Application of Biology

Application of biology
Vaccines
Vaccines are chemical substances, which is used to stimulate an immune response in the body to
resist disease. The first vaccine produced by Edward Jenner in 1776 was the smallpox Vaccine.
Types of vaccines are as follows;
1. Killed vaccine: These vaccines are prepared by killing the pathogenic organisms by heat or
UV-rays or alcohol e.g. Typhoid vaccine, Cholera vaccine.
2. Toxoid:
These vaccines are prepared by destroying the toxic property of the toxins. E.g. Tetanus toxoid.
3. Antibodies as vaccines:
The serum is used after a person or animal has been exposed to infection. This causes antibodies
against the pathogen. E.g. Anti tetanus serum(ATS), Antirabies serum.
4. Attenuated living vaccines:
The pathogen is made weakened to make it non-virulent e.g. Oral Polio Vaccine (OPV), Measles,
Mumps.
5. Antigen like polysaccharides:
Pneumococcii, interferon is also used in vaccines.
Classification of vaccines
Vaccines can be classified into the following generation;
1.First generation vaccines: Vaccines produced by conventional methods using whole organisms
are called 1’st generation vaccines. They have both advantages as well as disadvantages.
2.Second generation vaccines: Vaccines prepared by genetic engineering or recombinant DNA
technology are called second generation vaccines. These vaccines are synthesis by high purity and
potency. Also, these vaccines are simpler, safer, and more effective e.g. vaccines for Hepatitis-B
virus. The hepatitis-b vaccines is the first human vaccines prepared by using transgenic yeast.
3.Third generation vaccines:
Vaccines that are prepared artificially are called third generation vaccines. These vaccines have
the advantages of being pure and highly effective. Diphtheria is an example of this type of vaccine.
Application of vaccines
The application of vaccines is as follows;
1.Vaccines develop immunity against infectious disease.
2.Vaccines destroy or kill the disease causative organisms.
Tissue and organ transplantation

An organ transplant is a process of moving an organ from one body to another body. The tissue or
organ which gets transplanted is called a transplant or graft. The organ that can be transplanted is
the recipient, and the person from whose body the organ was taken is the donor. Many people carry
donor cards with them all the time, stating that they are happy for their organs to be used in a
transplant operation. In human the genes that are responsible for graft rejection called H genes or
(HLA). For the success of organ transplants and skin, grafts require a matching of (HLA) that
occur on all cells in the body. The test carried out to match the HLA antigens of the recipient is
called tissue typing. If HLA types are matched survival of transplanted organ dramatically
increases.
Types of transplantation:
According to the genetic relationship between donor and recipient, transplantation is classified into
four groups:
1.Autograft:
It is the graft in which the donor and recipient is the same individual. For example; skin is taken
from the trunk and can be shifted to the arm of the same individual.
2.Isograft:
It is a graft between genetically identical individuals such as identical twin. In this type, the donor
and recipient belong to the same genotype.
3.Allograft:
It is a graft between genetically different members of the same species. In this type, the donor and
recipient belong to different genotype.
4.Xenograph or heterograft:
It is the graft in which the donor is of different species from that of the recipient e.g. from monkey
to man or from pig to human.
Rejection of transplanted organs

1. Some of the main problems is transplant rejection.
2. The body does not accept the transplanted organ.
3. The immune system recognizes the donor organs as foreign organ and attack it and possibly
leading to transplant failure and the need immediately remove the organ from the recipient which
is called rejection.
Prevention of graft rejection is as follows

1.Selection of organs from the genetically similar member.
2.The immune system can be also be suppressed by radiation.
3. Precaution is taken according to their tissue typing.
4.Use of immunosuppressant drugs.
5.Use of monoclonal antibodies – Monoclonal antibodies.
Amniocentesis and test-tube baby

Amniocentesis
It is the technique of obtaining amniotic fluid from the womb of a pregnant woman for parental
detection of foetal disorders. It is done on about the 14th or 15th weeks after conception.
Amniocentesis is most often performed for the reason of the following;
1.Mother is over 35 years old at the time of delivery.
2.Family history of chromosome abnormality.
3.Family history of an inherited disorder.
4.Family history of neural tube defect.
Process of Amniocentesis
In this process, a small amount of amniotic fluid present in the amniotic cavity of a pregnant
woman is used. It is done on about the 14th or 15th weeks after conception. In this process.
1. Firstly, ultrasonography is used to locate the position of the foetus in the uterus.
2. Next, a long sterile hypodermic needle is inserted through the abdomen into the amniotic sac,
and a small amount of amniotic fluid is withdrawn through the needle.
3. The amniotic fluid contains foetal cells which are normally examined.
4. Foetal cells are separated from amniotic fluid and placed into a culture medium and stimulates
them to grow and divide.
5. The Tests are then performed on the cultured foetal cells to detect errors of metabolism.
Foetal cells used for two types of analysis.
1. Karyotype analysis: The cultured foetal cells are useful for the detection of chromosomal
abnormalities in a growing embryo. It is also helpful in the determination of sex based on the
presence or absence of sex chromatin.
2. Biochemical test: It also detects the presence or absence of certain enzymes or other metabolic
features. It is useful for the detection of prenatal diseases such as sickle cell anaemia.
Misuse of amniocentesis
1. This technique is, unfortunately, misused to know the sex of the foetus.
2. It causes high number of abortion of the normal female foetus.
3. Therefore, the determination of sex by amniocentesis has been banned.
Test-tube baby (in vitro fertilization)

In vitro fertilization (IVF) commonly known as “test-tube baby” is a technique of fertilization of
the ovum by sperm outside the woman’s body in laboratory conditions. After fertilization, the 16
celled embryo is implanted in the woman’s uterus to produce a baby. It has changed the lives of
millions of infertile couples. With modern advancements, the results of IVF treatment are now
very encouraging test tube baby process and further improving every day all over the world.
This technique applies to such women who are unable to conceive and give birth to a child
normally due to certain infertility in females and males. In such women, fertilization is not possible
in the uterus. Due to remarkable advances in medical science, for such cases, an unfertilized ovum
is taken out from a female and sperms taken from her husband. Ovum is allowed to fertilize in a
sterile or aseptic lab condition in attest tube, called in vitro fertilization. The zygote thus formed
is allowed to develop in vitro up to 16 or 32 cell stage and then it is put into the uterus of the same
female or surrogate mother for implantation. The embryo undergoes further development in the
womb till birth. Such babies are called test-tube babies. World first test-tube baby: Louise Joy
Brown. In Nepal, the first test-tube baby born is Om Mani Tamang.
Process of in Vitro Fertilization

In vitro fertilization, first, a female is treated hormonally with FSH and LH so that several oocytes
(eggs) mature in each ovary at the same time. This is called super-ovulation. In human, ovaries are
inspected using a fibre-optic light guide ultrasonography. The oocytes (eggs) are collected from
their ripe follicles via a catheter. Eggs and sperms are then placed in a sterile nutrient solution and
mixed for fertilization to occur. After fertilization, the eggs divide until it is a ball of 8-10 cells.
At this stage, the embryo is transferred to the uterus.
Surrogate mother
A developing embryo can be inserted into the uterus of another female. A woman who substitutes
or takes the places of the real mother to nurse embryo is called a surrogate mother. A surrogate
mother never becomes a genetic mother. It is also called substitute mother or second mother.
Drawbacks of IVF
IVF technology has been a boon in medical science. It is a way of producing babies for couples
that are having problems conceiving naturally. However, it has raised some ethical and legal
problems, such as:
1. The production of unwanted embryos- several will be fertilized, but not all of them will be used.
2. It can be expensive, the success is not guaranteed
3. The a high risk of multiple births (twins or triplets), which can be risky for both the mother and
babies.
4. A complicated issue can be raised if a single woman wants a baby.

Application of Biology

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Application of Biology

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Application of biology

Tissue and organ transplantation

Rejection of transplanted organs

Prevention of graft rejection is as follows

Amniocentesis and test-tube baby

Test-tube baby (in vitro fertilization)

Process of in Vitro Fertilization

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