MODULE FACILITATING AND ASSESSING LEARNING

CHAPTER III: Developmental Theories

Objectives:

Review and reflect on the different development theories.

Development Theories

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

The Sensorimotor Stage (Ages: Birth to 2 years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:
 The infant knows the world through their
movements and sensations
 Children learn about the world through basic
actions such as sucking, grasping, looking, and
listening
 Infants learn that things continue to exist even
though they cannot be seen (object permanence)
 They are separate beings from the people and
objects around them
 They realize that their actions can cause things
to happen in the world around them

The Preoperational Stage (Ages: 2 to 7 Years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes:

 Children begin to think symbolically and learn to use words and pictures to
represent objects.
 Children at this stage tend to be egocentric and struggle to see things from the
perspective of others.
 While they are getting better with language and thinking, they still tend to think
about things in very concrete terms.

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The Concrete Operational Stage (Ages: 7 to 11 years)

Major Characteristics and Developmental Changes

 During this stage, children begin to

thinking logically about concrete events
 They begin to understand the concept of
conservation; that the amount of liquid in a
short, wide cup is equal to that in a tall, skinny
glass, for example
 Their thinking becomes more logical and
organized, but still very concrete
 Children begin using inductive logic, or reasoning from specific information to a
general principle

The Formal Operational Stage (Ages: 12 and Up)

 At this stage, the adolescent or young adult begins to think abstractly and reason
about hypothetical problems
 Abstract thought emerges
 Teens begin to think more about moral, philosophical, ethical, social, and political
issues that require theoretical and abstract reasoning
 Begin to use deductive logic, or reasoning from a general principle to specific
information

Erickson’s psycho-social theory of development

Stages of Psychosocial Development

Trust vs. Mistrust (0 to 12 months)

Infants must learn that adults can be trusted. This occurs when adults meet a child’s basic
needs for survival. Infants are dependent upon their caregivers, so caregivers who are
responsive and sensitive to their infant’s needs help their baby to develop a sense of trust;
their baby will see the world as a safe, predictable place. Unresponsive caregivers who
do not meet their baby’s needs can engender feelings of anxiety, fear, and mistrust; their
baby may see the world as unpredictable. If infants are treated cruelly or their needs are
not met appropriately, they will likely grow up with a sense of mistrust for people in the
world.

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Autonomy vs. Shame/Doubt (ages 1–3 years)

Begin to explore their world, they learn that they can control their actions and act on their
environment to get results. They begin to show clear preferences for certain elements of
the environment, such as food, toys, and clothing. A toddler’s main task is to resolve the
issue of autonomy vs. shame and doubt by working to establish independence. This is
the “me do it” stage. For example, we might observe a budding sense of autonomy in a
2-year-old child who wants to choose her clothes and dress herself. Although her outfits
might not be appropriate for the situation, her input in such basic decisions has an effect
on her sense of independence. If denied the opportunity to act on her environment, she
may begin to doubt her abilities, which could lead to low self-esteem and feelings of
shame.

Initiative vs. Guilt

Once children reach the preschool stage (ages 3–6 years), they are capable of initiating
activities and asserting control over their world through social interactions and play.
According to Erikson, preschool children must resolve the task of initiative vs. guilt.By
learning to plan and achieve goals while interacting with others, preschool children can
master this task. Initiative, a sense of ambition and responsibility, occurs when parents
allow a child to explore within limits and then support the child’s choice. These children
will develop self-confidence and feel a sense of purpose. Those who are unsuccessful at
this stage—with their initiative misfiring or stifled by over-controlling parents—may
develop feelings of guilt.

Industry vs. Inferiority

During the elementary school stage (ages 6–12), children face the task of industry vs.
inferiority. Children begin to compare themselves with their peers to see how they
measure up. They either develop a sense of pride and accomplishment in their
schoolwork, sports, social activities, and family life, or they feel inferior and inadequate
because they feel that they don’t measure up. If children do not learn to get along with
others or have negative experiences at home or with peers, an inferiority complex might
develop into adolescence and adulthood.

Identity vs. Role Confusion

In adolescence (ages 12–18), children face the task of identity vs. role
confusion. According to Erikson, an adolescent’s main task is developing a sense of self.
Adolescents struggle with questions such as “Who am I?” and “What do I want to do with
my life?” Along the way, most adolescents try on many different selves to see which ones
fit; they explore various roles and ideas, set goals, and attempt to discover their “adult”
selves. Adolescents who are successful at this stage have a strong sense of identity and
are able to remain true to their beliefs and values in the face of problems and other
people’s perspectives. When adolescents are apathetic, do not make a conscious search

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for identity, or are pressured to conform to their parents’ ideas for the future, they may
develop a weak sense of self and experience role confusion. They will be unsure of their
identity and confused about the future. Teenagers who struggle to adopt a positive role
will likely struggle to “find” themselves as adults.

Intimacy vs. Isolation

People in early adulthood (20s through early 40s) are concerned with intimacy vs.
isolation. After we have developed a sense of self in adolescence, we are ready to share
our life with others. However, if other stages have not been successfully resolved, young
adults may have trouble developing and maintaining successful relationships with others.
Erikson said that we must have a strong sense of self before we can develop successful
intimate relationships. Adults who do not develop a positive self-concept in adolescence
may experience feelings of loneliness and emotional isolation.

Generativity vs. Stagnation

When people reach their 40s, they enter the

time known as middle adulthood, which
extends to the mid-60s. The social task of
middle adulthood is generativity vs.
stagnation. Generativity involves finding your
life’s work and contributing to the development
of others through activities such as
volunteering, mentoring, and raising children.
During this stage, middle-aged adults begin
contributing to the next generation, often
through childbirth and caring for others; they
also engage in meaningful and productive work
which contributes positively to society. Those who do not master this task may experience
stagnation and feel as though they are not leaving a mark on the world in a meaningful
way; they may have little connection with others and little interest in productivity and self-
improvement.

Integrity vs. Despair

From the mid-60s to the end of life, we are in the period of development known as late
adulthood. Erikson’s task at this stage is called integrity vs. despair. He said that people
in late adulthood reflect on their lives and feel either a sense of satisfaction or a sense of
failure. People who feel proud of their accomplishments feel a sense of integrity, and they
can look back on their lives with few regrets. However, people who are not successful at
this stage may feel as if their life has been wasted. They focus on what “would have,”
“should have,” and “could have” been. They face the end of their lives with feelings of
bitterness, depression, and despair.

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Vygotsky’s socio- cultural theory

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934) argued that culture has a major impact on a child’s cognitive
development. Piaget and Gesell believed development stemmed directly from the child,
and although Vygotsky acknowledged intrinsic development, he argued that it is the
language, writings, and concepts arising from the culture that elicit the highest level of
cognitive thinking (Crain, 2005). He believed that the social interactions with adults and
more learned peers can facilitate a child’s potential for learning. Without this interpersonal
instruction, he believed children’s minds would not advance very far as their knowledge
would be based only on their own discoveries. Let’s review some of Vygotsky’s key
concepts.

Zone of Proximal Development and

Scaffolding: Vygotsky’s best known concept is
the Zone of Proximal Development
(ZPD). Vygotsky stated that children should be
taught in the ZPD, which occurs when they can
almost perform a task, but not quite on their own
without assistance. With the right kind of teaching,
however, they can accomplish it successfully. A
good teacher identifies a child’s ZPD and helps the
child stretch beyond it. Then the adult (teacher)
gradually withdraws support until the child can then
perform the task unaided. Researchers have
applied the metaphor of scaffolds (the temporary
platforms on which construction workers stand) to
this way of teaching. Scaffolding is the temporary support that parents or teachers give
a child to do a task.

Private Speech: Do you ever talk to yourself? Why? Chances are, this occurs when you
are struggling with a problem, trying to remember something, or feel very emotional about
a situation. Children talk to themselves too. Piaget interpreted this as Egocentric
Speech or a practice engaged in because of a child’s inability to see things from another’s
point of view. Vygotsky, however, believed that children talk to themselves in order to
solve problems or clarify thoughts. As children learn to think in words, they do so aloud
before eventually closing their lips and engaging in Private Speech or inner speech.

Thinking out loud eventually becomes thought accompanied by internal speech, and
talking to oneself becomes a practice only engaged in when we are trying to learn
something or remember something. This inner speech is not as elaborate as the speech
we use when communicating with others (Vygotsky, 1962).

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Kohlberg’s Theory Moral Development

Kohlberg’s Stages of Moral Development

Kohlberg identified three levels of moral reasoning: pre-conventional, conventional, and

post-conventional.

Level 1: Preconventional

Throughout the preconventional level, a child’s sense of morality is externally controlled.

Children accept and believe the rules of authority figures, such as parents and
teachers. A child with pre-conventional morality has not yet adopted or internalized
society’s conventions regarding what is right or wrong, but instead focuses largely on
external consequences that certain actions may bring.

Stage 1: Obedience-and-Punishment Orientation

- Focuses on the child’s desire to obey rules and avoid being punished. For
example, an action is perceived as morally wrong because the perpetrator is
punished; the worse the punishment for the act is, the more “bad” the act is
perceived to be.

Stage 2: Instrumental Orientation

- Expresses the “what’s in it for me?” position, in which right behavior is defined
by whatever the individual believes to be in their best interest. Stage two
reasoning shows a limited interest in the needs of others, only to the point
where it might further the individual’s own interests. As a result, concern for
others is not based on loyalty or intrinsic respect, but rather a “you scratch my
back, and I’ll scratch yours” mentality. An example would be when a child is
asked by his parents to do a chore. The child asks “what’s in it for me?” and
the parents offer the child an incentive by giving him an allowance.

Level 2: Conventional

Throughout the conventional level, a child’s sense of morality is tied to personal and
societal relationships. Children continue to accept the rules of authority figures, but this
is now due to their belief that this is necessary to ensure positive relationships and societal
order. Adherence to rules and conventions is somewhat rigid during these stages, and a
rule’s appropriateness or fairness is seldom questioned.

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Stage 3: Good Boy, Nice Girl Orientation

- Children want the approval of others and act in ways to avoid disapproval.
Emphasis is placed on good behavior and people being “nice” to others.

Stage 4: Law-and-Order Orientation

- The child blindly accepts rules and convention because of their importance in
maintaining a functioning society. Rules are seen as being the same for
everyone, and obeying rules by doing what one is “supposed” to do is seen as
valuable and important. Moral reasoning in stage four is beyond the need for
individual approval exhibited in stage three. If one person violates a law,
perhaps everyone would—thus there is an obligation and a duty to uphold laws
and rules. Most active members of society remain at stage four, where morality
is still predominantly dictated by an outside force.

Level 3: Post- conventional

Throughout the post-conventional level, a person’s sense of morality is defined in terms

of more abstract principles and values. People now believe that some laws are unjust and
should be changed or eliminated. This level is marked by a growing realization that
individuals are separate entities from society and that individuals may disobey rules
inconsistent with their own principles. Post-conventional moralists live by their
own ethical principles—principles that typically include such basic human rights as life,
liberty, and justice—and view rules as useful but changeable mechanisms, rather than
absolute dictates that must be obeyed without question. Because post-conventional
individuals elevate their own moral evaluation of a situation over social conventions, their
behavior, especially at stage six, can sometimes be confused with that of those at the
pre-conventional level. Some theorists have speculated that many people may never
reach this level of abstract moral reasoning.

Stage 5: Social-Contract Orientation

- the world is viewed as holding different opinions, rights, and values. Such
perspectives should be mutually respected as unique to each person or
community. Laws are regarded as social contracts rather than rigid edicts.
Those that do not promote the general welfare should be changed when
necessary to meet the greatest good for the greatest number of people. This is
achieved through majority decision and inevitable compromise. Democratic
government is theoretically based on stage five reasoning.

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Stage 6: Universal-Ethical-Principal Orientation

- Moral reasoning is based on abstract reasoning using universal ethical

principles. Generally, the chosen principles are abstract rather than concrete
and focus on ideas such as equality, dignity, or respect. Laws are valid only
insofar as they are grounded in justice, and a commitment to justice carries
with it an obligation to disobey unjust laws. People choose the ethical principles
they want to follow, and if they violate those principles, they feel guilty. In this
way, the individual acts because it is morally right to do so (and not because
he or she wants to avoid punishment), it is in their best interest, it is expected,
it is legal, or it is previously agreed upon. Although Kohlberg insisted that stage
six exists, he found it difficult to identify individuals who consistently operated
at that level.

For More Knowledge:

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WMv8A9qg6jY
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aYCBdZLCDBQ
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6XxFmXkD8M8

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