METALS

 Metals are found naturally combined with other elements forming metal ores.
 The method of extracting metals depend on the reactivity of the metal in concern i.e. for
very reactive metals; electrolysis in the most convenient method while for less reactive
metals reduction method is employed.
 After the ore has been mined there are preliminary steps done to concentrate the ore:
i) Using magnet to trap magnetic substances
ii) Dissolving it in an appropriate solvent
iii) Washing with water to remove dirt and any sediments
iv) Froth floatation

Stages involved in extraction of metals

 Mining the metal ores from earth crust
 Concentrating the ores to remove most impurities
 Roasting ores to obtain metal oxides
 Reducing oxides to obtain metals
 In case of reactive metal, electrolysis is applied

NB: Most stages above have environmental affects

Froth floatation
 The ore is ground into fine powder
 It is then mixed with water and a suitable oil detergent
 Air is then blown through the mixture whereby a “froth” rich in mineral floats at the top of
the mixture and impurities sink.
 The froth is skimmed and then dried

Sodium

Occurrence
It occurs as double salt i.e. trona NaCO3.NaHCO3.2H2O. Also exist chiefly as sodium chloride in
sea water. As rock salt (sodium chloride) or saltpetre (sodium nitrate).

Extraction
 It is extracted by electrolysis using Down’s cell. Down’s cell is an iron shell lined with fire
bricks on the outside.
 The fire resistant wall is meant to maintain high temperatures to prevent crystallization
during process of electrolysis.
 At the centre, are carbon electrodes acting as anode surrounded by steel cathode
 Calcium chloride is added to sodium chloride to lower its melting point from 800 oC to 600oC.
This saves on cost of production by reducing amount of electricity used for heating

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.

During electrolysis;
Reaction at cathode:
Na+(l) + e-  Na(l)
Reaction at anode
2Cl-(l)  Cl2(g) + 2e-
 Sodium is less dense than molten sodium chloride hence rises to the top of the cathode
where it is tapped off.
 Steel diaphragm is suspended between carbon electrodes to prevent recombination of
sodium and chlorine.
 Chlorine gas discharged is not allowed to escape to atmosphere as it is poisonous.
 Liquid calcium and sodium may be formed at the cathode forming a mixture however
calcium crystalizes faster when cooled leaving liquid sodium which is the tapped off.

Uses of sodium
i) Manufacture of sodium compounds e.g. sodium cyanide which is used to extract gold &
sodium peroxide
ii) Alloy of sodium and lead are used to make tetraethyl lead; used as engine anti-knock in
petrol.
iii) Alloy of sodium and potassium used as coolant in nuclear reactor because it is a liquid over
a wide range of temperatures
iv) Sodium vapour used in street lamps which give yellow orange colour
v) Used as reducing agent in titanium extraction
vi) Sodium hydroxide a compound of sodium is used to manufacture detergents, paper, glass

Aluminium

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Occurrence
It forms about 7% of the earth’s crust. The main ore is bauxite (Al 2O3.2H2O). It has impurities
such as iron (III) oxide and silica (SiO2)
Other ores are mica (K2Al2Si2O6), corundum (Al2O3) and kaolin (Al2Si2O7.2H2O)

Extraction
 Being a reactive metal it is extracted by electrolysis
 Bauxite is ground into fine powder and then dissolved in hot concentrated sodium
hydroxide under pressure. Its amphoteric thus dissolve with silica, iron (III) oxide is then
filtered as red mud.
Al2O3(s) + OH-(aq) + 3H2O(l)  2[Al(OH)4]-(aq)

 Carbon (IV) oxide is bubbled through the filtrate to precipitate Aluminium hydroxide and the
filtered.
2[Al(OH)4]-(aq) + CO2(g)  2Al(OH)3(s) + CO32-(aq) + H2O(l)

 Aluminium hydroxide may be precipitated by seeding a process of using hydrated

aluminium hydroxide crystals

seed
[Al(OH)4]-(aq) Al(OH)3(s) + OH-(aq)
 Aluminium hydroxide is then roasted to form aluminium oxide
heat
2Al(OH)3(s) Al2O3(s) + 3H2O(l)

 The melting point of aluminium oxide is very high about 2015 oc to lower this melting point
cryolite (Na2AlF6) is added to lower it up to 800 oc.
 The molten aluminium oxide is then placed in steel tank lined with graphite as cathode and
graphite dipped in electrolyte as anode.

Reaction at anode Reaction at cathode

6O2-(aq)  3O2(g) + 12e- 4Al (aq) + 12e-  4Al(s)
3+

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 Anode should be replaced periodically because it wears out due to reaction with oxygen
discharged during electrolysis.

Uses of aluminium
i) Duralumin an alloy of aluminium and magnesium is used to make bodies of airplanes,
because of its low density.
ii) Making cooking pots because they conduct heat and not easily corroded by cooking liquids.
iii) Making overhead cables because they are light and conduct electricity
iv) As reducing agent in thermite process in extraction of chromium, iron, manganese and
titanium.

Iron

Occurrence
Iron ores are:
Haematite (Fe2O3)
Magnetite (Fe3O4)
Siderite (FeCO3)
Iron pyrite (FeS)

 The raw materials required for the extraction include: the ore, limestone (calcium carbonate),
coke (carbon) and hot air
 The iron ore contain silica and aluminium oxide as impurities.
 The ore is crushed into small particles and heated to drive off water and other volatile
impurities
 Then the raw materials are placed in a blast furnace which is a specialized structure for the
extraction.
 Hot air blast at 1000oC is pumped at the bottom of the furnace through the tuyeres.
 The furnace is fed with a mixture of iron ore, limestone, and coke from the top. At the
bottom of the furnace coke is oxidized to carbon (IV) oxide. The reaction is exothermic
raising temperature to around 1600oC

C(s) + O2(g)  CO2(g)

 As carbon (IV) oxide rises up the furnace it is reduced by coke to carbon (II) oxide. The
reaction is endothermic and the temperature in furnace drops to about 1000 oC.
CO2(g) + C(s)  2CO(g)

 At the upper part of the furnace carbon (II) oxide reduces iron oxide to iron
Fe2O3(s) + CO(g)  2Fe(s) + 3CO2(g)
 Iron formed falls to the bottom of the furnace and hence it melts because its melting point is
1812oC and being collected at the bottom where it’s tapped off

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Blast furnace

 Limestone decomposes by heat to form calcium oxide and carbon (IV) oxide.
heat
CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

 Calcium oxide being basic reacts with acidic and amphoteric oxides to form slag.
CaO(s) + SiO2(s)  CaSiO3(l)
CaO(s) + Al2O3(s)  CaAlO4(l)

 Calcium silicate and calcium aluminate forms slag. Slag is taped off at higher level of the
furnace because of their low density thus float on molten iron preventing it from re-
oxidation.

Uses of iron
 Cast iron; produced after extraction. It is brittle but extremely hard thus used to make
furnace, gates, pipes engine blocks etc.
 Wrought iron; obtained from cast iron has 0.1% carbon. It is malleable hence easily forged/
molded to make nails, iron sheets, agricultural implements
 Steel; these are alloys made of iron majorly :
 Mild steel used to make car bodies, rail lines, rods, pipes has 99.75% iron and 0.75% carbon
 Stainless steel contains 74% iron, 18% chromium and 8% nickel. It does not rust and is used
to make cutlery, sinks
 Cobalt steel has 97.5% iron and 2.5% cobalt. It is hard and tough and is used to make
electromagnets.

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Zinc
Occurrence
Calamine (ZnCO3)
Zinc blende (ZnS)
Zinc blende is often found mixed with galena (PbS)

Extraction

 The ore is concentrated by froth floatation. The concentrated ore is then roasted to form
metal oxide. In the case of calamine, carbonate decomposes to zinc oxide and carbon (IV)
oxide.
ZnCO3(s)  ZnO(s) + CO2(g)
 In case of zinc blende two reactions occur. Zinc sulphide is roasted in air
2ZnS(s) + 3O2(g)  2ZnO(s) + 2SO2(g)
 Impurity lead sulphide is oxidized too
2PbS(s) + 3O2(g)  2PbO(s) + 2SO2(g)
 Zinc metal can be obtained from its oxide by:
Reduction method
Electrolysis method

Electrolytic extraction of zinc

The zinc oxide obtained from roasting is converted to zinc sulphate by reacting it with sulphuric
acid
ZnO(s) + H2SO4(aq)  ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)
Any lead oxide present also reacts with sulphuric acid to form insoluble lead (II) sulphate.
Zinc sulphate formed is then dissolved in water and solution electrolyzed, cathode is made of
lead containing 1% silver and anode made of aluminium sheets.
Reaction at cathode Reaction at anode
Zinc ions are discharged Hydroxide ions are discharged
2+ -
2Zn (aq) + 4e  Zn(s) 4OH-(aq)  2H2O(l) + O2(g) + 4e-

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Reduction extraction of zinc
Reduction of zinc oxide is done in a special blast furnace as shown below;

 Zinc oxide from roaster is mixed with coke and limestone and heated where it is reduced.
ZnO(s) + CO(g)  Zn(s) + CO2(g)

 The carbon (II) oxide used above is obtained from decomposition of limestone which results
in carbon (IV) oxide that is reduced by coke.
 In the furnace zinc exist as vapour as temperatures are maintained at 1000 oC since its boiling
point is 913oC. The vapour is rapidly cooled by spraying with molten lead which prevents it
from being re-oxidized.
 Liquid zinc from the condenser is run off and cooled further to 440oC where it separates and
settles above molten lead.
 Zinc can be purified further by distillation. Liquid lead trickles down and combines with silica
and calcium oxide to form slag.

Uses of zinc
i) Used to galvanize iron to prevent it from rusting
ii) To make brass an alloy of copper and zinc
iii) Making of outer casing of dry cells

Lead

Occurence
Galena (chief ore) (PbS)
Cerussite (PbCO3)
Anglesite (PbSO4)

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Extraction
The ore is concentrated by froth floatation, and then roasted in a lot of air to obtain lead (II)
oxide and sulphur (IV) oxide as by product.
Lead oxide is then reduced by carbon (II) oxide
PbO(s) + CO(g)  Pb(s) + CO2(g)
Carbon (II) oxide used above is obtained from decomposition of limestone which result to
carbon (IV) oxide that is reduced by coke.
Iron is also added to blast furnace to reduce remaining lead sulphide to lead.
PbS(s) + Fe(s)  FeS(s) + Pb(s)
Calcium oxide combine with silica forming calcium silicate called form slag
CaO(s) + SiO2(s)  CaSiO3(l)
Iron (II) sulphide and calcium silicate form a molten slag which is tapped off separately from the
lead. The lead produced is not pure. Pure lead is obtained through electrolysis. Electrolyte is
made of solution with lead (II) ions and pure strip of lead is used as cathode while impure strip
of lead is used as cathode
Reaction at cathode Reaction at anode
2+ -
Pb (aq) + 2e  Pb(s) Pb(s)  Pb2+(aq) + 2e-

Uses of lead
i) Making bullets
ii) Lead oxide used to make paints
iii) Making solders which is alloy of lead and tin
iv) Used in nuclear shielding because of its high density

Copper

Occurence
Pyrite (CuFeS2)
Cuprite (Cu2O)
Chalcocite (Cu2S)
Malachite (CuCO3.Cu(OH)2)
Common impurities are gold and silver

Extraction
Copper is mostly extracted from copper pyrite. The ore is concentrated by froth floatation, the
roasted in unlimited air to obtain copper (II) sulphide and iron (II) oxide
2CuFeS2(s) + O2(g)  Cu2S(s) + 2FeO (s) + 3SO2(g)

Silica is added to react with iron (II) oxide to form iron (II) silicate which separates out as slag.
FeO(l) + SiO2(l)  FeSiO3(l)

Copper (I) sulphide is then heated in regulated supply of air where some of it is converted to
copper (I) oxide

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 2Cu2S(s) + 3O2(g)  2Cu2O(s) + 2SO2(g)
The copper (I) oxide then reacts with remaining copper (I) sulphide
Cu2S(s) + 2Cu2O(s)  6Cu(s) + SO2(g)

The sulphur (IV) oxide formed is used in adjacent sulphuric acid plant or scrubbed using calcium
hydroxide.
Copper obtained is 97.5% pure and is called blister copper. It can be refined by electrolysis
Copper (II) sulphate is used as electrolyte, pure copper strip as cathode and impure copper strip
as anode

Reaction at cathode Reaction at anode

Cu2+(aq) + 2e-  Cu(s) Cu(s)  Cu2+(aq) + 2e-

Traces of gold and silver are collected as sludge at the bottom of electrolytic cell.

Uses of copper
i) Make electrical wires because it is a good conductor of electricity
ii) Making soldering instruments due to its high thermal conductivity
iii) Making alloys such as brass (Cu & Zn), bronze (Cu & Sn), German silver (Cu, Zn & Ni)
iv) Making coins and ornaments

Characteristic of metals
 They are often lustrous
 They are ductile and malleable
 Form basic oxide
 Form cations
 Are good conductors of heat and electricity

Effects of extraction of metals on the environment

a) Causes land dereliction
b) Lead to releases of gases such as sulphur (IV) oxide and carbon (IV) oxide to air which react
with rain water and fall down as acid rain
c) Control of pollution

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d) Gaseous products can be used in various industries e.g. chlorine is used in production of HCl
acid and sulphur (IV) oxide used in contact process.
e) Slag can be used to pave roads.

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