- --- -.- ..

12.2 RESERVOIRS ~
.

Rese~voirsarc an importruit coliiponelit of a water resources develoome~itpr.c!jccr.

Using a rescn:oir, the liahiral strealii flow can be regulated so that thc outtlo\\ tbllo\\s
tlic desired pattern. In our day to day life also we frequently use the concept of
reservoirs. For esariiple. in tlie cities wliere tlie niunicipal water suppl! IS erratic.
rcsidclits use vessels to store \\.ater whenever there 1s nlnning water in the taps and thc
storecl \vater is \\itlidrawn and used for \~anousdomestic needs when tlie taps go dn..
A reservoir is created by constmcting a daii across a strean. Tlic reservoir proiccts arc
capital intensive in nature \\diicli lneans they require a huge aniount of inone!..
niruipower. lalid a~idothcr resources. Further. these pro-jectssignificantly intlucncc t l i ~
Ironment. population and economy of tlie region in \\.liich the\. arc constructccl. It i s
I known tliat the financial resources avail;able witli tlie government are li~iiitccland.
therefore. these should be carefillly used to impart the ma.ximi~~ii possible benctit to
tlic nat~o~ialcconom!-. Moreover. once tliese projects are in-place. it is not cas! to
undo or partiall!. off-set their haniifi~limpacts. I
In India. a large number of reservoirs lins been co~istructedto utilisc the available
uatcr ~.csourccs.Recently. sollie of these projects liavc bccn tlic butt of various I
contl-ovcrsicsresulting in frequent revie\\-s.clinnges in design and dcla!. in
constn~ction.alicl in turn resulting in liilge cost ovcrrwis. Due to tlicsc rwsons. it i s
iicccssan~tliatthese proiects are planned witli utniost c:l~-eand detailed e\r:lbiinatioll ol'
tlic involvcd issues
Figure 12.1 gives a scheniatic dingrarii of a reservoir system. Tlic commonl!. used
teniis \\.l~icliare rclzvant to n rcser-voir arc explained under tlie section Ke! Words

CLEAR WATER

LAKE BED
DENSITY CURRENT

F I N E SEDIMENTS

I1
Iiigt~rr12.1 : ScIic.~natirI)~~CI;IIII
oI'n RCSPI.VO~I.
S~~CIII

12.2.1 Need for Reservoirs

-
The l~rincipalfi~nctionof n reservoir is tlic rc~ulationof natural stream tlo\\-h\ storill!?
surl~lus\vater in tlie high tlo\\: season and releasing tlie storcd water in tlie dn. scusoli
to sul~plemcnttlic natural stream tlo\\. In India the major part oftlie annual strcani
t l o is
~ available
~ clunng the ii)ur monsoon nlontli. But the dcniands for water 1s :tlI tlic
\.ear round. and tlicrcfolc it is neccssal-\ to storc tlie excess water in the ~nbnsoo~i
months so tliat it can be used \\lien tlie ~lah~ral strealii tlo\\ is not sufticic~ltto mcct tllc
dcniands. Ilie \vntcr storcd in a resenoir ma!. be diverted to far n\\:ay places \vlicrc i t
is necdcd by liiealis of pipes or ca~ialsrcsul ttng in spatial cliangcs of w:~terri\i:~ilahiIi t\-
Tlic \\ater ~iia!. also be kept in tlic resei-voirand relenscd later for bcneficial uses
lesultin~i n tcml~oralchanges. In short. the purpose of a reservoir is to clian~cthc
temporal :uld spatial nvailability of \\:tcr ,xcording to the demands. Dcpcntlins u11011
the magnitude of natural i~ltlo\\- aid clcmand at a l~articulartime. rcscn,oir storagc is
either built up or \vater is supplied from the storage.
As 3 result of storing water. a reservoir provides liead of wntcr \vIiicli can I,c uscrl I I I ~
gcncration of electric pol\-cr.The rcsc~voil-also provides crnpt!. storage spacc f i ~ r
niodcrnting tlie intlojv pcnks. A rcscnmir also j~rovidesa pool for - nnvi~atlo~i In orcIcl. '
i

to ~icgotidcrapidly. habitat for aqua-life: and facilities for rccrentio~iaii(,lsl~olts.tt i

I

. .
 nlia~lcesscenic beauty. pronlotes afforestatio~land supports wildlife.

Based upon the number of purposes which a reservoir is designed to serve. a reservoir
may be classified either as a single purpose reservoir or as a multipurpose reservoir. A
single purpose reservoir serves only one purpose. Typically, the conservation purposes
are -water supply for irrigation, municipal and industrid needs. generation of
hydroelectric pocver. navigation, recreation and minimum flow requirements. A
multipurpose reservoir is developed to satisfy more than one purpose. For example.
Bhakra dclln is a multipurpose project.
12.2.2 Classification of Reservoirs
Various classifications of reservoirs are possible depending up011the purpose of the
reservoir. the size of the reservoir and the storage space available in it. Main
classification systems are briefly given as under:
Classification Based Upon Purpose
Depending upon the nuinber of purposes that a reservoir serves. a reservoir may be
classified either as a single purpose reservoir or as a multipurpose reservoir. A single
purpose reservoir serves only one purpose. This purpose may be either pertain to
conservatioi~like water supply for domestic and industrial use, irrigation, navigation,
generation of hydroelectric power, and recreation; or flood control which is anon
co~lservationpurpose in itself. A multipurpose reservoir serves a combination of the
above mentioned purposes.
Classification Based Upon Size
Depending upon the size reservoirs are classified as major, medium or minor.
According to the Central Water Commission (CWC) norms. if the gross capacity and
the hydl-a~~l~c
head of the reservoir exceed 60 million cubic metres (MCM) and 30 m.
respect~vely;the reservoir is classified as a major reservoir. If gross capacity lies
between 10 and 60 MCM and the hydraulic head lies between 12 and 30 m.
respectively: a reservoir is classified as a medium reservoir. Minor reservoirs have
gross capacity less than 10 MCM and hydraulic head less than 12 m, respectively.
Classifications Based Upon Storage
Based on the storage space provided in it. a reservoir may be classified as a Seasonal
Storage Reservoir or over-year storage reservoir. PI seasonal storage reservoir is a
reservoir designed to serve conservation purposes for a period of low flows. These
reservoirs fill up and spill frequently and are constructed on small tributaries to serve
relatively smaller area. An over-year storage reservoir is designed to serve for periods
exceeding more than a water year. The storage in an over-year storage reservoir at the
end of a water vear is carried over to the nest year. I l e s e reservoirs ,may neither fill up
nor become dry every year.
12.2.3 Reservoir Losses
A s~nnllfraction of the water stored in a reservoir is lost and is not available for
beneficial use due to various reasons. The major causes of this loss of water are
e,vaporation. leakage through the body bfthe dam and due to ground water flow,
\\rhich are discussed as under :
Evaporation
The term evaporation is defined as the net rate of transfer of vapour to atmosphere.
The degree of evaporation depends upon the nature of the evaporating sudace and
i~leteorologicalfactors. Evaporation can be thought of as an energy exchange process.
The most important factor in the process is radiation followed by wind speed and
vapour pressure of.the air overlying the surfice. The m o u n t of evaporation also varies

I with latitude. season, time of day and the condition of sky. It is difficult to
categorically express the relative effect of the controlling n~eteorologicalfactors. If
I'l;u~~~ing
of Water radiation exchange a i d all other meteorological elements are constant over a shallow
Resources Pro,jrc:ts
lake for a considenble time, the temperature of water and evaporation would becomc
constant. If the wind speed is'then suddenly doubled then the rate of evapontion
would also be doubled for some time.
The quality of water in a reservoir also affects evaporation to a small extent. The
reduction of evaporation takes place because the dissolved solids reduce the vapoilr
pressure, but the temperature of water rises and this partially offsets the effect of
reduction in vapour pressure. Moreover, any foreign material which affects tlie
refractivity property of water surface tends to affect evaporation.
A pan evaporimeter is most commonly used to estimate evaporation from water
bodes. The pan is a shallow (and n~ostly)circular vessel exposed to atmosphere. Pans
can be installed in three dfferent ways: on the land surface, sunken in ground and
floating on water surface. Pans installed on or above the ground surface experience
little higher evaporation since extra heat is absorbed by it side walls. The main
advantages of surface pan are economy and ease of installation. maintenance and
operation. The estimate of depth of evaporation can be obtained by multiplying thc
pan evaporation by a coefficient called pan coefficient. The value of pal coefiicient
for the comnlonly used pans lies in between 0.70 to 0.80.
The evaporation from a reservoir can be most nearly approximated by a pal floating
on the lake surface. However, the installation and maintenance expenses are quite
large. Observation of data is very difficult and many times, splasliing takes place
which renders the records unreliable. Due to these reasons these pals are not in very
common use.
Leakage through Dam
This component of outflow consists of loss of water from the reservoir on accoullt of
leakage through the body of the danl as well as through gates and spillways. It is not
easily possible to relate these losses with a measurable quantity. For example. the
losses through the gates or valves of under sluices depend up011 their design,
installation and maintenance. A simplifying assumption which is usually made in
practice is that these losses linearly vary with the reservoir level. in general, the
amount of water lost due to these reasons varies between 0.5% to 4% of the total
discharge through the structure.
Groundwater Flow
A reservoir also experiences subsurface flow from or towards the aquifers though the
magnitude is very small compared to the surface water inflow. The anlount of this
flow depends upon the physiographical features and soil characteristics in the vicinity.
and the position of water table. Assuming liomogeneous condition, the flow can be
computed by the Darcy law.
SAQ 1
i) Somc t!pical puq~c-!?~.:
i!i';l olr
K S C ~ a:-L: . . . . . . . . .
. .
ti) /I rcse1-[,gi1-1s opcsatcd f01- !rj-lk!;lii<-?:> :,:!~<jh-, dr-t.~~x>::~
1~ I\ 111 hc C ~ ; I S S I ~ ~ C ~ ~
c:S.
as 3 .......... ...pLI~POSL i - c > i ~ ~ ' i ) ~ r

iii) A rcsewoir llnvirtg n yrosf sto:.;iSi:c;i .i( ! \;~il! hi: classlticd :IS a
M('?jl
............ rcscn:o~r.

i At n rescn~oii- the cvaporati:on frgm n pan f h r onc cia\- ;\as -1 (hnrn If 1 1 1 ~

arc3 of water spread is I5 I<r;aL. cstlmnrc thc evapurntlon loss t'!-c:i11 1l1c
reserb-oir.

120
 Pla~itiing&Ope1-ntic*li
12.3 PLANNING OF RESERVOIRS of' Ucwrvc~i~-.

Since the reservoirs are capital intensive projects, it is necessary that these projects are
carefully planned and executed. All the available data should be analysed and if
necessary. further information should be gathered so that the best decision is taken
with respect to location. size 'and type of structure and auxiliary facilities. Afier the
best site is selected from amongst tlle potential sites. the various investigations are to
be carried out to finalise the project details. These are described in the following
sub-sections.
12.3.1 Site Selection Criteria for a Reservoir
The following factors should be kept in mind while selecting the site for a reservoir
1) The reservoir site should be such that the leakage of water through the
ground is minimum. Reservoir sites having highly permeable rocks
reduce the water tightness of the reservoir. Rocks which are not likely to
allow passage of much water include shales and slates, schists. gneiss,
and crystalline igneous rocks such as granite. Therefore, tile d a m should
be founded on sound watertight rock base. and percolation below the dam
should be minimum. The cost of the dam. which depends upon the
suitability of the site. is ofien a controlling factor in the selection of the
site.
2) Tlle reservoir basin should have as narrow an opening in the valley as
possible. so that the least length of the dam is possible.
3) The cost of real estate for the reservoir. including roads. railways.
rehabilitation and resettlement etc. must be as small as possible.
4) The topography of the reservoir site should be such that it has adequate
capacity without subnlerging excessive land and other properties.
5) The site should be such that a deep reservoir is formed. A deep reservoir
is preferable to a shallow one because o f :
i) lower cost of land submerged per unit of capacity,
ii) less ev~porationlosses because of reduction in the water spread area,
and
iii) less likelihood of weed growth
6) The reservoir site should be such the it avoids or excludes water from
those tributaries which cany a high percentage of silt in water.
7) The reservoir site should be such that the water stored in it is suitable for
the purpose for which the project is ~uidertaken.The soil and rock ii~assat
the reservoir site must not contain any ~b~iectionableminerals and salts.
It is often not possible to find a site which satisfies all the above ideal conditions. In
pncticc. tl~erefore.the plainer uses 111sdiscretion to choose the site which best meets
the project oly cctives.
12.3.2 Investigations for Planning a Reservoir
Ttte \.r~riousinvestigations required for reservoir planning are described below :
Engineering S~lrveys
7
11arca
: at the d m slte is surveyed in detail and n contour plan with a small contour
i~ltervnl(of thc order of a few meters) is prepared. From the plan. the following
infomiation is obtained:
a) Area-elevation curve.
b) stor'agc-elevation curve.
 l ' l ; ~ ~ i ~ot'
i i\Vater
~~g
I<t~.sourccs IBrc!jrcts
c) Map of the area to indicate the land and property to be survcycd iu dctrul. slid
d) Suitable site for locating the dam.
I In the conventional ways, the topographic maps were prepared by carqing out n 11laio
I
table survey of the area. However, nowadays these maps can be quickly prepared
using remote sensing techniques. The use of these techniques reduces time and cost of
preparation of the maps, and the techniques are very handy for areas which are
difficult to access.
Area-elevation and Storage-elevation Curves
Figure 12.2(a) shows atypical contour plan of a reservoir area. The areas cnclosed b!.
the successive contours can be determined with a planimeter. A close obscrvntio~iof
this figure shows that as the elevation of a contour increases, its enclosed nrcn also
increases.Now a curve may be drawn with elevation on the y-axis and area on tl~c
x-axis.

IJi~urr12.2(;1) : . \ 'rypit.;~l P I I ~ IBI';I RC*SVI?'IP~~

C ' ~ B I I ~ ~ I'I>III .\IV,I

Figurt: 12.2(b) shows a t!,r)ical elevation area curvc. Tlic contour p h n also inclic~~lcs
the \\.:lter spre:td correspondi.ng to the givcn reservoir elevation. This info~.lnatlonI S
used to dcteniiine the nrcn likcl!: to co~iicunder submergence ~uncltllc coni1x11~:lfiotl 11)
bc pad to tllc owners

AREA ( h a ) ts
2000 1800 1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0

- 850
825 - - 825
- 800- - 800

CAPACITY CUHVE

o 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 moo 18 iaoo 2000

Figure 12.2(b) : Elevation-awn-capacity C . W e of a Reservoir Arra

 -
r
in the reservolr may be calculated by trapezoidal form&. Thus, if land
A2 are the

I areas between two successive contours. and h is the contour interval, then the
intermediate storage volume V (held between these two contours) can be calculated
using the formula :

The total reservolr capacity at a given elevation is computed by adding such

intermediate volumes up to that elevation. The storage volumes corresponding to
various water-surface elevations may be calculated and a curve (as mentioned above)
ma) be plotted between elevation and storage

SAQ 2
i) Tick the correct answer
a) Site having granite rocks is suitablelnot-suitable for a reservoir.
r b) Compared to a shallow reservoir, evaporation from a deep rcsenjoir
per unit storage volunle will be moreAess.
ii) llle following table gives the reservoir elevation aid corresponding water
sl~rc"darea. A few values of volume have been computed. C:ornputc and
fill the remaining values.
-

I r-
I
I
Elevation
(m)
1 Incremental Volume
(mZ)
Cumulative
Capacity (m")-4%
I

111) llic ~ n f l o n dcs~gn

. tlood o f n rcselcoir-of pioss cnjxtcit! o i ' i o bl('X1 n i l l
correspond to nhlch flood''

! Geological Investigations
I
In aln~ostall mqor civil engineering pro-jects,geological advice is very important.
Geological imcstigations are required to give detailed infonilation about the followiilg
1tcms:
I) Water tightness of reservoir basin.
2) SuitabiliQ of foundations for tlle d'am.
3) Geological and structunl features. such as folds. faults. fissures etc. of
the rocks of basin.
4) Type and depth of overburden (superficial deposits),
 5) Location of permeable and soluble rocks. if any.
6) Gro~uidwater conditions in the region, and

7) Location of quarry sites for materials required for the d a n construction.

and quantities available from them.
I11 fact, these geological investigations cost very little in comparison to the total cost of
the pro-ject: typically it may anount to between 0.25 to 1 per cent of tlic pro-icct cost.
Illis relatively small a~nouiitprovides a valuable iiisur,mce against difficulties and
problems, otherwise unforeseen. which might arise during construction and their
solutions may prove to be expensive. It may be possible to predict the occurrence of
some of tliese from a study of the geological factors involved.
The geology of the catchment area influences the proportions of runoff and percolation
of the basis. The special requirement. from the point of view the geology of the
reservoir site, is diat tllere should be no danger of serious leakage when the ground is
under pressure from the full head of water in the reservoir. The geology of tlie d a n
site is also important from the point of view of the availability of suitable foi~ndatio~~
for the d m . The nature of sub-surface geology should be explored by trial bores or
various other means of geophysical explorrt' r on.
Hydrological Investigations
The hydrological investigations foml a very important aspect of reservoir planning for
appropriate utilisation of available water resources. Tlle capacity of associated
irrigation canals and/or the installed capacity of the power houses will dcpend upon
the available supplies from the reservoir. Hydrological investigation may be dividccl
into following heads:
a) Study of runoff pattern at the proposed dam site to detemiinc the water
availability and stonge capacity required to meet tht: target denlands.
b) Determination of die hydrograpli of tllc worst flood for the design of the
spillway,
c) Estiniation of evaporation and other losses from the reservoir. particularl!
in an arid area,
d) Sedimentation studies to determine the sediment ~nflowinto the rescrvolr
and its impact on the reservoir perfonnance, and its life: :uld
e) Simulation studies to obtain die perfonnalce profile of the rcscrvoir
under a given inflow series and demand pattern.
For the planning of any project. the first step requires a correct assessment of water
availability at the site of interest. This requires a sufticiently long sequence of data at
tlie specific location. Tlie required length of the data depends upon the F p c of stor:~zc.
type of development and variability of inputs. In general, analysis carried out 011tlic
basis of a longer period of data will give more confidence about the overall
perfonnaice of the pro-ject. However. comparatively shorter lengtli will suftice for
widiin-the-year storage where the spill occurs almost e v e n year and tlie critical period
is of the duration of few months. A longer period would bc required for over-the-!,car
storages. The guidelines regarding the minimum length of the data recluircd arc: as
given under :
Type of Project Minimum Length of D;I~;I
Diversion pro.jects LO years
Witliin-the-year storage pro-jects 25 years
Over-the-year storage projects
System involving conibination Depending upon the
of tile above predoniinant clenlcnt
 1 1 e flow sequences required for planning of projects need to be prepared for an
appropriate time unit so that the simulation studies are accurate and have desired
resolution. The number and type of additional hydro-meteorological stations to be set
I up in the catchment and the command areas is decided during these investigations
keeping in view the availability of such stations. While deciding the location of
additional stations, future requirements for the operational stage of the project should
also be accounted for.
After assessi~igthe information required and data availability. various techniques are
used to extendlgenerate long term flow sequence (if necessary) for proper evaluation
of water availability and project planning. In India since rainfall data are normally
available for a longer period than runoff data, it is common to extend runoff data using
the rainfall data.
Reconnaissance (Preliminary) Investigations
The main purpose of such investigations is to screen out the inferior alternatives and to
decide about the further data which need to be collected for detailed feasibility
investigations of the remaining selectable alternatives. A reco~lnaissancesurvey will
identify the scope of a project planning with respect to its geographical location,
project functions, approximate size of its various components, likely problem areas
and time and cost of conducting feasibility investigations.
Achially a complete reconnaissance investigation is a preliminary version of a
feasibility investigation carried out in short time and with less accuracy. It considers
all the physical. engineering, economic. environmental and social aspects related to the
project. It is i~suallyconducted with the presently available data. Collection of some
new data. if considered necessary for reconnaissance. is made by preliminary surveys.
Tllese may include the simple cross-section (instead of detailed topography) of a
strean at darn site. surface investigations of geological conditions at danl site,
sub-surface explorations for foundation quality at dam site. quality and quantity of
available constn~ctionmaterials. and so fort.11. Preli~ninarydesigns are made by using
sllort-cut methods (using curves, tables and previous experiences). Cost and benefits
of the project are also estimated.
All the project are subject to economic analysis and a benefit cost ratio of more than
1.3 is generally required. This aspect is covered in details in other units of the course
Based on the results of preliminary investigations of alternative project plans. a
selection of feasible pro-ject plans is made for subsequent feasibility investigations.

The ail11 of the feasibility investigation is to ascertain the soundness and justification,
or otherwisc, of different alternative plans chosen afier carrying out preliminary
investigations. The analyses need to be of higher accuracy and dependability so that
the reliability of results, on the basis of which the final selection of the project plan is
made. may not be questioned. It should, however. be noted that the feasibility
investigation does not mean the end of the project planning. Some minor changes may
be required to be made for various reasons during final designs before construction,
during construction and even during pro-ject operation.
The first step in the feasibility ~~lvestigation
is to collect or update the basic data of
different types. The accuracy and reliability levels of these data must be consistent
w ~ t hthe degree of accuncy required for feasibility justifications. The basic data for
dams and reservoirs include topographic surveys of sites, information on stream flow
and des~gnflood. land costs, reservoir clearing costs. c o n ~ m u n ~ c a tfacilities,
io~~
climatic conditions affecting construc~on.fishery and wildlife to be preserved,
constructiond material, foundation conditions of dam site and reservoir area,
availability of trained Inanpower and important environmental and other
consideratio~~s. The fac~litiesand appurtenances necessary for the functioning of the
project must be specified and considered while making feasibility cost estimates.
Planning of Water On t l ~ ebasis of the feasibility investigation, a provisional selection of the site and size
Resources Projects
of the project is made. Besides, the functions of the project are also decided upon. The
final report prepared on the basis of the feasibility investigations is submitted to the
approving and fundlng authorities of the project.
Pre-construction Investigations
The final adoption of provisionally selected project site and its size and functions
normally begins after the project has been approved and funded for construction. It is
essential that any new information which might have become available during the time
interval between feasibility investigation and the final design UI incorporated in the
final designs. For example, a flood of large magnitude might have occurred during this
intervening period and this may necessitate changes in the design flood for the project
and consequently the spillway and related structures.
For pre-construction planning, more detailed and accurate topographic maps and
additional geological investigations are usually necessary to reduce uncertainties about
foundation conditions and construction material. This is also true of the other basic
data needed for planning of darns and reservoirs.
12.3.3 Reservoir Capacity Computation
Determination of the capacity commensurate with the river inflow and demand, is an
important aspect of reservoir design. Depending upon the type of data and the
computational technique used, several procedures for reservoir capacity computation
are available. The techniques that are based upon critical period concepts have been in
use for a long time. One such method, known as the Mass Curve Method was the first
rational method proposed to compute the required storage capacity of a reservoir.
The Mass Curve Method
The mass curve method is a graphical method based on critical period concept. The
critical period is defined as the duration in which an initially full reservoir depletes,
and after passing through various states (withput spilling), empties out. From the
reservoir point-of-view, the critical period is @e worst period or the period of
minimum inflows as shown in the records. If the reservoir just meets all the demands
in the critical period, it is likely to do so in all other periods. In the methods based on
critical period concept, a time series of stream flows containing the critical period is
input to an initially full reservoir in the presence of specified demands. The reservoir
capacity is obtained by finding the maximum difference between cumulative inflows
and cumulative releases. If we define a b c t i o n X(t) as,

X (I) = X (I) dt

then the graph ofX(t) versus time is known as the mass curve. The mass technique,
proposed by Ripple in 1883 to determine storage capacity of a reservoir, is a graphical
integration technique. A similar method was introduced in Europe by the name
Stretched-Thread Rule.
Let x be the series of inflows to the reservoir and q be the outflow or draft series and Z
be defined as /
t
Zt .= (0 Xx - ) dl

t t
Of, Zt=loxdt- I, q d t = X t - Q t
The plot of Zt with respect to time (t) represents storage fluctuations in a reservoir
subject to inflow x and outflow q. This graph can be used to find the smallest size of
the reservoir required to satisfy the demands throughout the critical period without
failure. Many tinies, it is more convenient to express release as a ratio of mean inflow
and t h s ratio is called the degree of regulation. Similarly, the storage capacity can also
 I'lanl~ing&Operation
be expressed as a ratio of mean annual inflow and is called storngc ratio or storage of Reservoirs

As a11 exallple, the mass curve of monthly stream flows is plotted in Figure 12.3, for
several years. Ifthe monthly flows are 15,30,20: and 10 units then the mass curve is
obtained b!. accumulating these values to yield 15,45,65 and 75. Now on this mass
curves of flows. the cumulative demand line is superin~posedso that it is tangential to
the mass curve as shown in the figure (cumulative demand curve need not be a straight
line alv.ays). The intercepts between the curves are measured and the maxinlum
intercept gives the required capacity of the reservoir.

CRITICAL
DRAWDOW N

l NFLOW CURVE

"
1975 1980
YEAR

Fizure 12.3 : Mass C:arve Approarh for Detern~inatio~i

of Reservoir Capacity

The n ~ a s curve
s technique, although ven. simple and straight forward, has a few
shortcomings. One drawback is the implicit assumption that the storage which would
have been adequate in past will also be adequate in future. Although this is not strictly
true, the error caused is not really serious particularly if sufficiently long flow series
has been considered. Secondly, this problem will arise in many other methods since
the future is not known. Some methods try to address this problem by explicitly
considering the stochastic properties of inflows
Another criticism which is in general true for all critical period techniques is the
circulariq, of the definitio~lof critical period. By definition, the critical periods
depends upon the storage capacity of the reservoir and the demand level. However,
these are essentially the factors which our analysis aims to find out. One n~ore
drawback of the mass curve is that economic analysis cannot be done in this technique
because the storage size cannot be related to the economic life of the project. Further.
it can not be computed for a particular level of reliability. Due to these aspects, the
mass curve technique is used only to arrive at the initial guess of the reservoir capacity
12.3.4 Design Flood and Reservoir Routing
Design flood is a hypothetical flood (peak discharge rate of hydrograph) adopted as
thc basis in the engineering design of project con~ponents.Some of the comnlon uses
, of design floods are :
i) Design floods are adopted for the safety of st~ucturesqainst failure by
1 overtopping etc. during floods; for exanple. for dams to decide about the
i spillway capacity.
I
ii) Design floods are also adopted for flood control and drainage works to
provide safety to downstream areas against flooding.
 . . -.

Since die dcstgn flood that is adopted with reference to a liydmulic stn~cturc.otlc~i
niarks the difference between safety aid disaster. ~ ~ h i i oattellti011
st has bucn g i v c ~tllc
~
world over to select and cstiniate the design flood that is most appropriate for a gi\tcn
case. Economic. social and other lion-hydrologic considerations influcncc the
pliilosophy of protection, and hence the selection of appropriate design tloticl. I'olicics
have been laid down by ~iiostorguiisations for various applications ullicli arc being
followed unless there are co~npellinglocal factors for deviation in all!. ~)artici~lar case.
Maiy approaches are used in India for the estimation of a dusigii flood. Thc approach
based on rational tbmiula was coniliionly used in early times ruicl is stil I used in sonic
parts of the co~intry.The other popular approach is based on unit hydrograph. T l ~ c
design stomi for the pro-ject is determined using tlie ~neteorologicaldata and tlicn the
unit hydrograpli is applied to detennine the corresponding flood hydro~rapIi.'When
sut'ficiently long tlow series is available, frequency analysis is carried out to detcrtninc
tlie floods of various frequencies. For importait pro-jects, the results of \iarious
approaches are compared to arrive at the appropriate design flood.
Design Flood for Fixing Spillway Capacity
l l i e design criteria for flood control schemes has evolved in India ovcr tlic ?cars.
pooling the experiences a i d practices followed by various organisations and
individuals. The prevalent hydrologic design criteria for fixing tlie spillcvay caprlcih
are indicated in IS I 1223-1 985, "Guidelines for fixing Spillwa\.r Capaciw" publisliccl
by Bureau of Indian StaidardsS. According to these guidelines the inflow dcsigri
floods that need to be co~isideredfor various functions of spillways arc :
a) Inflow Design Flood for the Safety of a Dam
It is the flood for which the dam should be safe against overtopping and structural
failure. The inflow design flood for the safety of tlie dam sliould be chosen according
to the following criteria :
Types of Dam Inflow Design Flood
Major Probable Maximum Flood (PMF)
Mediuni Standard Project Flood (SPF)
Minor 100-year Flood.
Floods of larger or smaller magnitude may be used if the hazard involved is high or
low. The relevant parameters to be considered in judging the hazard in addition to the
size of the dam wouldbe :
i) distance and location of the downstream features. Due consideration is
given to the likely future developments with regard to these features.
ii) the maximum carrying capacity of the downstrerun channcl at a levcl at
which catastrophic danlage is not expected.
b) Inflow Design Flood for Efficient Operation of Energy Dissipation Works
The energy dissipation arrangements for the spillway niay be designed for tlie bcst
efficiency for a snialler inflow flood than the inflow design flood for the safety of the
dam.
c) Inflow Design Flood for Checking Extent of Upstream Submergence
Inflow design flood for checking the extent of upstream submergence dcpclids on local
condition. type of property and effects of its submergence. Except for v c p important
structures in the upstream like power houses, mines, etc. for which levels
corresponding to SPF or PMF may be used, smaller design floods and the levels
attained under these may suffice. In general a 25- year retum period flood for lnnd
acquisition and 50-year retum period flood for built up property acquisition ma!, be
adopted.
 Planning &Operatinn
nflow Design Flood for the Extent of Downstream Damage in the Valley of Reservoirs
11flo\\ dcsigu tlood for checking the extent of downstrenrii damzge depends on local
conditions. type of property and effects of its subniergence. For imporhnt facilities
like po\~crhouses. tlie outflows under iiiflo\v design flood for the safety of daiis and
all gates operative colidition are relevant. Noniially. tlie discharge relevant to check
tlic acceptability of downstream submergence may be smaller tlim those for power
houses at or near tlie toe of tlie dam.
For iniport,%ntpro-iects demographic studies may be done as nn aid to decide the design
tlood. Where studies or judgement indicate at1 ilii~ninentdanger to tlie present or
future human settlements. tlie PMF sliould be used as a design flood. Besides the
available guidelines. location-specific factors shodd also be considered while
choosing a particular type of flood.
Reservoir Routing
The concept of reservoir routing is well explined in in tlie course on Hydrolog),. Tlie
pxs,y.e of flood hydrograph through a reservoir is k n o w as reservoir routing. When a
tlood moves through a reservoir, its outflow shape undergoes changes. The
depth and width of a reservoir is quite big compared to a river cli,mnel. The continuity
eqi~ntionis used in all the hydrologic routing methods as the primary equation.
Accordi~igto this equation. tlie difference between the inflow and outflow is equal to
the rate of cliaiige of storage :
ti\'
I-<. = -
I
tlt ... (12.4)

~vherc.
I = inflow.
C) = outflow.
S = storage, and
t = time.
Alternatively. In a smdl time interval At,the difference between the total inflow
! volume nnd total outflow volunie in a given reach of river, or in a reservoir. is equal to
: the clinnge in storage in that reach or reservoir :

1
where. I,,. (I and,AYdenote
, , . average inflow, average outflow and change i11 storage
(11 + 12) ( Q l + 02) and
during time period At, respectively. Assuming, I,, =
2. .
On, = 2,
AS = S2- SI, where, suffixes 1 a i d 2 denote the beginning and end of the time interval
At Hence. Equation ( 12.5) is written as .

Here the time interval At must be sufficiently small so that the :nflow a i d outflow
hydrographs c a i be assumed to be linear during the time interval. Further, At niust be
' shorter than tlie time of transit of flood wave through the reservoir. Equation (12.6)
can bc reamilged as :

Reservoir routiiig requires the relationship between tlie reservoir elevation, storage a i d
discha$c over the spillway to be known. This relationship is a function of the
topography of tlie reservoir site and tlie characteristics of tlie outlet facility. It is
importru1t to I-cmc~liber
that the relationship bct\vccn clcva!ion. sto~.ngcnncl disc1l;lt.g~
changes with tinlc due to scdi~llc~ltatioll
ctc.

llsing the above basic Equation (12.7). scvcral methods for I-ui~ting n tlood \\:ive
throi~'ghn reservoir ha\c been devclopcd. namcl! - Mnss Ci~r\rehlctl~ocl.Puls Mctllod.
Modified Puls Method. Wisler-Brter Method. C;oodrich klctl~od.Steinbc~gMctllocl.
and Coefficient Method. Among thcsc. the Moclitied Puls method is 111ostcnmmonl!
used. l11c detailed csplanntion is ~ i v e nin the unit on Flood Routing in H\.drolog!.
course. TI~LIShere we al-e limiting to a briefdescription of this mcthocl.
The schclnatic representation of rcse~voirrouting is illi~stratcdi l l F i g ~ r c13.4
1

n
RESERVOIR

0 =llhl
(I I S ( h l

( 1 h ) r Y E I . O E H L W D OVER TWL
SPILLWAY CREST 1

Figurr 12.-1 : Schcm:~ticI<cprcsentaticn~of' l<chrrvt)irHoutit~g

The Modified Puls Method

The Modified Puls Method is also referred to as the Storngc-l~ldicationMcthocl. This
method uses Equation ( 1 2.7) for flood routing and can be rearrange as:
2 S, 2 S,
(Il+I?) + ( - 0 , )= ( + <I2) ... (123)
A 1 A /

The left hand side contains the kno\\-n terms while the right Ilillld side is COIII~IC~CI!.
unlulown. Tllc inflow h),droglaph is kno~vn.Tllc discharge \vllich Inn!. pass through
the turbines or iunder sluices is also known. The discharge tllroi~gllthe sl~iIl\va!.
depends upon the depth of tlo\\. over the spillway nnd the spill\\ ay gco~llct~?.. Fu~tl~cr.
the depth of flow ovcr the spiIi\va!. depends L I ~ O Ithe
I Ic\~cIof wc~tcri11 the resc~-\!oii-.
Therefore :

\vhe~-e.Y represents the water sutincc clcvatlon. The light s ~ d eof Erluat~ori( 12 X ) crui
thus be written as

L11

It order to utilise Equation (12.8). thc elevation storage aid elc\lntion-disch;lrgc

relationship must be kno\vn. Thcrcfore, befolw routing procedure call p1.0cecd.tI1c
cunles of (2,SIAtf 0)versus L, are to be constnlctcd. Tllc routing 11owbcco~i~es \,cr!
simple, and call be perfomled using the rtbo\/c equation.
Most of the big dalns have gated spiIl\\:ays and the gates of tlic spiIl\i.a\.crun be rnisccl
or lowered to control the outflo\\. from the d a ~ nA. d a ~ nma\. also hr~\-cunder slu~ccsto
co~ltrolthe outflo\\l for purposes of irrigation. water suppl~,ctc. 711c ope~.ntionof thc
spill\vay gates and under sluiccs depends on thc state of thc rcscrvoil.. lcvcl of
clenlmds, and the operation policy.
 Planning &Operation
dams, the reservoir outflow can be either: of Reservoirs

b) uncontrolled, and
c) a combination of these two.
The continuity equation, with reference to gated dams, can be written as :
( I I + I,)/2 - ( Q , + Q,)/2- Qc = (S, -S,)/Dt ... (12.11)

where, (2, is the mean controlled outflow from the reservoir during the time interval
At. Rearranging the terms, Equation (12.11) can be written as follows :
2 S, ... (12.12)
-+Q, = ( I , +I,)+---Q1-2Qc
At At

When the controlled outflow, Q,, is known, the solution can be obtained as explained
above. The spillway rating chart can be used to determine the outflow through one
gate if the reservoir elevation and the gate opening are known. In this chart, the
reservoir elevation is on y-axis and the spillway discharge on the x-axis. A number of
curves are given corresponding to various gate openings.
Selection of a proper routing time interval At in all flood routing problems is very
important. Its value should be neither too much nor too less. If it is too much and
exceeds the travel time through the reservoir, then the crest segment of the outflow
containing the peak discharge could pass through the reservoir between the time
intervals and would, therefore, not be computed. If, on the other hand, it is too short,
then it takes longer to perform flood routing. Further, At is suitably assumed so that the
inflow is approximately linear during this period. As a guideline, At should be
one-third to one-half of the travel time through the reservoir. Furthermore, the routing
interval At can be either variable or constant. However, it is more realistic to use a
variable At, keeping it small for a large change in mass inflow and large for a small

The Modified Plus method, however, has a maior shortcoming. The assumption that
the outflow begins at the same time as the inflow implies that the inflow passes
through the reservoir instantaneously regardless of its length.

SAQ 3
.A Kcszr\n~rhas the follon ~ i l gc!cvatlon. discharge and storage relat~onshlp

Wlicn thc reservoir lcvcl \\as at 100 50 m. t l ~ efollo\\mg flood l~!drograpli

clitcrcd thc rcscn~oir
Pl:m~ungof Water
Resources P~qjects

1
--
i
I
'i
-
j 10 ; , 7
I~~JOI\.(ITI~/S)
--+---+
I(i X!i I

&-A.
j 58 i
..i
Time&r)
1
"2
Inflow (m3/s)
-
48
1 36
1
1 55
11 54
20
1 1; . 1.1
i

Rout the flood aid obtaln thc outflon htdrograph 2nd thc resenolr clc\ntlon \ \

t~nlecurw during the passage of thc flood \\a\ L.

12.3.5 Sedimentation and Life of a Reservoir

Each sediment particle being transported by the flow of river water is affected by two
dynamic forces : a horizontal colnponent acting in thc direction of flow and a vertical
component due to gravitational pull and also a fluctuating force due to turbulcncc in
the flow. A dam on a stream channel changes the hydraulic characteristics of flow ancl
its sediment transporting capacity. As the reservoir width is much bigger than the rivcr
channel width, the velocity of flow entering into the reservoir decreases. ALAe samc
time there is a dampening of water turbulence. A11 these render flow unable to
transport all the sediment particles and the particles begin to deposit in the reservoir
basin. The rapidity of reservoir sediment deposition and the time that will elapsc
before the usefulness of the reservoir s t o w e capacity is seriously impaired are
problems of concern for planning engineer. A planning engineer must bc ablc to
anticipate the extent of changes that will occur inside the reservoir. She, specifically.
must determine :
# the volume of sediments that will accumulate in the reservoir,
# the distribution of sediment in the reservoir,
# the aggravation upstream of the reservoir, and
# the reservoir trap efficiency.
Reservoir sedimentation inust be monitored after the construction of the dniil by a
systematic re-survey of the reservoir. There are two methods available to determine
the volume of accumulated sediment :
i) one based on predicting the annual volume of sediment deposition.
ii) based on re-surveys of the existing reservoirs.
Prediction of Annual Volume of Sediment Accumulated
The prediction of annual volume of accumulated sediments can bc done bc tlircc wa?
They are given below :
a) Field inspections of a given watershed and comparison of this watershed with
other areas. Data on the sediment texture of a strean can be detemlilied by zui
inspection. A watershed inspection will disclose the main sources of scdiment
such as sheet erosion, gullying, flood erosion due to deforestation. and strcani
channel erosion. The ainual sedlment yield rate (per unit of drainagc nrca) of
another watershed of similar characteristics (physiography, climatology) can bc
used for ai initial estimate in respect ofthe project watershed.
b) Data collected from a rcsurvey of existing reservoirs located in the general arcn
of the proposed reservoir can be analysed to estimate the annual volumc of
 Planting &()pet-ation
sediment yield. It may be necessary to adjust the yield rate to account for of Resewoi1.s
variations in the dminage area characteristics.'

C) The total stream sediment transport loads can be computed. The pertinent
sediment and hydraulic data may be collected from tlie stream near the proposed
dam site. The formulae for computing sediment loads usually express the
sediment discharge in tons per day. This can be converted into volumes by
apply~ngappropriate unit weight. One procedure consists of multiplying
empirical unit weight for clay. silt and sand ranges by percentages indicated from
the sample data with each range.
Surveys of Existing Reservoirs
Sediments accuinulated in an existing reservoir can be determined by running a
sediment survey of the reservoir. Tlie patteni of deposition of particles depends on
several factors such as size and texture of sediment of particles, reservoir
intlow-outflow relations. size and shape of tlie reservoir and reservoir operation
schedule. Generally, coarser sediments deposit first in tlie reservoir headwaters and the
finer particles are transported by density currents down upto the dam.
It becomes necessary to run reservoir sediment surveys some time after the closure of
tlie dani. Tlie surveys are run primarily to update the capacity data necessary to
opemte die reservoir more efficiently. Other valuable infornlation and data are
gathered during these surveys. Such information includes how the sediment deposits
are distributed in the reservoir and what change the streani channel has undergone
because of altered sediment transport regime and depositibn. Field data collected
during the surveys are analysed to include the specific weights of the deposits. their
grain size distribution, sediment accumulation rates, reservoir trap efficiencies, and
density cul.rents.
Tlie frequency of surveying the reservoirs depends on the magnitude of the initially
estimated sediment acci~mulationrate. Reservoirs that have high accumulation rates
are surveyed more often than are those with lower rates. Financing the cost of running
a survey also plays a critical part in how frequently tliey-arerun. Assuming tlie cost of
the survey has been justified by the need to update the estimation of reservoir capacity.
a suggcsted guide to the frequency may be based on some percentage reduction of the
co~isen~ation storage capacity. Special circumstances may arise, however, calling for a
change in the frequency interval that 11x3 been established. For example, a reservoir
might be surveyed after the occurrence of a mztior flood that has caused an abnormal
sediment intlow into the reservoir. Another example is to run a resurvey following the
closure of n dam that has been constructed upstrean on the same river. An upstream
dani reduces the free drainage area and consequeiitly causes a reduction in the
sedi~iientxculiiulation rate with regard to the reservoir downstream.
The equ~p~iielit required to run a survey consists of land surveying instruments, sonic
sounders. boats, and a variety of auxil~aryequipment, including two-way radios when
it is iieccssary to iiiaintain communication between shore and boat parties. Currently
survey equipnie~itand fteld measurement devices are available which can store data on
n magnetic niedia for subsequent processing by a computer. Often it is necessary to
take samples of the reservoir deposits during the surveys for detennining specific
\\eights aid grain size distribution. To do this, a variety of saniplers are used.Tlie
contour aid range methods are two of the bas~cfield techniques used to survey
reservoirs. I11 some situations, a combination of both methods is used. Selection of die
method depends on the quantity and distributioii of sediiiieiit ~ndicatedby field
inspections. availability of previous base maps, purpose of the survey, and degree of
accuracy des~red.
Vie specific weight and size distribution of deposited sediments are also determined in
reservoir resurveys. Data for these determinations are gathered by using the
instniments previously described. Physical samples taken with core type samplers can
I)c andysed in die laboratory for gradation and specific uilit weight. Radioactive
Planning of Water probes can measure only in-sih wet bulk densities. The specific weight data are used
Resources Pro,jects
to compute the mean specific weights of the sediments accumulated in the reservoir.
Size distribution of the sample material -is obtained from mechanical analysis. these
sediment deposits. There is no prescribed set number of samples that are needed to be
collected for the purpose of determining the representative specific weight. Size
distribution data can be used to compute specific weights of these sediment deposits.
There is no prescribe set number of samples that are needed to be collected for the
purpose of determining the representative specific weight of the sediments for the
reservoir. A rule of thumb is to collect a sufficient number. generally one at each range
so as to represent the specific weight ofthe . The required number of samples is
influenced by the reservoir size, the type and texture of the inflowing sediments. and
the location and number of tributary streams. The volume of the sediment that has
accumulated in a reservoir is computed by subtracting the revised capacity from the
original capacity at a given reservoir elevation (usually the FRL).
Aggradation of a Reservoir
Aggravation refers to the up-rising of the original riverbed to a new elevation ,and
profile, as a result of sediment deposition. The major consequences of reservoir
aggravation are :
i) delta deposits leading to the raising'up of the backwater profile of the
channel upstream from the reservoir, thus creating problems for riparian
villages, and
. ii) adverse environmental effects such as formation of stagnant pools in
adjacent lands, deterioration of water channels because of increasing
sediment concentration, infestations of phreatophytes such as salt cedars.
Reservoir Trap Efficiency
It is the percentage of the total incoming sediment that is retained in the reservoir. It
can also be defined as the ratio of the quantity of sediment deposited to the total
sediment inflow. Other terms that are defined in this regard are : Capacity-inflow ratio
which is the reservoir capacity mean annual water inflow; and, Sedimentation index.
defined as the ratio of the period of retention to the mean water velocity through the
reservoir. l t e period of retention is equal to the reservoir capacity (cubic metres)
divided by the average daily inflow to the reservoir ( in cumecs).
When the estimated sediment volume accumulatio~~ is a substantial percentage of the
reservoir capacity, it may be necessary to analyse the trap efficiency for soine
incremental periods of the reservoir life. Theoretically, the reservoir trap efficiency
will progressively decrease once storage has begun. However, it is generally not
practical to analyse the trap efficiency by increments of less than 10 years.
Distribution of Sediment Volume
Once an assessment of expected volume of total sediment deposition for the required
time period has been made, the revised elevation-area-capacity curves of the reservoir
are prepared by using Empirical Area Reduction method. This method is based on the
analysis of the data of sediment distribution obtained from resurvey of reservoirs. In
this method,.reservoirs are classified into four types, n'aqely: (a) gprge, (b) hill, (c)
flood plain-foot hill, a1d (d) lake, based on the ratio of the reservoir capacity to the
reservoir depth. The empirical sediment distribution-area design curves for each of the
four types of reservoir are used to know the distribution the sediment throughout its
depth.
The first step in empirical area I-eductionmethod requires determination of type of
reservoir which is obtained by plotting reservoir depth as ordinate against rescrvoir
capacity as abscissa at hfferent elevations on a log-log paper. A line is draw11through
the plotted points. Reciprocal of slope of the line determines the reservoir @pe as per
standard groupings. Next using the appropriate design curve and assumi~iga value of
New Zero Elevation or NZE (level upto which reservoir is fully silted up) the sediment
134
 Planning &Operatinn
area thus volume at different levels are worked out. The total volume of silt thus of Reservoirs
ut should be close to the sediment volume whlch is to be distributed in the
reservoir. If the two are different, a new value to NZE is assumed and computations
redone, till the desired accuracy (say 1%) is achieved. The revised area capacity
curves so worked out are used for reservoir simulation while planning the projects.

Life of Reservoirs
The term life of a reservoir appears to be a misnomer since the reservoirs do not have
a single well defined life which denotes two functional states : ON and OFF. Rather
they show a gradual degradation of perfomlance and not a sudden non- functional
stage. Sedimentation and the consequent reduction of capacity is a gradual process,
which can be classified into various phases.
According to the approach incorporated in the Indian Standard IS : 12182 (1987), the
end of Phase-I will depict the end of the period in which the reservoir is capable of
yielding the full planned benefits. Phase-I1 would depict a period when the operation
of the reservoir is also trouble free, in regard to sedimentation, although the efficiency
of the reservoir is gradually reducing, and management measures to adjust to the
reduction are required. Phase-I11 would be a period troubled operation, and unless
some new engineering solutions are implemented, the project may have to be given up
in in Phase-IV or Phase-V.

12.4 OPERATION OF RESERVOIRS

Once a reservoir comes into beinig, the benefits that could be reaped depend, to a large
extent, upon how well it is managed. An efficient use of water resources requires not
only a judicious design but also a proper management practice after construction of the
project. Reservoir operation forms a very important part of planning and management
of a water resources system. Once a reservoir has been developed, detailed guidelines
have to be given to the operator which enable him to take decisions about storing or
releasing the waters.
Conservation demands are best served when the reservoir is as much full as possible at
the and of the filling period. The flood control purpose, on the other hand, requires
empty storage space so that the illcoming floods can be absorbed and moderated to
permissible limits. The conflict between the two purposes in terms of storage space
requirements is resolved through proper philosophy of operation of reservoirs.
A reservoir operation policy should specifL the releases from out of storage at any
time as a function of the current state of the reservoir, the magnitude of current and
near-tenn demands, and the likely inflows, and must be in conformity with the stated
objectives. Tlle development of operation policy of a multipurpose reservoir,
particularly when the conservation purposes are combined with flood control, is a
complex task because of their conflicting nature as stated earlier. A full reservoir is
needed to m~ximisereturns from conservation uses while an empty or partially empty
reservoir gives maximum benefits from flood control. The operation policy should
resolve the conflicts optimally amongst the various intended purposes.
12.4.1 Reservoir Operation Problem
Tlie complexity of the problem of reservoir operation depends upon the extent to
which the various purposes which a reservoir is supposed to serve are compatible. If
are relatively more compatible. the co-ordinqtion is easier. The
of different purposes are explained below for a clear understanding of

Inigation requirements of an area vary with season, and the variation largely depends
upon the cropping pattern in the cominand area. T l ~ eirrigation demands are
 ~-.

I'lanning of Water consumptive (water is consumed by the crops) and only a small fraction of the
I<esowcesProjects
supplied water is available to the system as return flow. These crop requirements ha
direct correlation with the rainfall in the command area. Safety against drought
.depends upon the storage available in the reservoir. and hence it is desirable to
maintain as much reserve water in the storage as is possible and consistent with the
current demands.
b) Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectric power demands usually vary seasonally and to a lesser extent daily and
hourly too. The degree of fluctuation depends uppn the type of loads being served. viz.
industrial, municipal and agricultural. Hydroelectric power demand comes under thc
non-consumptive use because the entire water used for power generation is available:
for subsequent use also.
c) Municipal and Industrial Water Supply
Generally, the water requirements for municipal and illdustrial purposes are quite
constant throughout the year. more so when compared with the requirements for
irrigation and hydroelectric power. The water requirements increase from year to year
due to growth and expansion of population and industry. The seasonal demand peak.
however, is observed in summer. The supply system for such purposes is dcsig~ledfor
a very high level of reliability.
d) Flood Control
Flood control reservoirs are designed to moderate the flood flows that enter the
reservoirs. Flood moderation is achieved by storing a part of inflows in the reservoir
and making controlled releases so that the damages in the downstrea~nareas arc
minimum. The degree of moderation or flood attenuation depends upon the empty
storage space available in the reservoir when the flood impinges it. As fnr as possible.
the releases from the storage are kept less than the safe capacity of downstream
channel.
e) Navigation
Many times storage reservoirs are designed to make a stretch of river downstream of
the reservoir navigable by maintaining sufficient flow depth in tile channel The water
requirements for navigations purposes also show a marked seasonal variat~on The
demand during ,my period also depends upon the type and volume of tmffic ln the
navigable waterways.
f ) Recreation
The benefits with regard to this aspect of reservoir are derived wllen thc reservoir is
used for swimming. boating. fishing and other water sports ruld for purl~oscsof picnic.
Usually the recreation benefits are incidental to other uses of the reservoir and rrtrcl! a
reservoir is operated for recreation purposes alone. Large and rapid fluctuations 111
water level of a reservoir are a deterrent to recreation.
12.4.2 Conflicts in Reservoir Operation
While operating a reservoir which serves more than one purpose, as pointed out. a
number of conflicts arise runong de~nandsfor various purposes. 'Ihc conflicts which
arise in multipurpose reservoir operatioil may be classified as given below :
a) Conflicts in Space
These type of conflicts occur when a reservoir (of limited storage) is required to
satis6 divergent purposes, for example, water conservation and flood control. For the
operation of a reservoir for conservation purposes. it is desirableto store as much
water as possible as soon as inflows are available. This provides a higher reliabilit! iu
ssupplies for irrigation. municipal and industrial use. hydropower gcllemtion (also due
to providing a higher head) a i d low flow augmentation. On the othcr hand. cnlpty
storage space is needed to absorb or moderate flood peak with regard to controlling ;rn
 Planning &Operatinn
in oming flood peak. A greater empty space in the reservoir would mean higher of Reservoirs
dcration of flood peaks.
If the geological and topographic features of the dam site and the funds available for
the pro-ject pennit. a d'im of sufficient height can be build and storage space can be
clcnrly allocated for each purpose. In case of reservoirs with seasonal storage, flood
control space can be kept empty to moderate the incoming floods and the conservation
pool can be operated after the filling season to meet the conservation demands.
However. this essentially amounts to saying that a multipurpose reservoir is a
conlbination of several single purpose reservoirs.
b) Conflicts in Time
The tenlporal conflicts in reservoir operation occur when the pattern of use of water
varies with the purpose: and, the conflicts arise because release for one purpose does
not agree with the other purpose. For example, imgation demands may show one
pattern of variation depending upon the crops, season and rainfall while the
hydroelectric power demands nlay have a different variation. In such situations. the
nil11 of deriving 311 operating policy is to optimally resolve these conflicts.
b) Conflict in Discharges
Tlie conflicts in daily discharge are experienced for a reservoir which serves for more
than onc purposes. In case of a reservoir serving for co~lsu~llptiveuse and
hydroelectric power generation. the releases for two purposes may vary considerably
in the span of one day. Many times a small conservation pool is created on the river
downstrean1 of the power house which is used to danlp the oscillations in the power
housc releases.
12.4.3 Techniques of Reservoir Operation
A 1.eservoir is operated according to a set of rules or guidelines for storing and
releasing water depending upon the purposes it is required to serve. The decisions
about tlle releases of water during different periods must be made according to the
qualtih. of water in storage and the pattern of current demands.
For reservoirs which are designed for multi-annual storage. the operation policy is
based on long term targets. The estimates of wakr availability are nlade using long
tenn data. Tlle demand for conservation uses like irrigation. water supply, navigation
aid hydroelectric power are worked out by projecting the demand figures. Water is
allocated anlong various consumptive uses and during in the period of drought, based
on pre-specified priorities, the supply for some uses is curtailed keeping in view the
bare ui~inimun~ demands of each purpose. The maintenance of essential services should
be given due co~lsiderationeven if it is at the cost of agriculture and industrial
production. If power generation is one of tlie purposes of the reservoir. then releases
for consunlptive uses are routed through the power house to generate t11e required
energy. The extent of water releases for variety of uses which can be served froin the
storage in the reservoir on long tenn basis aredetermined and the reservoir is operated
accordingly.
Tl~eoperat~ngpolicy of reservoirs designed and operated for seasonal storage is based
on yearly operation. Reservoir operation study is camed out with regard to long tenn
record tnking into accouilt the demand estimates for various conservation uses. Policy
dec~sio~lsare arrived at emphasising the concepts of reliability. In a couiltry likc India
where nlost of the rainfall is concentrated during the monsoon months, water demands
can generally be met during the monsoon period itself. For meeting water demands
during non-monsoon months, a fair idea of the water availability is required and the
I
reservoir operation for the year is planned on the basis of earlier decided policy. If
1 occcssary. allocation for some purposes can be curtailed. based on priority.
111multipurpose storage reservoirs located in regions where floods can be experienced
at any tirne of the year and flood control is one of the main purposes. permanent
 of Watcr
Plal~nil~g allocation of the space exclusively for flood control at the top of conservation pool
Resources Prqjects
becoilles necessary. Flood control space is always kept reserved although the space
may vary according to the magnitude of floods likely to occur. T l ~ eflood storage space
allocation at different times of the year is so detennined that incoming floods would be
absorbed or mitigated to a large degree and that even when a n~aximumprobable flood
is likely to occur. its peak will be substantially reduced and flood damage on the
downstream would not exceed permissible limits. In reservoirs in the regions where
floods are experienced only in a particular season or period of the year, seasonal
allocation of space is made f ~floodr control during different periods of flood season
depending upon the magnitude of floods likely to occur ill a given period and the space
is thereafter utilised for storing inflows for conservation uses.
Standard Linear Operating Policy
The simplest of the reservoir operation policies is the standard lincar operating poli~y
(SLOP). According to this policy, if the amount of water available in storage is less
than the targeted release. whatever quantity is available is released If availabili~is
illore than targeted figure. then a release equal to t11c targct is made as long as storage
space is available to store excess water and thereafter, all the water in excess of
n l ~ ~ i m ustorage
m capacity is released. This policy is graphically represented in
Figure 12.5.

RELEASE

T S n ~ ~ +
STORAGE + INFLOW

Figure 12.5: The Standard Linear Operating Policy (SLOP)

The SLOP is a one-time operation policy without relation to the release of water at any
other time. This type of time isolated operation is neither beneficial nor desirable. ' h e
water beyond the target output in any period has little econon~icvalue. This policy is
not used in day-do-day operation due to its rigidity and these drawbacks. But it is
extensively used in planning studies.
Rule Curves
Reservoirs are frequently operated using the rule curves. A rule curve or rule level
specifies the storage or empty space to be maintained in a reservoir during different
times of the year. Here the implicit assumption is that a reservoir can best satisfjr its
purposes if the storage levels or enlpty space specified by the n ~ l eculve are
maintained in the reservoir at different times. The nile curve as such does not give the
amount of watcr to be released from the reservoir. This m o u n t will depend upon the
inflows to the reservoir, or solnetiilles it is specified in addition to n ~ l ecurves.
The rule curves are generally derived by operat~onstudies using historic or generated
flows. Often, due to various reasons viz low inflows, minimum requirements for
demands etc., it is not possible to maintain the reservoir levels according to the rule
curves. However, it is possible to return to the rule levels in several ways. Some
possibilities are:
 Planning &Opet*atic~n
a) return to the rule curve by curtailing the release beyond the minimum required if of Reservoirs
the deviation is negative;

b) make release more than the demand but less than the safe carrying capacity, if
the deviation is positive.
The opei-ation of a reservoir by strictly followiiig rule curves becomes quite rigid.
Often. to provide flexibility in operation, different rule curves are follo\ved under
different circunistances. Rule curves implicitly reflect the establislicd trade-off an~ong
various prqject objectives in the long run. Fbr short term operations they serves only as
a guide.
Concept of Storage Zoning
i
In this scheme the entire reservoir storage is conceptually divided in to a number of
zones by drawing imaginary horizontal planes.'ll7e zoning of reservoirs and the n ~ l e s
governing the maintenance of storage levels in a specified range are based upon the
co~ivictioiithat at a specified time, an ideal storage zone exists for a reservoir which.
\vhen maintained, gives the ~naximumexpected benefits. This concept is in some way
akin to concept of iule curves. The only added advantage here is that this approach
gives more freedom to the decision maker to vary the level within the specified zone.
1-he various storage zones are defined in the section devoted to key words. A graphical
representation of these various zones is given in Figure 12.6.

i , SURCHAR,GE STORAGE _PP~~uL$~~L DURING

USEFUL STORAGE 1 \\

STREAM BED /

NATURAL STREAM SURFACE BEFORE

1 Figure 12.6: Chaphical Repmsentation of tlie Various Reservoir Zunrs

The normal operation policy is to release as much water as possible when the reservoir
is in the spill zone; and also to release as much as possible without causing flood
daniages downstream when the reservoir content is in flood control zone. Further, the
reservoir is brought back to the top of the coiiservatioii zone at the earliest possible
time. The release from the conservation zone is governed by the requirements of water
for various purposes intended to be met by the stored water a ~ the d day-to-day
releases may be adjusted based on the anticipated inflow a i d the future requirements
upto the end of the operating horizons. When the aniount of water is anticipated to be
less co~iiparedto the demand, releases may be curtailed. l l i e limits of various zones
may vary with time.
Reservoir Operation during Floods
Flood control reservoirs are designed to moderate tlie flood flows that enter the
reservoirs. This is achieved by storing a part of inflows in the reservoir and making
some releases so that the damages in the downstream areas are minimum. The degree
of ~noderat~on or flood attenuation depends upon tlie empty storage space available in
the reservoir when the flood impinges it.
The nomial mode of operation of a reservoir during floods is to make releases equal to
the inflows up to the outlet capacity. Once the inflows exceed the outlet capacity. the
reservoir level will rise above the full reservoir level (FRL) and the releases would be
uncontrolled. The expected rise of the reservoir level is upto a level known as the
nlaximum water level (MWL). The zone between the FRL and MWL is nonilally
exclusively reserved for flood control.
Planni~igof W;ltcr There may be situations when it is not desirable to allow the reservoir level to raise
Resources Projects
above the FRL. In that situation the outlet capacity to be provided is very large and
should be greater thai or equal to maximum expected inflows. An alternative to this
situation is to make'pre-releases in case of expected floods and lower the level of
reservoir before the flood impinges. The situation involves use of forecasts of inflows
and therefore, the confidence of the operator in making pre-releases depends on the
reliability of available forecasts.
There can be a third situation where at the beginning of operation of the reservoir for
flood control, the reservoir is not at FRL but is below it. In such a situation the
operator has an option of lowering the reservoir level by pre-releases and utilise the
storage space available at t l ~ ebeginning of the operation and additional storage space
made available by pre- releases. The operation could be carried out such that during
the passage of the flood the reservoir level reaches the maximum pemlitted level and
thereafter post releases can be made in such a manner that the reservoir comes back to
the level from where it started. If not constrained by other factors this approach
perhaps involves making most efficient use of the reservoir storage space. The three
types of operations are shown in Figure 12.7.

RES. LEVEL
. ----- - --- -.
r-
\

TIME -

F l y r e 12.7: The Three Types of Flood Control Regulation Policies

 12.4.4 Operation of a Multi-purpose Multi-reservoir System Planning &Operation
o f Reservoirs
In case of mu1tipurpose storage reservoirs located in the regions where floods can be
cqerienced at aiy time of the year and flood control is one of the main purposes.
pernianent allocation of die space exclusively for flood control at the top of
conservation pool beco~iiesnecessary. The flood control space is always kept reserved
altl~ouglithe space may vary according to the magnitude of floods likely to occur. The.
tlood storage space allocation at different times of die year is so determined that
inco~ni~ig floods would be absorbed or mitigated to a large degree and that even when
a maxiniwn probable flood is likely to occur. its peak will be substantially reduced and
flood darnage on the dowlistreani would not exceed perniissible limits. In reservoirs in
regions where floods are experienced only in a particular season or period of the year,
seasonal allocation of space for flood control is made depending upon the magnitude
of floods likely to occur in that period. In non-flood season. the space is utilised for
storing illflows for conservation uses.
12.4.5 Real-time Reservoir Operation
Generally. reservoir operation rules are developed taking into account the demands of
the past and using data from historical or synthetic time series of hydrological
variables. Bit the probability that an actualevent will occur in the same way as prior
events of the same type is very s~nall.A reservoir system can be efficiently operated if
the tinie interval between the occurrence of an event and the execution of the co~itrol
adapted for that event is short. In real-time operation. the release decisions are based
on short-tenii infonnation. The definition of short-tern1 varies in accordance with the
purpose of the reservoir. If the reservoir is operated for flood control, sliort-tenii may
refer to (multi) hourly operation and if it is mainly for irrigation purpose, then
short-term may be a week or a fortnight. Ilie term real-time reservoir operation is used
to denote that mode of operation in which tlie release decisions for a finite future time
horizon are take11based on the condition of the reservoir at that instant when these
decisio~lsare to be taken arid the forecast about the likely inflowslden~andsover this
tinie horizon. After a certain time interval, tlie new infonnation about the reservoir
state beconies available. the forecasts are updated aid the release decisions are
modified in the light of these pieces of infonilation.
A successfi~lapplication of the real-time operation procedure requires a good
telemetry system through which data can be observed on-line. The tunii on-line
implics that the data are collected. transmitted. fed to a model. the model's output is
obtained and used in one unintern~ptedsequence of activities. I i e need for on-line
control ariscs ~ l i c r tlie
c response of the system to the application of control is quick
ancl m y delay in taking a decision may result in significant losses. This requirement
ariscs during tllc operation of a rcservoir for flood control \\here the decisio~ishave to
be implemented. evaluated and moditied in quick succcssion.
A niodcl of tllc svsteni is dcveloped ~n \ili~chrclcnse is a dcc~sionvariable. A
forecasting nlgoritlim is i~sedto provide intlow forecast for a finite ~luliiberof future
time periods. lJsing the infonnation about the state of tlie systc~iiaid forecast of
inflou.~.the nod el is used to determine the optiliir~liianloi~ntofwater to be rclcascd
from the rcservoir. Althougll optimu~iirelcascs are determined for tinitc number of
fi~turctime periods. the; are implemented only for one im~nedintelynext time period.
After this period. tlic liest set of obsc~vatio~ls
becomes available \vhich is used to
i i~pdatetlic ioforniation about the state of the system. This cntirc process is repcated at
i thc end of cacli tunc interval

1 12.4.1 Software for Reservoir Pliulning and Operation

Since it is not possible to do csperimc~ltwith the real reservoir. nlathcmatical ~ilodels
are dcvclopad. Espcrinients can be conducted using these model to provide insight
into tlic problem. For reservoir operation. the liiodel studies bring into focus certain
aspects of operation \\lhich serve to improvc the ~i~ai~ager's abilitv to manage tlie
s\.stc~ii\\ iscly .
Pl;~rrningof \\'atel. A number of general purpose computer software are available nowadays wli~chcall bc
liclsuurrse.; P~.c~,jerts
easily used to cany out various analyses related to planning, design. and operation of
reservoirs. The data gathered through remote sensing can be easily used to prepare
up-to-date map of the river basin which is immensely helpfbl in identifying the
potential sites for the construction of a dam. Using the generalised software, it
becomes very easy for engineers to rapidly do the required computations pertaining to
the size of a darn, design of dam, and cost computations. Once the required input data
has been prepared and checked, the chances of errors are negligible. M a y of thc
available software can be run on a micro-computer which are widely available
nowadays. Moreover, once the data required for a particular software has been
prepared with respect to a problem, it is very easy to modifv the sane;and hence the
consequences various alternate designs/operation decisions can be quickly evaluated.
The software for design are capable of printing detailed drawings using plotters and
thus considerable time and effort can be saved.
It is generally throught that simulation is the best approacl~for analysing a co~iiplcs
water resources system. With this view in mind, a generalised computer modcl for thc
simulation of a nlultireservoir system, particularly useful in Indian conditions. has
been developed at the National Institute of Hydrology. Roorkee. The reservoir
operation is simulated f ~ther specified period using the rule curves. The various
conservatioil purposes which can be considered in the model are : water supply for
domestic and industrial purposes, irrigation, hydropower generation. and nlinimunl
flow in the river reach downstream of a reservoir.
The data requirement of the model is quite modest and such type of data are generally
available with the operating authorities. Such data pertain to the infonnation about the
system viz, full reservoir level, dead storage level. elevation- area-capacity table,
various demands from the reservoir, evaporation depths and the inflows. Ilie data
about the configuration of the system and the trial rule curve are sl~ecifiedby the user.
The inodel can be used for a system having many reservoirs/divisions. The operatio11
of the system can be simulated either for monthly periods or for ten-daily periods.
The system operation is siinulated by considering the requirements at pertinent
reservoirs/diversion, starting at the most upstream location a d moving in the
downstream direction. l11e required release is determined by evaluating the
operational needs and associated constraints. This process is repeated for each period
Each reservoir is operated in accordance wit11 the given trial rule surves.
At the end, the time and volrmle reliability of each reservoir for the period of operation
is calculated. In addition, it also calculates the total number of months of failure,
irrigation or power failure and water supply failure. Detailed siinulation tables are
prepared b a e d on which. the trial rule curves can be modified till optiinu~nresults are
achieved.
A module given with the programme for analysing operation results in graphical fonii
helps in visual inspection of results. The various features and test problems have been
described in detail in the users manual forthis programme.

12.5 RESERVOIR OPERATIONS AND SYSTEM

ENGINEERING -
.

System engineering is concerned with decision making for those systems on which
some controls can be applied to best obkun the given ob-jective subject to various
social, political, financial and other constraints. A number of systenl engineering
techniques are available for solving various problems associated with reservoir
operation. Among them, two techniques which are nost commonly used are
simulation and optimisation.
 ulation Planning &Operatinn
of Reservoits
imulat~onis the process of designing a conlputerised model of a system and
conducting espenments with it for understanding the behaviour of the system and for
evaluating various strategies for its operat~on.Essence of simulation is to reproduce
the behaviour of the system. It allows for controlled experimentation on the system
without causing any dish~rbanceto the real system. Si3ulation is essentially a search

1
procedure. It is one of the most widely used techniques to solve a large variety of
problcms assoc~atedwith the design and operation of a water resources systems.
bccause approach can be realistically and conveniently used to examine and evaluate
the performance of a set of alternative options available. However, simulation analysis
does not yield an immediate optimal answer and requires a number of itcratiolis to
arrive at the optimum sol~ltion.
1 Assume that a site has been identified for the construction of a darn. The reservoir has
to cater to the demands for irrigation for a nearby area and the target demand of water
for d~fferentnlonths is given. The elevation-area-capacity table for the site and a
suffic~cntlylong series of stream flows at the site are available. Further, it is requ~red
Ij that the reliability oftlie reservoir should be at least 75%. An efficient procedure of
binary search can be used to determine the required storage capacity. In this method,
I; first the upper and lower bounds on the capacity of the reservoir are determined. The
lower bound can be taken to be zero or the dead storage and the upper bound can be
dctermlned from physical factors such as water availability etc. A trial value for the
I
reservoir capacity is selected which is the mean of upper bound and lower bound.
Now. starting with a suitable value of initial storage content, the reservoir is operated
, i~singthe strecamflow data. The effect of this initial storage value will not be very
;
significant if the inflow series f o r a sufficiently long period, say 30-40 years is being
used. During any time period, the release is made equal to the demand if that much
1 water is available in the storage. Otherwise, whatever can be made available is
i
/ released and the reservoir is said to have failed in that period. The evaporation losses
can be easily considered if the information about the depth of evaporation is available.
In this way. the reservoir is operated for the entire period of record. Now the reliability
of the reservoir is computed. If this reliability is less than the desired value, it means
that the capacity of the reservoir must be increased. In this case the present capacity is
adopted as the lower bound for the next iteration. The feasible region below this lower
bound is discarded a i d the trial value for the next iteration is chosen midway between
the upper bound and new lower bound. If, however, the reliability comes out to be
, higher than the required limit, the size of the reservoir is bigger than what it should
have been, and hence the region between the current value and the upper bound is
discarded for further examination. The present capacity value becomes the new upper
bound. Again the trial value for the next iteration is chosen as mean of new upper
bound and old lower bound.
I
The computations are repeatedly perfonned in this manner and they are terminated
when the required convergence is achieved. This method converges quite rapidly as
the feaslble region is halved every time. It may be seen that in this method, generatloll
of hydroelectric power can also be easily considered.
Optimisation Techniques
Optinlisation is the science of choosing the best amongst a number of possible
alternatives. For many engineering problems, more than one solution is available. For
example, a number of alternative designs may be available to serve the required need,
several different management decisions may be available to increase the production of
a. plant. and a number of release decisions may be available to cater to irrigation and
hydroelectric power demands. Naturally, the result attained in each case will be
different. and hence it is required to evaluate each alternative arid then choose the best
from the point of view of our interest, say econon~ical,physical or convenience etc.
Planning of Water The optimum-seeking methods are also known as Mathematical Progranln~lng
Resources Projects
Techn~ques.Depend~ngupon the nature of the objective function and constrints. the
available optimisation techniques can be classified in several ways, viz., linear or
non-llnear optimisation. deterministic or stochastic optimisation, constrained or
unconstrained optimisation etc. This topic has already been covered elsewhere in this
course.
3
Alllong the various avalable optirnisation techniques, Linear Progranlming (LP) and
Dynamic Programming (DP) are the two techniques which have been used
extensively. Here. only a LP based formulation is being discussed. The problem
formulation 1s essentially same m case of DP.
Let us assume that a reservoir is to be constructed at a particular site. Monthly inflow
data for past n months are available. The projected dellland of water during a critical
year is known along with its distributions for each month. Tile losses from the
reservoir are neglected for the time being. The problelil is to find out the lnll~in~um
capacity of reservoir which will supply the required quantity of water without failure.
Let X be the annual water demand from the reservoir and a,, (i = 1.2, . . .. 12) be its
fractions for different montl~s.Hence the demand in a particular month will be ai X.
Let libe the inflow to the reservoir during the ith month and Ribe the water actually
released from the reservoir.
Representing by $5, the storage content of the reservoir at the beginnmg of any month
I , the continuity equat~onis written as :
74

This equation has to be satisfied for each of the n months and hence we shall have n
such equations which will be constraints in the fonnulation scheme of the problem.
The value of S, is given as input. It is also requlred that the m o u n t of water actually
released from the reservoir must be more than or equal to the anlount demanded This
can be mathematically expressed as .

Since this condition also must hold for each month, there will be n such constraints. If
the capacity of the required reservoir is (' then in any month, from pllysical point of
view, the storage content of the reservoir must be equal to or less than this value.
Hence.

Moreover, the storage Si, capacity I', and release R, can take only positive values. this ?
completes the problem formulation. The problem is quite easy to solve particularly due
to the availability of standard package programs.
Storage-yield Analysis Using Optimisation and Simulation
Here in a methodology is described which combines simulatio~land optimisation for
the analysis of storage yield of a reservoir. It is assunled that the data like
elevation-area- capacity table, inflow, normal evaporation depth are available. The
monthly distribution of yield is also known. If the'required storage is to be calculated
then the yield is known, otherwise the storage capacity is known. Any optimisation
technique for the computation of reservoir capacity or annual yield can be used.
In the beginning, the ufiper bound of the reservoir capacity or annual yield 1s expressed
by the following equation :

where,
YV = upper bound of variable Y,
 Planning &Operation
1; = reservoir inflow during time period i. and of Reservoirs
M =total number of months.
Tlic lo\vcr bound of stor'age is taken as the dead s t o r x e .S,,,,,, of the reservoir, whereas
tor annual yield lower bound is taken as zero. with the desired accuracy. specified
lo\ver bound and calculated upper bound. one dimensional search is carried out to
reach the optimum value of the variable.
111the Fibonacci search technique, an objective function is required which is computed
as described here. The reliability achieved is computed. after the complete reservoir
operation computation are completed. based on mass balance equation, and is given by:

subjected to

here. Ei ruld Diare the evaporation loss and demand during the ith time interval.
711e evaporation loss E; is a function of both ,I;. and S'i,.l. Hence, an iterative method is
applied using elevation-area- capacity table till absolute difference between two
successive relative evaporation losses (E;/.Si) are less than DIFMAX, which is user
supplied. At each time interval. attempt is made to satisfy the demand to the extent
possible. If thc available water in reservoir is less than &YIni,, no release is made and the
storage is depleted by evaporation only and the reservoir is assumed to have failed
d.~uingthat particular month. If during m y period. ,Yi + Ii I('. the extra water over the
storage capacity after meeting the demand is splilled. If there is not enough water in
the rcsenloir to meet the demand during any period. the demand is met to the extent
possible and the month is treated as a failure month. The reliability achieved (REL) is
computed by :
REL = 1.0 - F A I L N
where. FAIL = number of failures (number of periods when Ri < Di). Tile objective
function (OF) used in Fibonacci search is written as :
OF = / REL - RELd I ...( 12.20)
\\here. RELd is the desired reliability.

12.6 ENVIRONMENTAL CONSIDERATIONS

Water resource plan~lingcalls for a serious consideration of possible impacts of a
glvell water resources project on the environment, both beneficla1 and adverse. The
csact nature and sequence of these impacts are not fully understood. but water
resource planilers try to assess, quantify and present then1 to the decision-maker. who
chooses an appropriate plan from amongst the various competing altenlatives.
It ma? be pomted out that the env~ro~lme~ltal Issues were not viewed w ~ t hsenousness
unt~lrcccntl! The perspect~vehas now changed cons~derable.because of the studies
carried otft all over the dorld whlch have de~nonstratedbeyond poss~bledoubt. the
1 s~gn~ficance of cllv~ro~~~nental
impacts Thus. ~thas become ~mperat~ve for 'my
I
development plan. and espec~allywater resources developnlent prolects, to be
evaluated from the erb~rr%~mental angle
Generally. environnlental studies try to assess a few selected environmental impacts
through appropriate paraneters, ternled enviro~l~nental impact units (EIU). Differences
in thc EIU scores describe the coildition of e~lvironme~ltal factors with and without the
developnlent of a project. There is a significant difference in the views of developed
a ~ l ddevclopi~lgcountries, and there is basically no consensus on an approach to
envil.onn~entalproblems. Thus at present there is no possibility of any automatic
tm~spositionof methodologies froin one place to another.
Planning o f Water The more important environmental impacts can be broadly categorised as :
Resources Projects
1) Totally unacceptable impacts such as the s~~bmergence of important
structures, e.g. a large city, an important historical monument, a natic
park, a forest inhabited by rare species etc.
Conditionally acceptable impacts, such as dislocation of population.
submergence of forest Iand. submergence of mineral deposits etc.
Acceptable or natural impacts that are neither desired nor adverse, such
as impoundment of unproductive wasteland etc.
Environmental impacts can fi~rtherbe classified as quantifiable or non-quru~tifiable.
Those impacts that can be measured and expressed as mathematical functions of
decision variables are termed quantifiable impacts. For example, the submergence of
forest Iand can be measured by the area of forest submerged, which in turn can be
expressed a a function of the storage capacity of the reservoir, a decision variable. An
increase in the incidence of water borne diseases because of the construction of a
reservoir is an example of a non-quantifiable impact.
It is required that the adverse environmental impacts from the development are
minllnised while the desired level of development is achieved. This c a l only be
accomplished through multi-objective analysis. A problem is said to be multi-objective
when there is more than one objective and when each objective conflicts with othcrs,
i.e. when all objectives cannot simultaneously be maxi~nisedor minimised. 'Ihc
minimisation of several conflicting objectives simulta~eouslyis a problenl that cannot
be solved through conventional optimisation techniques. and it is necessary to use
some of the optimisation techniques available for multi-objective nndysis.

12.7 DETAILS OF SOME INDIAN RESERVOIRS

In this section, the general details of a few Indian duns are given.
Gobind Sagar Reservoir (Bhakra Dam)
This project is under the jurisdiction of Bhakra Beas Management Board (BBMB).
The reservoir is situated near village Bhakra on the river Sutlej in Himachal Pradesh
The purpose of the reservoir is to cater to imgation, hydroelectric generation and flood
control aspects. Its catchment area is 56980 km2 . The concrete gravity dm1 which was
completed in 1963 has 16 gated outlets (in two tier of 8 each). It has a centrally locatcd
overflow spillway with four radial gates. Each gate is independently operated by motor
operated hoisting system. There is a Nangal barrage downstream of this reservoir fro111
which the canal Bhakra Main Line takes off. 'Ihe installed generating capacity of the
project is 1354 Mw.
In norn~aldays the reservoir level and inflows are being observed thrice a day and
outflow is observed on hourly basis. During the rainy season the reservoir level and
outflows are observed on hourly basis. There are two rain gauge stations located at thc
dam site, one rain gauge IS ordinary and the other is self recording type. A pan
evaporimeter is available at the dam site. Important stations in the river catchment arc
connected by wireless to the control station at Nangal. River discharge and other
rainfall data from these stations is communicated by wireless. Less important stations
convey their data through postal letters, telegrams, canal telegraph and telephones. Tllc
Bhakra system has given a tremendous boost to irrigation and hydropower
development and consequently, industrialisation of this region.
Pong Reservoir
The reservoir is situated on Aver Beas in Kangra district at Pong in Himacl~alPradcsll
Construction of this dam was completed in 1974. The purpose of the reservoir 1s to
meet the demands of irrigation, hydroelectric generation and help in flood control.
Catchment area of the dam is 12560 km2. The dam is an earth core-cum-gravel shcll
dam. The lengths at the top of the dam is 1848 m and 102 m on non-ovcr tlow 'and
 Planning &Operotiotl
spillway sections, respectively. The spillway is chute shaped. It has six radial type o f Rcservoils
gates of 14.48 m x 12.34 m size. The gates are operated by motor operated mechanical
hoistil~gsystem. The gross.storage capacity and effective storage capacity of the dam
&re 8570 million cubic meters and 7290 million cubic metres, respectively. The
installed capacity of the hydroelectric power plant is 360 Mw.
Krishnarajasagar Reservoir
The reservoir is situated on river Cauvery at Krishnrajasagar in Karnataka state.
Constn~ctionof the dam was completed in 1932. The puposes of the reservoir are
imgation and hydropower. The catchment area of the dam is 10619 km2. It is a
masonry dam. The length at the top of the danl is 262 1 m. The spillway has 152 lift
types gates. The reservoir area at FRL is 129 krn2. The gross storage capacity and
effective storage capacity of the dam is 1369 MCM and 1244 MCM, respectively. The
fanlous Vrindavan Gardens adjacent to the dam receive the water from this dam.
Hidkal Reservoir
This reservoir is situated on river Ghatprabha at Hidkal village in Belgaum district of
Karnataka state. The construction of the dam was completed in 1979. The purposes of
the reservoir are imgation and hydroelectric generation. The catchment area of the
dam is 14 12 km2 annual runoff of 3285 million cubic metres. The dam is a composite
type of danl. The length at the top of the dam on non-overflow is 10035m, and on the
spillway is 149m. The spillway ha's WES profile with chute blocks and dentated end
sills and a sloping apron. It has ten radial gates operated with hoisting arrangement by
electric motor. There are 6 imgation sluices. The reservoir area at FRL is 71 knl 2 . The
gross storage capacity and effective storage capacities of the dam are 1449.million
cubic metres and 1387 million cubic metres, respectively. The installed capacity of the
hydroelectric power plant is 28 Mw.
There is a pickup weir called Dhupdal weir at about 16 km downstream of this
reservoir. The spillway of this weir is of overflow type. There are 10 rectangular sluice
gates on the weir with maximum discharge capacity of 4500 cusecs.
Tungbhadra Reservoir
The reservoir is situated on river Tungbhadra near Hospet town in Karnataka state.
The construction of the dam was completed in 1953. The purposes of the project are
im ation and hydroelectric generation. The catchment area at the dam site is 28 180
9
krn . The dam is a masonry type dam. The length at the top of the dam on
non-ovefflow is 1049m, and on spillway is 701m. The spillway is ogee type with a
curved bucket and depressed floor in the rear with a concrete apron. It has 33 crest
gates which are of lift type. The gates are operated with a hoisting arran ement with
B
the help of chain and gear system. The reservoir area at FRL is 378 km . The gross
storage capacity of the dam is 3764 million cubic metres. The capacity of the
hydroelectric power plant is 117 Mw.

*!
12.8 SUMMARY
In this unit you have been explined the need for reservoirs and their classifications
based upon their purpose, size and storage periods. Planning of reservoirs,
encompassing site selection, investigations, etc., has been given due consideration.
The importance of hydrological, geological, reconnaissance and feasibility
investigations are also highlighted so as to equip you with necessary tools for planning
a reservoir. The storage capacity computations by mass curve method which is
coinmonly used, has been explained. This unit also defines different terminology used
in the planning and operations of reservoirs. Reservoir routing technique using
Modified Puls method has been explained. Importance of a design flood and reservoir
routing, sedimentation, etc. are brought out. Various aspects of the operation of
reservoirs, and various techniques of operation are discussed in some detail. Lastly,
environmental considerations in reservoir planning are touched upon.
Planning o f Water
Resources Prqjrcts 12.9 KEYWORDS . .

Dead Storage Zone : This is the bottom most zone in a reservoir aid tlie
corresponding storage is also termed as inactive storLage.
Generally it is provided to cater for the sediment entcring
into the reservoir, to provide minimum head for
hydropower plants or to provide minimum pool for
recreational facilities. Usually. all tile outlets are located
above this zone. The withdrawals from this zone. if any at
-- all, are made only in extreme dry conditions. The entire
reservoir storage which lies above the inactive storage is
called live or active storage.
Buffer Zone : This is the storage space on the top of dead storagc zonc
and the reservoir level is brought down to this zonc undcr
extreme drought situations. When the reservoir is in tliis
zone, the release from the reservoirs caters only to the
essential needs.
Conservation Zone : Water is stored in this zone to cater to various
conservation requirements like irrigation. water supply
a ~ hydropower
d generation ctc. This zone nornially
accounts for most of tlie storage space availablc in a
conservation reservoir.
Flood Control Zone or : This zone is located on the top of conservation zone. The
Surcharge Zone storage space of this zone is exclusively eanilarked for
absorbing or moderating floods inlpi~igingthe reservoir.
Depending upon the flood volume and downstream
release constraints, water is stored in this zonc to
attenuate the incoming flood peak. Afier tlie flood peak
has passed. tliis zone is enlptied as soon as possible to
prepare for subsequent flood events.
Spill Zone : Illis storage space above the flood control zonc
corresponds to the flood rise during extreme floods a ~ d
spilling. Thls space is occupied n~ostlyduring high flows
and the releases are at or near n~aximlun.
Full Reservoir Level : This is the highest level of the reservoir at wllicl~watcr is
(FRL) intended to be held for various conservation uses.
including part or total of the flood storcagewithout
allowing any passage of water through the spillway.
Maximum Water Level : It is the highest level to wliich thc reskrvoir water will rise
(MWL) while passing the design flood with the spillway facilities
ill full operation. l11i.s level refers to the top of spill zonc.

Release Release or drafi is the amount of controlled outflo\c fro111

a reservoir during a given tqne interval to satisfy tlic :
~ariousdemands.. .
- . .
Yield For the reservoirs serving conservation purposes. the
aniount of water released for these purpose is called the
reservoir yield. For the reservoirs where the stored water
is used to generate hydroelectric power, yield IS defined
as the amount of power delivered during a time interval.
Firm Yield Firm water yield from a reservoir is defined as the
muimum quantity of water that can be guaranteed to be
delivered with 100% reliability. The firm powcr yield of a
rcservoir can also be described In a similar manncr.
 R Planning &Operation
ability : Reliability of a system (reservoir) is described by the of Reservoirs
P-
probability that the systen~is in the satisfactory state. A
reservoir is in satisfactory state if it meets all the
demands.

i) Irrigation, Flood Control, Hydropower Generation, Municipal and

Industrial Water Supply, Navigation and Recreation.
I ii) Multi.
i
iii) Medium.
iv) Evaporation loss = 15 x 1000 x 1000 x 1011000
= 150000 m3.
SAQ 2
i) a) Suitable, b) Less.
ii) The completed table is given below:

iii) The Standard Project Flood.

'
I
SAQ 3
A graph of Q vs elevation and [S + (Q Atl2)] vs elevation is prepared
Figure 12.8(a). At the start of routing, elevation = 100.50 m, Q = 10.0 m3/s, and
IS + (Q Atl) ] = 3.362 IUm3. Starting from this value of [S + (I)At/2)], the value
of [S+ (Q At/2)] at the end of first' time step of 6 hours is obtained using the
following equation:

From Figure 12.8(a), the water-surfke elevation corresponding to

[S + (Q At/2)] = 3.686 h4rn3 is 100.62 m an' rhc: ~nrrespondingoutflow
discharge Q is 13 m3/s. For the next step, Initial value of [S + (Q Atl2)] is
equated with [S + (I)At/2)] i.e., = (3.686 - 13 x 0.02 16), = 3.405 ~ r nThe ~ .
process is repeated for the entire duration of the inflow hydrograph and
sumnarised in the table given at the end. The graphs of I)vs elevation and
[J' + (Q At/2)] vs elevation is given in Figure 12.8(a) The graphs of Discharge
vs Tiine and Reservoir elevatioil vs Time are given as Figure 12.8(b)and
Figure 12.8(c), respectively.
 RESERVOIR ELEVATION ( m ) D l SCHARGE ( m3/s) ELEVATION ( m )

" t , 1 , I I
 Planning &Operation
T ble 12.5 : Flood Routing Through a Reservoir - Modified Puls Method (SAQ 3) of Reservoirs
At =6h = 0.02 16 MS I = (Il + 12)/2

- 100.50 10

48 27.5 31.75 0.686 3.902 4.588 101.30 37

Planning of Water
Resources Projects FURTHER READING
Biswas, A. K. (edited) LSystemsApproach to water Management, Tata McGraw Hill
Publishing Company.
Chatumedi, M.C., Water resources Systems Planning and Management Tata McGraw
Hill Publishing Company. N.Delhi, 1987.
Chatumedi,M.C.and Rogers, P.(edited), Water resources Sy.stems Planning-Some
CIase Studies for India, I n d h Academy of Sciences, Bangalore, 1885.
Domnbos, J., and W.O. Pruitt. Ciuidelinesjor Predicting Crop Water Requirements.
1-1
Irrigation and Drainage Paper 24, Food and Agricultural Organization. Rome. 1977.
Hall, W.A. and tjracup, John A., Water resources .Systems Planning Engineering,
Tata McGraw Hill Publishing Company. New Delhi. 1979.
Helweg. O.J.,Water resources Systems Planning andManagement John wILEY &
Sons,1985,
b u c k s , D.P., Stedinger, J.R. and Haith, D.A.,Water resources ,Systems Planning and
Analysis, Prentice Hall 1981.
Irrigation Management Network Papers. Overseas Development Institute, ODIJIIMI,
88/16. June 1988.
Irrigation Management Bulletin, IRMIC, Central Water Commission, Publicatioi~
No. 1, New Delhi, April, 1988.
Jain, S.K., and R.D. Gupta, Reservo~rRouhng with (;raph~cs,Report No. U M 29,
National Institute of Hydrology. Roorkqe, 1989.
Jain,S.K., Storage Yield Analysis, Report No. UM-16, National Institute of Hydrology.
Roorkee, 1987.
Report ofthe Expert ('ommittee on Integrated Development of,5'urface and Ground
Waters, Govt. of India Ministry of Agriculture and Irrigation, Deptt. of Imgation,
New Delhi, 1976.
Report oflrrigation C'ommlssion, Ministry of Imgation and Power, Govt. of lndia
New Delhi, 1972.
Roger, P. and Smith, D.V., An Alg~rithm~for Planning Irrigation Projects, ICID,
1970.
Rao,S.S., Optimization Theory andPractice, Wiley Eastern. 1979.
Singh, V.P., Hydrologic ,Systems: Rainfall-RunofModeling~vol. I. Prentice Hall. 1988.
Subramanya, K., Engmeering Hydrology, Tata McGraw Hill, 1987
Saxena, A. P., Training In (;overnment in the Seventh Plan -A Perspective, Deptt. o f
Personnel and Administrative Reforms, Government of lndia. June, 1984.
Thanh, N.C. and Biswas A.K., (edited), Environmental Sound Water Mana,gement
Oxford University Press, Delhi, 1980.
WAMANA' -A Quarterly Magazine on Irrigation Management (India), 1988.