Short-finned pilot Globicephala 44.5y 61.5y 720 510 Kasuya and
whales macrorhynchus Marsh, 1984;
45.5y 62.5y 525 405 Kasuya and Tai,
1993
Long-finned pilot Globicephala melas 46y 59y 762 570 Perrin and
whales Reilly, 1984;
Bloch et al.,
1993
Killer whale Orcinus orca 35G 34G 975 853 Perrin and
Reilly, 1984
34
(cm) (cm)
Monodontidae
Beluga Delphinapterus leucas 25-30y* - - - Braham, 1984
Narwhal Monodon monoceros 50y* - 470 400 Braham, 1984
Ziphiidae
Gervais’ beaked whale Mesoplodon europaeus - 27G 456 520 Mead, 1984
Cuvier’s beaked whale Ziphius cavirostris 36G 30G 700 754 Mead, 1984
Northern bottlenose Hyperoodon ampullatus 37G 27G 980 870 Mead, 1984
whale
Baird’s beaked whale Berardius bairdii 84y 54y 1010 1045 Kasuya et al.,
1997
Physeteridae
Sperm whale
Physeter catodon 42y 42y 1580 1100 Best, 1970;
Evans, 1987
Pygmy sperm whale Kogia breviceps 13.33G 22.43G 330.5 327.6 Present study
(16G) (340) (Australian data)
Dwarf sperm whale Kogia sima 17G 21.5G 260.4 274.3 Present study
Neobalaenidae
Pygmy right whale Caperea marginata - - - 640 Lockyer, 1984
Eschrichtiidae
Gray whale Eschrichtius robustus - - - 1500 Lockyer, 1984
Balaenidae - - -
Southern right whale Eubalaena australis 1830 Lockyer, 1984
Bowhead whale Balaena mysticetus >100y - - 2000 Lockyer, 1984;
(211y) George et al.,
1997; 1999
Balaenopteridae
Minke whale Balaenoptera acutorostrata 1070 Lockyer, 1984;
ca50 ca50 980 Williamson,
1975
Bryde’s whale Balaenoptera edeni - - - 1560 Lockyer, 1984
Humpback whale Megaptera novaeangliae - - - 1520 Lockyer, 1984
Sei whale Balaenoptera borealis - - - 1830 Lockyer, 1984
*
Fin whale Balaenoptera physalus 114y - - 2600 Lockyer, 1984;
Ohsumi, 1979
in: George et al.,
1997
Pygmy blue whale Balenoptera musculus - - - 2410 Lockyer, 1984
brevicauda
35
(cm) (cm)
Blue whale Balaenoptera musculus 110y* - - 3100 Lockyer, 1984;

Ohsumi, 1979
in: George et al.,
1997
G=GLG’s; y=years.
When y and G were available only y were presented here.*=no indication of sex was provided for these data.
36
Bibliography for the appendices
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estimates of bowhead whales via aspartic acid racemization. Working paper SC/50/AS10 to
the Scientific Committee of the IWC, 1997: 16pp.
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growth estimates of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) via aspartic acid racemization.
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vaquita, Phocoena sinus (Phocoenidae, Cetacea). Journal of Zoology, London 239: 235-
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38
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39

The Status and Natural History of Pygmy (Kogia Breviceps) and Dwarf (K. Sima) Sperm Whales Off Southern Africa

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The Status and Natural History of Pygmy (Kogia Breviceps) and Dwarf (K. Sima) Sperm Whales Off Southern Africa

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The status and natural history of pygmy (Kogia breviceps)

and dwarf (K. sima)

A thesis submitted in fulfilment of the

in the Department of Zoology & Entomology

population genetic structure of both species.

species was described and is characterised by 20-25 spherical mitochondria arranged in

rows around the midpiece.

Attainment of sexual maturity in females occurred at 5 years in both Kogia species,

The diet of K. breviceps comprised 50 different cephalopod species from 22

ecological niche off the coast of Southern Africa.

by differences in the size of the appendages between the two species.

for K. breviceps in the Southern hemisphere, but a lack of significant phylogeographic

phylogeographic structure of K. sima were somewhat restrictive as the majority of the

Although both Kogia species belong to the medium to larger-sized odontocetes

Chapter 2: Sample and Study Area

Chapter 4: Male Reproduction

Chapter 5: Female Reproduction

Chapter 7: Stranding Patterns

Chapter 8: Population Genetics

Chapter 9: General Discussion and Conclusions

Table 4.1: Gonadal characteristics for different maturity stages in Kogia

Figure 2.1: Size-frequency of Kogia breviceps strandings........................................ 2-4

Figure 3.1: Longitudinal section of a Kogia breviceps tooth................................... 3-23

Figure 4.1: Histological preparations of different maturity stages of the testes in

Figure 6.1: Diet composition of Kogia breviceps and Kogia sima………………...6-32

Figure 7.1: Bathymetry off Southern Africa.............................................................. 7-3

Figure 9.1: Slow-fast continuum of life histories for mammals…………………...9-14

“The cure for anything is saltwater-sweat, tears or the sea”

Isak Dinesen (alias Karen Blixen)

“It is better to understand a little than to misunderstand a lot”

1.1 Aim of the present study

1.2 General introduction

A number of difficulties were encountered in creating this review. In general, the

1.4 How many species?

Physeter breviceps, de Blainville (1838) new species

1.5.1 Fossil record

1.6.1 External characteristics

with caution for species identification (Ross, 1979a).

A comprehensive summary of the skull morphology of K. sima is given by

Length at birth is estimated to be 100cm by Ross (1979a), which is the same

1.7.2 Age determination

1.8 Distribution and abundance

K. breviceps appears to be a cosmopolitan species, recorded from nearly all

Figure 1.3: Worldwide distribution of Kogia breviceps (from Carwardine, 1995).

Figure 1.4: Worldwide distribution of Kogia sima (from Carwardine, 1995).

1.8.3 Abundance estimates

1.9.1 Surface behaviour

1.9.2 Diving behaviour

1.9.4 Sound production

of directionality. Recordings in air by Caldwell et al. (1966) and underwater by Caldwell

1.9.5 Group size

Although it is frequently stated that K. sima occurs in groups of up to 10 animals

1.11 Additional studies

1.12 Parasites and diseases

1.14 Human consumption

1.15.1 Interactions with fisheries

1.15.2 Plastic ingestion

1.16 Conservation status

1.17 This study