All about

RESEARCH
Prepared by: Arjie O. Gongon

1 | All about Research.

What is Research?
Research is a systematic and structured investigation or inquiry that seeks to answer
questions or solve problems using established scientific and scholarly methods. It is a
process of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting information or data to generate new
knowledge, improve understanding, and advance human understanding and progress.
Research can take many forms and be conducted in various fields, such as social
sciences, natural sciences, humanities, engineering, technology, and business. It can
be exploratory, descriptive, explanatory, or evaluative in nature, and it can use
quantitative, qualitative, or mixed methods approaches.
The main characteristics of research include a clear research question or hypothesis, a
well-designed research plan, a rigorous and systematic data collection and analysis
process, a critical and reflective approach, and a clear and coherent reporting and
dissemination of the research findings. Research is essential for advancing knowledge,
improving practice, and addressing complex social, economic, and environmental
challenges facing our world.
What type of Research Design is best for Senior High School Students?
The choice of research design for senior high school students depends on various
factors, such as the research question, the nature of the problem, the resources
available, and the skills and interests of the students. However, some common types of
research design that are suitable for senior high school students include:
1. Descriptive research design: This design involves the description of a particular
phenomenon or situation through systematic observation, measurement, and
analysis. This type of research design is suitable for topics that require a
detailed and comprehensive description of a particular phenomenon, such as
social or cultural practices, behavior, or attitudes.
2. Explanatory research design: This design involves explaining the cause-and-
effect relationship between variables. This type of research design is suitable for
topics that require an explanation of why a particular phenomenon occurs,
such as the factors that contribute to academic performance or the effects of a
particular intervention.
3. Correlational research design: This design involves examining the relationship
between two or more variables. This type of research design is suitable for
topics that require an understanding of the relationship between two or more
variables, such as the correlation between the use of technology and academic
performance.
4. Experimental research design: This design involves the manipulation of one or
more variables to observe the effect on another variable. This type of research
design is suitable for topics that require the testing of a hypothesis or the
evaluation of the effectiveness of an intervention or treatment.

2 | All about Research.

It is important to note that the research design chosen should be appropriate and
feasible for the students, taking into account their level of knowledge, skills, and
resources available. Additionally, the research design should be ethical and adhere to
the principles of scientific inquiry, such as validity, reliability, and generalizability.

3 | All about Research.

Best websites for researchers:
There are many websites that can be useful for researchers, depending on their field of
study and their specific needs. Here are a few examples:
1. Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com/): Google Scholar is a search engine
that specifically searches scholarly literature, including articles, theses, books,
and conference papers. It can be a great way to find academic research on a
particular topic.
2. arXiv (https://arxiv.org/): arXiv is an open access repository for preprints of
scholarly articles in the fields of physics, mathematics, computer science, and
other related fields.
3. PubMed (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/): PubMed is a free search engine
for biomedical literature, including articles on health, medicine, and life
sciences.
4. ResearchGate (https://www.researchgate.net/): ResearchGate is a social
networking site for scientists and researchers. It allows researchers to share
their work, collaborate with others, and connect with peers in their field.
5. JSTOR (https://www.jstor.org/): JSTOR is a digital library of academic
journals, books, and primary sources. It is particularly useful for researchers in
the humanities and social sciences.
These are just a few examples of websites that can be useful for researchers. It's
always a good idea to explore different resources and find the ones that work best for
your particular needs.

4 | All about Research.

Website for encoding and decoding quantitative and qualitative data:
Here are several websites that allow for encoding and decoding quantitative and
qualitative data. Here are a few examples:
1. QualCoder (https://www.qualcoder.com/): QualCoder is a free qualitative data
analysis software that allows for the encoding and decoding of qualitative data.
It allows users to organize and manage their data, code it, and analyze it using
various tools.
2. Dedoose (https://www.dedoose.com/): Dedoose is another qualitative data
analysis software that allows for the encoding and decoding of qualitative data.
It also allows for the integration of quantitative data and supports collaboration
among researchers.
3. NVivo (https://www.qsrinternational.com/nvivo-qualitative-data-analysis-
software/home): NVivo is a software program designed for qualitative data
analysis. It allows for the encoding and decoding of qualitative data, as well as
the integration of quantitative data. It also includes various tools for data
analysis and visualization.
4. MAXQDA (https://www.maxqda.com/): MAXQDA is a software program for
qualitative data analysis that allows for the encoding and decoding of
qualitative data. It also includes various tools for data analysis, including text
analysis, coding, and visualization.
These are just a few examples of websites that allow for encoding and decoding of
quantitative and qualitative data. It's important to evaluate different options and
choose the one that best fits your specific needs and research objectives.

5 | All about Research.

How to compile references for a research?
Compiling references for a research project is an important step in the research
process. Here's a general guide to help you compile references for your research:
1. Start by creating a reference list: Create a document where you will compile all
the references for your research. You can use a reference manager software
such as Mendeley, Zotero, or EndNote to manage your references.
2. Gather your sources: Make a list of all the sources you used in your research,
including books, journal articles, reports, and websites. You can use a reference
manager software to automatically import citation information from online
databases, or you can manually enter the information into your reference list.
3. Organize your references: Group your references according to the citation style
you will be using. Some common citation styles include APA, MLA, Chicago, and
Harvard. You can find detailed guidelines for each style online or in style
manuals.
4. Format your references: Once you have organized your references, make sure
they are formatted correctly according to the citation style you are using. Pay
attention to details such as punctuation, italics, and capitalization.
5. Check your references: Finally, double-check your reference list to make sure
all the information is accurate and complete. Make sure you have included all
the necessary elements such as author names, publication dates, and page
numbers.
Compiling references can be a time-consuming task, but it's an important step in the
research process. By organizing and formatting your references correctly, you can
ensure that your research is properly documented and can be easily verified by others.

6 | All about Research.

How to manage references and sources in Microsoft Word Application?
Microsoft Word has a built-in referencing feature that can be used to manage
references and sources. Here's how to use it:
1. Open the Microsoft Word document where you want to manage your references
and sources.
2. Go to the "References" tab in the menu bar. Click on "Manage Sources" to open
the "Source Manager" window.
3. In the "Source Manager" window, you can add, edit, or delete sources. To add a
new source, click on "New" and select the type of source you want to add, such
as a book, journal article, or website.
4. Enter the necessary information for the source, such as author, title,
publication date, and page numbers. Make sure to follow the formatting
guidelines for the citation style you are using.
5. Once you have added all your sources, you can insert citations into your
document. To insert a citation, place your cursor where you want the citation to
appear and click on "Insert Citation." Select the source you want to cite from
the list of sources in the "Source Manager" window.
6. When you are finished writing your document, you can generate a bibliography
or works cited page. To do this, place your cursor where you want the
bibliography to appear and click on "Bibliography." Select the style you want to
use, such as APA or MLA.
By using the referencing feature in Microsoft Word, you can easily manage your
sources and insert citations into your document. This can save you time and help you
avoid errors when formatting your references and citations.

7 | All about Research.

Citation Styles:
APA, MLA, Chicago, and Harvard are popular citation styles used by researchers,
scholars, and students to document sources in academic writing. Here's an overview of
each style:
1. APA (American Psychological Association): APA style is often used in social
sciences, such as psychology, sociology, and education. It emphasizes the
author's name, year of publication, and page number in the in-text citation. The
reference list is organized alphabetically by the author's last name and includes
the full publication information for each source.
2. MLA (Modern Language Association): MLA style is commonly used in the
humanities, such as literature, language, and cultural studies. It uses the
author's last name and page number in the in-text citation. The works cited list
is organized alphabetically by the author's last name and includes the full
publication information for each source.
3. Chicago/Turabian: Chicago/Turabian style is often used in history, art history,
and other humanities fields. It uses footnotes or endnotes for in-text citations,
and a bibliography that lists all sources cited in the paper. There are two
variations of the Chicago style: the Notes-Bibliography system, which uses
footnotes or endnotes, and the Author-Date system, which uses in-text
citations.
4. Harvard: Harvard style is used in a variety of disciplines, including social
sciences, natural sciences, and business. It uses the author's last name and
year of publication in the in-text citation. The reference list is organized
alphabetically by the author's last name and includes the full publication
information for each source.
Each citation style has its own set of rules and guidelines for formatting citations and
references. It's important to follow the guidelines for the citation style required by your
instructor or publisher to ensure accuracy and consistency in your citations.
The Basics of APA In-text Citations Tutorial:

The Basics of APA In-text Citations (6th Edition) | Scribbr 🎓 - YouTube

APA Citation Style - Navigating the Basics - YouTube

Basic for Format APA Style References Page Quick Demo - YouTube
Introduction to Citation Styles: APA 7th ed. - YouTube

8 | All about Research.

What is Likert Scale?
The Likert Scale is a commonly used rating scale in social science research to measure
attitudes, opinions, and behaviors of study participants. The scale consists of a series
of statements, which are typically presented in a survey or questionnaire. Participants
are asked to indicate their level of agreement or disagreement with each statement on
a numerical scale, usually ranging from 1 to 5 or 1 to 7.
For example, a statement might read, "I enjoy watching television." Participants are
asked to rate their agreement with the statement on a scale, such as:
1. Strongly disagree
2. Disagree
3. Neither agree nor disagree
4. Agree
5. Strongly agree
Participants can choose a number that reflects their level of agreement with the
statement. The numerical ratings are then used to create a composite score that
reflects the participant's overall attitude toward the topic being measured.
The Likert Scale is often used in surveys to measure attitudes or opinions about a
product, service, or topic. It can also be used in psychological research to measure
personality traits, motivations, or emotional states.
The Likert Scale is a popular and reliable tool for measuring attitudes and opinions.
However, it is important to ensure that the statements used in the scale are clear,
unbiased, and relevant to the topic being measured. Additionally, the numerical scale
used should be consistent and well-defined, to ensure that the results are reliable and
valid.

9 | All about Research.

Writing Introduction
The introduction is a critical part of a research paper, as it sets the tone for the entire
paper and provides an overview of the research question, the methods used, and the
results obtained. Here are some steps you can follow to write a strong research
introduction:
1. Start with a hook: Begin your introduction with an interesting statement or fact
that grabs the reader's attention and makes them want to read further. This
could be a thought-provoking question, a surprising statistic, or a relevant
anecdote.
2. Provide background information: Next, provide some context and background
information on the topic you are researching. This can help the reader
understand the significance of the research question and why it is important to
study.
3. State the research question and objectives: Clearly state your research question
and the objectives of your study. This should provide a clear focus for your
paper and help the reader understand what you are trying to accomplish.
4. Explain the methodology: Describe the methods you used to conduct your
research. This should include information on the type of data you collected,
how you collected it, and the analysis techniques you used.
5. Preview the results: Finally, provide a brief overview of the results you obtained.
This should give the reader an idea of what they can expect to find in the rest of
the paper.
It's important to keep your introduction clear and concise, and to avoid getting too
bogged down in technical details. Remember, your goal is to engage the reader and
provide a clear overview of your research question and objectives, as well as the
methods and results of your study.

10 | All about Research.

Writing RRL:
The RRL, or review of related literature, is a critical part of a research paper that
provides an overview of existing literature relevant to the research question being
investigated. Here are some steps you can follow to write a strong RRL:
1. Identify key search terms: Begin by identifying key search terms related to your
research question. This can help you locate relevant literature more efficiently
and effectively.
2. Conduct a thorough search: Use academic databases and other search tools to
identify relevant literature on your topic. Review abstracts, titles, and keywords
to determine which sources are most relevant to your research question.
3. Evaluate sources: Carefully evaluate each source to determine its relevance and
quality. Look for sources that are peer-reviewed, reputable, and have been
published in reputable academic journals or books.
4. Summarize the literature: After you have identified relevant sources, summarize
the key findings and arguments presented in each source. This can help you
identify patterns, themes, and gaps in the literature that are relevant to your
research question.
5. Synthesize the literature: Finally, synthesize the literature by identifying
common themes, patterns, and findings across the sources you have reviewed.
This can help you identify areas where there is agreement or disagreement in
the literature and help you identify gaps that your research can fill.
It's important to keep your RRL focused on your research question and to avoid
getting too bogged down in irrelevant details. Remember, your goal is to provide an
overview of the existing literature related to your research question and to identify
areas where your research can make a contribution to the field.

11 | All about Research.

Writing the Methodology:
The methodology section of a research paper outlines the methods and procedures
used to conduct the research. The approach and structure of the methodology section
can differ depending on whether the research is qualitative or quantitative. Here are
some general guidelines on how to write the methodology section for each approach:
Qualitative Research Methodology:
1. Describe the research design: Start by describing the research design you used,
such as ethnography, case study, or phenomenology.
2. Identify the participants: Describe the participants in your study, including how
they were selected and recruited. Provide details about the sample size and any
inclusion/exclusion criteria that were used.
3. Explain the data collection methods: Describe the methods used to collect data,
such as interviews, focus groups, or observation. Provide details about the
number of data collection sessions, the length of each session, and how data
were recorded.
4. Analyze the data: Describe the methods used to analyze the data, such as
thematic analysis or grounded theory. Provide details about the steps you took
to ensure the rigor and reliability of your analysis.
5. Address ethical considerations: Describe any ethical considerations that were
taken into account when conducting the research, such as obtaining informed
consent and protecting the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.
Quantitative Research Methodology:
1. Describe the research design: Start by describing the research design you used,
such as experimental or survey research.
2. Identify the participants: Describe the participants in your study, including how
they were selected and recruited. Provide details about the sample size and any
inclusion/exclusion criteria that were used.
3. Explain the data collection methods: Describe the methods used to collect data,
such as surveys or experiments. Provide details about the number of data
collection sessions, the length of each session, and how data were recorded.
4. Analyze the data: Describe the methods used to analyze the data, such as
statistical analysis. Provide details about the steps you took to ensure the rigor
and reliability of your analysis.

12 | All about Research.

 5. Address ethical considerations: Describe any ethical considerations that were
taken into account when conducting the research, such as obtaining informed
consent and protecting the privacy and confidentiality of the participants.

Writing Results and Discussions:

It's important to keep the methodology section clear and concise, and to provide
enough detail so that others can replicate your study. Also, be sure to address any
potential limitations or weaknesses in your methodology and how you addressed
them.
The results and discussion section of a quantitative research paper presents the
findings of the study and discusses their implications. Here are some general
guidelines on how to write the results and discussion section:
1. Results: Start with a brief overview of the findings, including any significant
statistical results. Use tables, graphs, and figures to present the data, and be
sure to label and title each item clearly. Present the results in a logical order
and be sure to include relevant descriptive statistics, such as means, standard
deviations, and ranges.
2. Discussion: After presenting the results, move on to the discussion section.
Interpret the findings and explain what they mean in the context of the research
question and the existing literature. Compare your results with previous
research and discuss any similarities or differences. Also, highlight any
unexpected or surprising findings and explain their significance.
3. Implications: Discuss the practical implications of the findings and how they
can be applied to real-world situations. Address any limitations of the study
and suggest areas for future research. Finally, draw conclusions based on the
findings and their implications.
4. Clarity and Organization: It is important to ensure that your writing is clear,
concise, and well-organized. Use headings and subheadings to guide the reader
and make it easy to follow the flow of the paper. Use simple and direct
language, and avoid jargon or technical terms that may be difficult for readers
to understand.
5. Citation: It is essential to cite all relevant sources, including statistical tests
used in the study. Use the appropriate citation style for your field and follow the
guidelines for citing sources in your paper.
Overall, the results and discussion section of a quantitative research paper should
provide a clear and detailed account of the study's findings and their implications. Be
sure to present the data clearly, interpret the results, and discuss their implications
for future research and real-world applications.

13 | All about Research.

Calculating Standard Deviation
The standard deviation is a measure of variability that tells us how much the data
deviates from the mean. It is calculated using the following formula:
s = sqrt [ Σ(x - x̄)^2 / (n - 1) ]
where:
 s is the standard deviation
 Σ is the sum of
 x is each individual data point
 x̄ is the mean of the data
 n is the total number of data points
To calculate the standard deviation, follow these steps:
1. Calculate the mean of the data by adding up all the data points and dividing by
the total number of data points.
2. Subtract the mean from each data point to get the deviation from the mean.
3. Square each deviation.
4. Add up all the squared deviations.
5. Divide the sum of squared deviations by (n-1).
6. Take the square root of the result.
This will give you the standard deviation of the data.
It is important to note that the standard deviation is influenced by outliers, or extreme
values that are far away from the mean. If there are outliers in the data, the standard
deviation may be larger than expected. In such cases, other measures of variability,
such as the interquartile range, may be more appropriate.
Tutorial for calculating the standard deviation:
Standard Deviation in Excel (NEW VERSION IN DESCRIPTION) - YouTube
Calculating The Standard Deviation, Mean, Median, Mode, Range, & Variance Using
Excel

14 | All about Research.

Calculating The Standard Deviation, Mean, Median, Mode, Range, & Variance Using
Excel - YouTube

Editing Tools:
There are many websites that can help you check your grammar and technical writing,
but here are a few that you may find useful:
1. Grammarly (https://www.grammarly.com/): Grammarly is an online writing
assistant that uses AI to help you improve your writing. It checks your
grammar, spelling, and punctuation, and offers suggestions for better word
choice and sentence structure.
2. ProWritingAid (https://prowritingaid.com/): ProWritingAid is another online
writing tool that checks your grammar and spelling, but it also provides
feedback on writing style, readability, and more. It can help you identify
overused words, cliches, and other common writing mistakes.
3. Hemingway Editor (https://hemingwayapp.com/): The Hemingway Editor is a
simple online tool that highlights common writing errors, such as long
sentences, adverbs, and passive voice. It also provides a readability score and
suggests ways to make your writing more clear and concise.
4. LanguageTool (https://languagetool.org/): LanguageTool is an open-source
grammar checker that supports more than 20 languages. It can detect spelling
mistakes, grammar errors, and style issues, and it offers suggestions for
corrections.
These websites can be very helpful in identifying and correcting grammatical and
technical errors in your writing. However, it's important to keep in mind that they are
not perfect and may not catch every mistake. It's always a good idea to review your
work carefully before submitting it.

15 | All about Research.

Importance of Proofreading:
Proofreading is an essential part of the research writing process. Here are some tips on
how to proofread your research work effectively:
1. Take a break: After finishing your research work, take a break for a day or two
before you start proofreading. This will give you a fresh perspective and help
you identify errors that you may have missed before.
2. Use a checklist: Create a checklist of common errors that you tend to make,
such as spelling mistakes, grammar errors, or incorrect citations. Use this
checklist to guide your proofreading process.
3. Read out loud: Reading your work out loud can help you identify errors that
you may have missed while reading silently. This can also help you identify
sentences that are awkward or hard to understand.
4. Focus on one thing at a time: When proofreading, focus on one type of error at a
time. For example, you can first look for spelling errors, then move on to
grammar errors, and so on.
5. Use a proofreading tool: There are many online proofreading tools available,
such as Grammarly or Hemingway Editor, that can help you identify errors and
suggest corrections.
6. Get feedback: Ask a friend or colleague to review your work and provide
feedback. They may be able to identify errors that you missed or provide
suggestions for improving your writing.
Remember that proofreading is not a one-time task. It's a continuous process, and you
should review your work multiple times to ensure that it's error-free and meets the
requirements of your research project.

16 | All about Research.

Creating a survey questionnaire
Creating a survey questionnaire for quantitative research requires careful planning
and attention to detail. Here are some general steps you can follow to create an
effective survey questionnaire:
1. Define your research questions and objectives: Start by defining your research
questions and objectives. What do you want to know and why? What kind of
data do you need to answer your research questions?
2. Choose a survey method: Decide on the survey method you will use to collect
data. Will you use a paper-based survey, an online survey, or a phone survey?
3. Identify your sample: Identify the population you want to survey and select a
representative sample. Your sample size will depend on the size of the
population and the level of precision you require.
4. Choose your survey question types: Choose the types of questions you will ask.
There are many question types to choose from, including multiple-choice, rating
scales, open-ended, and demographic questions.
5. Write clear and concise questions: Write clear and concise questions that are
easy to understand. Use simple language and avoid technical jargon. Avoid
leading or biased questions.
6. Pretest the survey questionnaire: Pretest the survey questionnaire with a small
sample of respondents to identify any problems with the questions, the
response options, or the survey design.
7. Revise and finalize the survey questionnaire: Revise the survey questionnaire
based on the results of the pretest, and finalize the survey questionnaire.
8. Collect the data: Collect the data from your selected sample, and make sure
that the data is accurate and complete.
9. Analyze the data: Analyze the data using appropriate statistical methods and
techniques to answer your research questions.
Creating a survey questionnaire for quantitative research requires careful planning
and attention to detail. By following these general steps, you can create a survey
questionnaire that is well-designed and effective in collecting the data you need to
answer your research questions.

17 | All about Research.

Calculating the sample size
Calculating the sample size for a quantitative research study requires careful planning
and attention to detail. Here are some general steps you can follow to calculate the
population sample for your study:
1. Define your research questions and objectives: Start by defining your research
questions and objectives. What do you want to know and why? What kind of
data do you need to answer your research questions?
2. Determine the level of precision required: Determine the level of precision you
require for your study. This will depend on the level of confidence you need in
your results and the degree of variability in the population you are studying.
3. Estimate the population size: Estimate the size of the population you want to
study. If the population is very large, you may need to use statistical techniques
to estimate the size.
4. Choose your confidence level and margin of error: Choose your confidence level
and margin of error. The confidence level is the degree of certainty you want in
your results, and the margin of error is the maximum amount of error you are
willing to tolerate.
5. Calculate the sample size: Use a statistical formula or an online sample size
calculator to calculate the sample size you need for your study. The sample size
will depend on the size of the population, the level of precision required, and the
chosen confidence level and margin of error.
6. Consider other factors: Consider other factors that may affect your sample size,
such as the cost of data collection, the feasibility of reaching the sample, and
the potential for nonresponse bias.
Calculating the population sample for a quantitative research study requires careful
planning and attention to detail. By following these general steps and using
appropriate statistical methods and techniques, you can calculate a sample size that
is adequate for your study and allows you to draw valid and reliable conclusions from
your data.
There are several formulas for calculating sample size depending on the research
design, type of data, and statistical tests to be used. Here are some of the commonly
used formulas:

For a simple random sample without replacement:

18 | All about Research.

n = (z^2 * p * q) / e^2
where:
n = sample size
z = the standard normal distribution value corresponding to the desired confidence
level
p = the proportion of the population with a specific characteristic or outcome of
interest (use 0.5 if unknown)
q = 1-p
e = the desired margin of error

For a stratified random sample:

n_h = (N_h / N) * (z^2 * p_h * q_h) / e^2
where:
n_h = sample size for stratum h
N_h = the size of stratum h
N = the total population size
z, p, q, and e are defined as in the simple random sample formula

For a cluster sample:

n = (z^2 * p * q) / e^2 * (1 + ((M-1) * rho))
where:
n = sample size
z, p, q, and e are defined as in the simple random sample formula
M = the number of clusters in the population
rho = the intra cluster correlation coefficient (ICC), which measures the degree of
similarity between individuals within the same cluster.

For a multistage sample:

n = (z^2 * p * q) / e^2 * design effect
where:
z, p, q, and e are defined as in the simple random sample formula
design effect = the inflation factor that accounts for the clustering and stratification in
the sample design.

These are just a few examples of sample size formulas. The actual formula to use will
depend on the specific research design and statistical tests to be used. It's important
to consult with a statistician or use an online sample size calculator to ensure that
your sample size calculation is accurate and appropriate for your research study.

19 | All about Research.

The importance of Margin of Error:

In statistics, the margin of error (MOE) is a measure of the uncertainty or variability in

a sample statistic, such as the sample mean or proportion. It represents the amount of
random sampling error in a study's results and is typically expressed as a plus or
minus value around the point estimate of the population parameter.

For example, if a survey finds that 60% of a sample of 500 respondents support a
certain political candidate, with a margin of error of plus or minus 4%, it means that
the true proportion of supporters in the population is likely to be between 56% and
64%, with 95% confidence. The larger the sample size and smaller the margin of error,
the more confident we can be that the sample results are representative of the
population.

The margin of error is influenced by several factors, including the sample size,
sampling design, population variability, and level of confidence. It can be calculated
using a formula that takes into account these factors and the desired level of
confidence. A lower margin of error is desirable but may require a larger sample size or
more precise sampling methods, which can increase the cost and complexity of a
study.

20 | All about Research.

Slovin's Formula

Slovin's formula is a statistical formula used to determine the sample size of a

population, especially when the population size is very large. It is commonly used in
market research, social sciences, and other fields where it may not be practical or
cost-effective to survey the entire population.
The formula is expressed as:
n = N / (1 + N(e^2))
where:
 n is the sample size
 N is the population size
 e is the margin of error or the level of precision desired
Slovin's formula assumes a random sampling method, a normal distribution, and an
equal probability of selection for each member of the population. It is used to calculate
the minimum sample size needed to achieve a given level of precision or margin of
error, with a specified level of confidence.
However, it is worth noting that Slovin's formula has some limitations and criticisms,
such as not accounting for the variability of the population and not taking into
consideration the stratification of the population. Therefore, it should be used with
caution and in combination with other statistical methods to ensure the reliability and
validity of the research findings.

21 | All about Research.

22 | All about Research.