–

– 2

SPANS
OF GL ASS
17

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1
SPANS OF GL ASS

1 – 3 Evolution
1 Garden architecture, Wales
2 Foliage ornamentation in fan vault,
cloister Gloucester, circa 1360 – 1370
3 Project “Ganzglastonne“, 2000

4 The foliage canopy

4
2.1

_ The development of iron skeleton construction provided the technical

_ and economic basis for the construction of the first glazed load-bear-
_ ing roof structures in the 19th century. [2.1/1]
_ 2.1 However the dematerialisation the ceiling was also influenced by
FROM LEAF Y ARBOUR TO CLIMATE SKIN – THE SEARCH cultural and religious precepts, which can be summarised as a “yearn-
FOR PARADISE ing for paradise”; although they were almost of equal significance in
the evolution of glass roofs, they have received little recognition thus
“There is a wonderful attraction in being able to open the window and far. In secularised form, these precepts are an expression of humani-
feel instead of the raw December or January air a mild balmy breath of ty’s dream of living in a kind of Garden of Eden in harmony with the
spring. Out of doors it may be raining or snow flakes may be quietly natural environment and sheltered from all hostile influences. Long
falling from the sky, but one can indeed open the glass doors and find before the constructional means of at least creating a visual opening in
oneself in an earthly paradise that mocks the winter scene.” Descrip- the roof towards nature became available in the 19th century, the de-
tion of the winter garden of Princess Mathilde de Bonaparte, Paris sired dissolution of the roof structure was suggested by symbolic and
1869 aesthetic means in sacred buildings. Although not directly related to
18

glass construction as such, these early endeavours to create an “open-

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5

5 The “first house” according to Viollet-le-Duc

6 Cast iron arbour in Noyers, Burgundy, 19th century

7 “Artificial” foliage canopy: Estação Oriente, Lisbon, 1998,

Arch.: Santiago Calatrava
7

2.1

ing towards the heavens” are still visible. Today, the development of us, Laugier and Viollet-le-Duc describe the first human habitation as a
glass roofs is largely driven by creating microclimates in the interior at rustic shelter with a roof structure composed of branches and foliage
a comfort level that is perceived as being natural and ideal. that have been tied together _ Fig. 5. These historic architectural the-
ories are at least partly accurate. In Mesopotamia, the fertile land of
E ARLY PERIOD AND CHRISTIAN SACRED ARCHITECTURE two rivers between the Euphrates and the Tigris – widely regarded as
_ THE ARBOUR the cradle of our civilisation and the locus of the Garden of Eden thanks
The motif of a paradisiacal experience of nature is expressed in the to its favourable climate conditions – the original structures were in-
built outdoor space of the arbour – a frame covered in climbing vines. deed composed of “bent branches, tied together and rammed into the
The leafy roof of the arbour provides protection inside from rain, wind ground”, filled in with leaves or reeds. [2.1/3]
and sun, while at the same time being permeable to light; in other To this day, seeking shelter beneath the shade-giving leafy crown
words, acting as a prototype for the all-encompassing glazed interior of a deciduous tree swaying gently in a breeze on a sunny day creates
that fulfils a primordial need in humans. a more powerful sense of well-being than most interiors with abundant
Hans Teubner writes that “the arbour was nearly always linked to natural light and comfortable air-conditioning are ever able to pro-
images of paradise […]”, for example, in the Jewish “Feast of Taber- vide.
nacles” or “Succoth” which commemorates the exodus from Egypt.
19

[2.1/2] The arbour is associated with the origin of architecture: Vitruvi-

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8 9

8 View into the perforated tower spire of Freiburg

cathedral, circa 1280

9 The groined vault at Amiens cathedral seen from

below; the individual vault bays have the appearance
of baldachins, circa 1236

10 Plastically enhanced church vault in the Mosteiro

dos Jerónimos in Belim, 1502 – 1571
10
2.1

_ THE BALDACHIN _ THE DOMICAL VAULT

The Latin tabernaculum can be translated as arbour or as altar bald- Christian ecclesiastic architecture adopted the typology of the domed
achin. In actual fact a frame that is covered with a thin silk or brocade, space as an image of the vault of the heavens from models dating back
the baldachin was originally conceived as a ceremonial celestial sym- to antiquity. The symbolic connection between heaven and vault is
bol for earthly rulers. Later on it was used as a “portable heaven” for enhanced by the lighting in the interior: indirect light from the apex of
Christian processions, before being incorporated into altar designs as the dome bathes the church interior in a “heavenly glow”.
a symbol of God’s protection. The depiction of the baldachin as a The illumination of the domed space through the oculus – a circu-
heavenly tent is one of the earliest explicit simulations of heaven in the lar opening in the apex of the dome – is of prime importance for the
history of architecture. [2.1/4] spatial effect. The central skylight is “the sole source of light, isolating
The Gothic cross rib vault is an interpretation of the depiction of the the space from its natural environment and preventing other perspec-
baldachin. With the sequencing of vault bays in the naves of basilicas, tives and distractions”. [2.1/5] In the Pantheon in Rome, this opening
the high clerestoried zone is experienced as a continuous lateral source measures 9 metres in diameter and hence roughly one fifth of the di-
of light. This lighting strategy intensifies the directional movement of ameter of the entire cupola. In Christian centralised churches, light
the space and its function as a processional path. The image of the flows into the interior through a circle of windows in the drum, as in the
Garden of Eden as a common origin of both baldachin and arbour is Hagia Sophia (532 – 537), through windows in the tambour or through
20

expressed in the floral decoration on Late Gothic vaulting. a lantern light in the apex of the dome, as in Florence cathedral

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SPANS OF GL ASS
12

11 Domed vault with ceiling frescoes in

Florence cathedral, 1434 – 1461

12 Ceiling fresco by Correggio in Parma

cathedral, 1526 – 1530

13 The Pantheon in Rome, AD 118 – 128

13

2.1

(1434 – 1461). [2.1/6] With the advent of the domed centralised build- the heavens above and a realistic illustration of the physical sky behind
ing, the central skylight became first the characteristic of sacred pub- (or above) the construction and, by this means, a deliberate expansion
lic buildings and later of profane public structures. of the interior space. [2.1/8] In other words, painted ceilings that creat-
The celestial symbolism was often emphasised by painting the ed the illusion of a dissolved or immaterial structure constituted the
vault cells, for example with stars on a sky-blue background, as in the final stage in the evolution towards the fully-dissolved glazed roofs of
early Christian baptistery San Giovanni in Fonte in Naples (approx. the 19th century.
AD 400). During the Late Gothic, the vaulted surfaces were decorated
with painted foliage. At the same time, the structural system was plas- THE MODERN ER A

tically enhanced, so that ribs and transverse arches were rendered as _ THE GREENHOUSE

branches and vines: the ceiling now took on the appearance of an ar- With the advances in technology brought about by the industrial revo-
bour – a direct illustration of the Garden of Eden. [2.1/7] Painting the lution, the dream of a dematerialised roof constructed of iron and glass
vaulted ceilings served to enhance the dematerialisation of the ceiling could finally be realised. English greenhouses featured the first glazed
construction, becoming an integral element of the architecture. In the roofs in the history of architecture. Greenhouses became an oasis, a
Baroque and Mannerist periods, the symbolic meaning of ceiling fres- place promising to be the “embodiment of the dream of a happy unity
coes began to give way increasingly to a depiction of the real world. of nature and man”. [2.1/9] The abundance of tropical plants, exotic
21

Thus the blue sky painted in the background was both a reference to scents and sounds created a dream world that gave city dwellers an

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14 15

14 Large greenhouse in the Botanical Gardens at

Dahlem, 1905 – 1907, Arch.: Alfred Koerner

15 Interior of the People’s Palace, Muswell Hill,

London, 1859 (project)

16 “Coloured glass destroys hatred“. Glass pavilion by

Bruno Taut, Werkbund exhibition in Cologne, 1914
16
2.1

escape from life in the metropolis. The climate control systems, neces- utopian social visions associated with the use of glass as a building
sary for the survival of the plants, were carefully hidden from the eye material. Taut designed crystalline urban domes such as the “Haus
of the visitor in order to preserve the illusion of a Garden of Eden in the des Himmels”: “The ceiling is constructed of prisms composed of col-
rough climate of northern Europe. [2.1/10] ourful glass joined by electrolytic fusion; the walls are constructed of
Public winter gardens and botanical buildings incorporating con- cast prisms.” [2.1/12]
cert halls, restaurants and libraries elevated the individual pursuit of Scheerbart writes: “The face of the earth would be much altered if
leisure into a bourgeois movement of recreating nature. A contempo- brick architecture were ousted everywhere by glass architecture. It
rary report describes the winter garden in Regent’s Park as follows: “A would be as if the earth were adorned with diamond and enamel jewel-
veritable fairy tale land has been planted into the heart of London, a lery. Here on earth, we would have [environments] more precious than
most agreeable garden that transforms all our wishes into reality.” the gardens in the Arabian Nights. We should then have a paradise on
[2.1/11] earth.” [2.1/13]

_ THE “GLASS CRYSTAL” _ THE CLIMATE SKIN

At the beginning of the 20th century the Expressionist artists’ group During the 19th century there was a universal need for living inde-
The Glass Chain, the most prominent members of which were Bruno pendently of weather conditions coupled with protection from the dirt
22

Taut (1880 – 1938) and Paul Scheerbart (1863 – 1915), embraced and polluted atmosphere in large cities, which was architecturally ex-

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SPANS OF GL ASS
18 19

17 Project for a geodesic dome over Manhattan,

circa 1960, Arch.: Buckminster Fuller

18 Project for a pneumatically supported climate

skin in the arctic, 1970, Arch.: Frei Otto in
collaboration with Kenzo Tange and Ove Arup

19 USA pavilion by Buckminster Fuller at Expo ’67

in Montreal

20 The large biospheres of the “Eden Project”

in Cornwall, 2001, Arch.: Nicolas Grimshaw,
Eng.: Arup and Anthony Hunt Associates
20

2.1

pressed in the idea of covering urban space in glass on a large scale. With a diameter of roughly 75 metres, Fuller’s dome for EXPO ’67 in
The desire for hygiene and cleanliness was combined with physical Montreal represents a realisation of this vision on a smaller scale. Full-
and metaphysical aspects. As early as 1808 Charles Marie Fourier er writes: “From the inside there will be uninterrupted visual contact
(1772 – 1837) sought to counter the “ravages of civilisation” with his with the exterior world. The sun and moon will shine in the landscape,
idea of the phalanstères, describing the ideal of a city completely cov- and the sky will be completely visible, but the unpleasant effects of
ered in a glass dome that was also intended to serve as a catalyst for climate, heat, dust, bugs, glare etc. will be modulated by the skin to
a new societal order. [2.1/14] provide a Garden of Eden interior.” [2.1/17]
In 1822 J. C. Loudon developed the visionary idea of placing entire Today tremendous progress in building systems and glass refining
cities in “northern regions” under glass roofs for the purpose of im- processes have made it possible to regulate the flow of energy be-
proving living conditions. “The most economic method of creating an tween interior and exterior in just such a manner. Glass building skins
agreeable climate will be to cover entire cities with monumental glass that are dynamic and self-adaptive – characterised by a harmonised
roofs.” [2.1/15] energy balance sheet that is independent of non-regenerative energy
Nearly 150 years later this vision was resurrected in Buckminster resources thanks to utilising solar energy and the ability to adapt to the
Fuller’s (1895 –1983) concept for a geodesic dome over Manhattan needs of occupants and the changing climate conditions of the envi-
with a diameter of three kilometres and in Frei Otto’s project for a cli- ronment – are associated with a yearning for a future where human-
23

mate skin in the arctic with a diameter of two kilometres. [2.1/16] kind will once again be able to live in harmony with nature.

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21

22

21 The foliage canopy made of glass: Art Academy on

Berliner Platz, Berlin, 2002, Arch.: Behnisch Architekten

22 “Tropical Island“ in Berlin Brand, 2004

23 Staged nature, photo montage by Taiteilija Ilkka Halso,

Orimattila
23
2.1

Thus many contemporary projects display the yearning for paradise

that has been associated with the glasshouse since the 19th century
as a synthesis between humans and nature. Lounging beneath the
colourful glazed roof of the thermal baths at Bad Colberg or taking a
break in the atrium of Berlin’s Academy of Art is designed to induce in
the visitor a feeling of “dwelling beneath a canopy of leaves”. [2.1/18,
2.1/19 ]

Modern examples of leisure paradise environments such as the

“Tropical Island” near Berlin, which accommodates a tropical rainfor-
est with lagoons, auditoria and bars, aim to present visitors with quasi-
pristine nature in an over-the-top fun and entertainment package – a
combination that is “purchased” at the cost of an excessive invest-
ment into building services and energy supply for air conditioning and
control technology.
24

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Roof shape Ground plan Orientation/Functional form Load-bearing system/Mechanical form

THE GL AS S RO OF
Flat Glass courtyard One-dimensional Two-dimensional

horizontal beam slab

SPANS OF GL ASS
inclined rafter grillage

Folded/Curved Glass band Two-dimensional Three-dimensional

prismatic
gabled roof frame folded
structure

convex curvature arch barrel

concave curvature cable cable roof/

suspended roof

Double folded/Curved Glass core Three-dimensional

pyramidal
pyramid/tent folded structure

dome shell

anticlastic
curvature membrane

1
1 Classification of roof types according to
shape and orientation into glass courtyard,
glass band and glass core

2.2

_ elements, while at the same time supplying them with natural daylight.
_ The evolution of the glass roof is thus closely linked to that of low-rise
_ construction. The interaction between functional and mechanical as-
_ pects in defining a form is particularly evident in these large-span roof
_ 2.2 structures.
THE GL ASS ROOF: FORM, FUNCTION AND After plan and cross-section, the functional form of the skin is usu-
CONSTRUCTION ally developed on the basis of the intended use and the functional re-
quirements of the building task. Structural systems can only fulfil their
_ THE FUNCTIONAL AND MECHANICAL FORM function by transferring all dead and imposed loads acting on them to
The 19th century witnessed the advent of dematerialised structural the subsoil. All load-bearing elements necessary for this load transfer
systems composed of linear compression-resistant and tensile materi- to occur must be combined into a complete structure capable of car-
als such as wood or steel. For the first time, these structures were rying loads – the mechanical form. The properties and the availability
partially or entirely clad in glass. In central and northern Europe, the of building materials are important aspects in the constructional and
separation of structure and skin that emerged during the industrial technical design of roof structures. [2.2/1]
revolution was born out of the necessity to protect large spaces in In this work, glass roofs are differentiated according to functional
25

railway terminals, factory and assembly halls or arcades against the and mechanical form based on the typology of skylight designs estab-

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 Type Cross-section Ground plan Evolution
THE GL AS S RO OF

Roof shape Orientation Preliminary stages 1800 1850 1900 1950

Glass courtyard Atrium house Access courtyard

The light well
Courtyard house Skylight hall

Courtyard hall Entrance hall

Market hall Teller

SPANS OF GL ASS

Indoor-Pool

Glass band Colonnades Assembly hall

The continuous skylight
Basilica Arcades

Hall church Railway station Bus terminal

Exterior corridor Tunnel

Gallery

Glass core Temples/baths Stock exchange

The centralised skylight
Arena Centre arcades/
greenhouse
Centralised church

Arbour Conference hall

Venue

Sports arena

Glasshouse Greenhouse Winter garden/flora

The panoramic skylight Combinations
Market hall

Exhibition hall Fair hall

Climate skin

2 Diagram representing the evolution

of different glass roof types
2.2

lished by J. F. Geist. The basic types of “glass courtyard”, “glass band” _ HISTORIC EVOLUTION

and “glass core” are summarised in _ Fig. 1. The glass courtyard is The historic evolution of the glass roof and its typical appearance in
defined by a planar (two-dimensional) roof, the glass band by a single the glass courtyard, glass band, glass core and glasshouse is illus-
folded or curved roof and the glass core by a double-folded or curved trated in the diagram _ Fig. 2. The overview presents the trends and
roof. Typologically, the glasshouse is characterised by a glass skin on evolutionary lines of cross-section (roof shape) and plan (orientation)
all sides, the sculptural quality of which liberates it from unequivocal from the first glass roof constructions circa 1800 to the present day.
typological references. [2.2/2] Solid construction typologies which are characterised by a similar spa-
The flow of force in the structural system and the stresses exerted tial configuration are given as examples in the column headed “pre-
on the load-bearing elements are dependent on the geometry of cross- liminary stages”.
section and plan, and it is for this reason that the form and dimension The overview provides a sketch of the evolution from the start of
of structural systems are interdependent. For large spans, a flat roof the industrial revolution around 1800 to today in 50-year increments.
will quickly prove to be uneconomical, whereas a double-folded or Circa 1850, the need for large skylights gave rise to plans designed for
curved roof can be realised with relatively little material expenditure. In new building tasks such as museums, market halls, stock exchange
this sense, glass courtyard, glass band and glass core also differ in buildings and libraries. Large halls were needed for the manufacture,
terms of the spatial expanse and dimension of the area they cover. distribution and presentation of trade goods and as convening places
26

for a new urban public interested in recreation and the pursuit of cul-

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 THE GL AS S RO OF
A B

SPANS OF GL ASS
C D

5 7

4 6 8

3 Plan types for the glass courtyard

A The annexed glass courtyard 5 Semi-public circulation space Familistère de Guise, 7 The annexed glass courtyard, shed roof Museum
B The corner glass courtyard circa 1860 Meteorit, Essen, 1998, Arch.: Propeller Z
C The inserted glass courtyard
D The interior glass courtyard (atrium) 6 Interior of glass courtyard as constructional completion, 8 The annexed glass courtyard, expansion
the Schlüterhof at the Deutsches Historisches Museum Museum Rietberg, Zurich, 2007,
4 Teller hall of main post office in St. Petersburg in Berlin, 2003, Arch.: I. M. Pei Arch.: ARGE Grazioli Krischanitz GmbH

2.2

tural education. Towards the end of the 19th century, new social struc- atrium is today often annexed to existing light wells and used as a
tures translated into an increase of administrative bodies and the lobby, exhibition space or cafeteria. With the growing dematerialisation
emergence of the modern service-oriented society. Large entertain- of the wall, glass courtyards emerge in less introverted forms in which
ment and sports arenas are the architectural expression of the leisure one or several directions are singled out. The opening can be addition-
society as we know it today. ally emphasised through a rectangular plan or the incline of the roof
area. In the case of an “inserted glass courtyard”, only three sides are
_ THE FLAT OR INCLINED ROOF – THE GLASS COURT YARD enclosed by solid building components, and the orientation towards
A planar roof area is horizontal or pitched, the roof profile is one-di- the open, often fully-glazed front assumes a prime importance for the
mensional. organisation of the floor plan. A “corner glass courtyard” has two ad-
The top-lit courtyard screened off from the external surroundings jacent open sides, reinforcing the diagonal flow in the interior space.
is one of the oldest forms of spatial organisation. It serves to provide The “glass courtyard annex”, finally, is open on three sides. The tran-
light and access to adjacent spaces and is defined by a tranquil, intro- quil character of the glass courtyard can be preserved even in the
verted ambience that is an invitation to linger. The interior square case of shed and saddle-roof constructions with the help of interior
atrium terminating in a horizontal glass ceiling, in which none of the dust or luminous ceilings suspended from the primary structure. A
lateral enclosing elements are dominant, constitutes the purest form of double-skin construction of this kind marks the skylight hall as a vari-
27

a glass courtyard. Originally an open light well in Roman homes, the ation on the classic glass courtyard. [2.2/3]

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THE GL AS S RO OF
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9 12

10 11 13

9 The inserted glass courtyard (view towards

ceiling), Sparkasse Düsseldorf, 2001, 12 GUM arcades in Moscow, 1893
Arch.: Ingenhoven Overdiek and Partners Eng.: V. G. Suchov

10 The corner glass courtyard, Art Museum in Tel 11 – 15 Glass band with convex curvature 13 Central fair hall Leipzig, 1996
Aviv, 1998, Arch.: D. Eytan, Eng.: M. Eekhout 11 Verdeau arcades, Paris, 1847 Arch.: von Marg und Partner, Eng.: V. G. Suchov
2.2

Structural systems for planar roofs include beam and slab systems. structures and curved in the case of arched or suspended (cable) roofs.
The bending resistance necessary for load transfer requires an in- In arched roofs the curvature is convex; in cable roofs it is concave.
crease in material and this affects the cross-sectional dimensions of The term glass band is used to denote a continuous, elongated
the structural elements. The roof area for longitudinal plans is realised skylight that is bounded on its longitudinal sides by predominantly
by installing a series of individual cross beams. If the distance be- solid building structures. In contrast to the glass courtyard, the glass
tween these is large enough to warrant secondary beams, the result is band is a space designed for traffic – pedestrian or vehicular. The
a multilayered, hierarchic system. Slabs, on the other hand, can trans- glass band is predominantly employed for “transit-related” building
fer loads across two or several axes and are suitable for spanning ar- tasks such as arcades and railway terminals. The inserted atrium,
eas that are nearly square in plan. Beams can be dissolved into sys- bounded by a U-shaped solid structure, is a variant combining both
tems subjected only to normal forces with more slender cross-section the glass courtyard and the glass band.
when they are executed in the form of trusses. Two-way span truss The enclosure that is folded or curved in the cross direction sup-
grillages or space frame slabs allow for greater span widths. ports the dynamics of the space designed for traffic. Gabled and bar-
rel roof result in a strong longitudinal orientation and a “channelling”
_ THE FOLDED OR CURVED ROOF – THE GLASS BAND of the plan. Thus the arcades and railway terminals of the 19th cen-
The roof types under discussion in this section are two-dimensional in tury were initially characterised by symmetrical saddleback roofs and
28

profile: folded in the case of gabled roofs or prismatic folded-plate later on by barrel roofs.

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 THE GL AS S RO OF
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14 16 18

15 17 19

18, 19 The concave glass band

16, 17 The folded glass band 18 Cable roof: Central railway station Ulm, 1993,
14, 15 Platform on Lehrter railway station, Berlin, 2002 16 Central hall: Züblin house Stuttgart, 1985 Eng.: Schlaich Bergermann und Partner
Arch.: von Gerkan Marg und Partner, Arch.: Gottfried Böhm, Eng.: Jörg Schlaich 19 Cable roof: Station forecourt Heilbronn, 2001,
Eng.: Schlaich Bergermann und Partner 17 Platform hall Gare d‘Austerlitz in Paris, 1862 Eng.: Schlaich Bergermann und Partner

2.2

It wasn’t until the 20th century that the enclosure with a convex curva- arches are connected in a shear-, compression- and tension-resistant
ture – the suspended or cable roof – emerged as a building type. The manner in the longitudinal and transverse direction, loads can also be
cross-sectional form opening onto the longitudinal sides promotes carried across two axes on the curved surface; the resulting form is a
movement across the transverse axis and marks an entrance or thresh- barrel vaulted shell. The barrel vaulted shell is a skin structure which
old area. loads are transferred across the longitudinal and transverse axes of the
Frames and arches are among the two-dimensional structural sys- barrel given the appropriate support conditions. The longitudinal stress
tems. The form of the structural system adapts to the natural flow of distribution is similar to that of a beam, e.g. the compression zone is
force in the centre line of pressure or axis line. As a result of the arch located at the apex and the tension zone is located at the lower edges.
effect, there are hardly any bending stresses on curved structural sys- Since they do not feature a secondary structural system curvature,
tems and the required material expenditure is reduced. The ratio of barrel shells are relatively flexible and must be stabilised in the trans-
bending and compression stresses is dependent on the geometry and verse plane, for example with stiffening arches. If the stabilising meas-
the load profile. Every deviation in the load profile leads to a different ures create a continuous secondary plane, the result is a two-layered
line of pressure: the greater the deviation between axis line and sys- system with greater rigidity. [2.2/5]
tem geometry, the greater is the bending stress. [2.2/4]
When arches are sequenced in a row, the result is a barrel-shaped, _ THE DOUBLE-FOLDED OR CURVED ROOF – THE GLASS CORE
29

three-dimensional skin geometry with a single axis load path. If the Pyramidal folded plate structures, domes, shells or tents are charac-

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21 23

20 22 24

21 Reichstag dome Berlin, 1998, 23 Pyramidal folded roof: Bewag Glaspyramide

Arch.: Foster and Partners Berlin, 1999, Arch.: A. Liepe, H. Siegelmann
20 – 22 The glass core: Synclastic dome structures
20 Halle au Blé (Today: Bourse de Commerce) 22 Greenhouse at the National Botanical Garden 24 Anticlastic lattice grid structural system: Schubert
in Paris, 1809 – 1811, Arch.: F. J. Bélanger of Wales, 1999, Arch.: Foster and Partners Club Band Shell Minnesota, 2002, Arch.: JCDA
2.2

terised by a fold or curvature in the longitudinal and transverse direc- forces. When loads are distributed evenly, domes are not subject to
tion; they are three-dimensional, spatial structures. In domed roofs moments but to membrane stress, in other words, the area is only
with a synclastic curvature, the curvature is the same in both cross- subject to normal or axial forces. If the dome geometry corresponds to
sectional axes. In anticlastic membrane and tent roofs, the curvatures the supporting plane, the three-dimensional analogy to the line of
are transverse to each other and lie in opposite directions. pressure, the system will be subject purely to compression stress in
The glass core is the centralised skylight in an ideal, circular plan. the direction of the meridian. It is only when the dome geometry devi-
The lateral enclosures are usually homogeneous. The gathering ges- ates from the supporting plane, as is the case in a spherical shell, that
ture defines this type as an assembly space. Given their imposing ring forces are activated. In a spherical shell the transition from ring
character, centralised pyramidal or domed roofs also exude a unique compression to ring tension forces in the supporting plane, the “zero
pretension to power. An anticlastic curvature reverses the spatial form ring force line”, lies at a polar angle of approximately 52° from the ro-
of the dome and results in an extroverted, opening gesture. tational axis. The ideal of the membrane stress is upset by large point
The domed shell, which has considerable more rigidity in com- or single loads; in extreme cases this can lead to local failure and col-
parison with the barrel shell owing to the double curvature, is suitable lapse of the dome surface. The dome shear created by the meridian
for the large span widths of concert halls and arenas. Load transfer forces must be absorbed in the supporting plane by a suitable sub-
occurs along the meridian and the circumference; all structural ele- structure to avoid problems in the load transfer. [2.2/6]
30

ments must be connected to transfer shear, compression and tension

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27

25 26 28

27 Greenhouse in Dahlem, mixed construction,

1908, Arch.: A. Koerner

26 – 28 The glasshouse as a mixed type 28 Bad Neustadt spa clinic: Membrane as

26 Convergence of glass band and glass core, a “freely-formed” cable net, 1999,
25 Soccer stadium: Amsterdam ArenA, 1996 Wilhelmina Botanical Gardens Stuttgart, 1844, Arch.: Lamm, Weber, Donath und Partner
Arch.: R. Schuurman Arch.: K.-L. von Zanth Eng.: W. Sobek Ingenieure

2.2

_ THE GLASSHOUSE When building in the existing fabric, glasshouse designs may respond
According to J. F. Geist, the glasshouse corresponds to the “all-en- primarily to constraints imposed by the urban context rather than to
compassing skylight”. In contrast to other types, the glazing extends the parameters related to the internal organisation _ Fig. 28.
across the lateral enclosures down to the floor and forms a weather
skin on all sides. Depending on the internal plan, the geometry of the
glasshouse can be interpreted as a space defining variation on the
glass courtyard, the glass band or the glass core. Typologically, the
cubic glass fabric therefore corresponds to the glass courtyard, the
glass tube to the glass band and the enclosing dome to the glass
core.
Generally speaking, aspects of differing basic types often con-
verge in glasshouses; what emerges are mixed types that do not make
an unequivocal statement on functional or mechanical form. Thus the
greenhouse, the glasshouse par excellence, has been realised in a
multitude of geometric formulations depending on floor-plan layout
31

and the plant species it shelters.

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