Photolithography Study Material

Photolithography Overview for Microsystems
Primary Knowledge (PK)

Participant Guide
Description and Estimated Time
Microsystems fabrication uses several thin film layers to

build devices. These layers typically consist of thin films of
metal, bulk silicon, silicon dioxide or nitride, or polysilicon.
The graphic illustrates the layers of a MEMS linkage
assembly. Each layer is a different component of that
device. Each layer requires a different pattern.
Photolithography is the process step used to define and

transfer a pattern to its respective layer. The
photolithography process occurs several times during the
fabrication of a microsystems device as layers build upon layers. The linkage assembly would
require "at least" six layers. Can you see at least six layers? (Hint: In MEMS fabrication, some
layers are “sacrificial layers”, meaning that they are completely removed leaving behind a void so
that components can "float".) [Linkage graphic courtesy of Khalil Najafi, University of Michigan]
This unit provides an overview of the most common photolithography process used to fabricate
micro-sized devices, and the basic information on each step of the photolithography process.
NOTE: The definition of many of the underlined terms used in this module can be found in the
glossary at this end of this unit. Two activities are provided to allow you to demonstrate your
understanding of photolithography terminology and to further explores some basic concepts.
Estimated Time: Allow at least 30 minutes to review material in this unit.
Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

Fab_PrLith_PK00_PG_March2017.docx Page 1 of 16
Introduction
Photolithography is the process that defines and transfers a pattern onto a thin film layer on the
wafer. In the photolithography process a light source is typically used to transfer an image from a
patterned mask to a photosensitive layer (photoresist or resist) on a substrate or another thin film.
This same pattern is later transferred into the substrate or thin film (layer to be etched) using a
different process called etch.
For some layers, the resist

pattern is used as a mask for a
deposition process. In such
cases, the patterned resist would
identify the areas that receive
the deposited material and the
areas that do not. Patterned
photoresist is also used as a hard
mask for some etch processes.
The photoresist is used to
protect the areas of the film that
are not to be etched.

Pattern Transfer
In the construction of microsystems, photolithography is used at any point in the process where a
pattern needs to be defined on a layer. This occurs several times during the fabrication of a
microsystems device as layers build upon layers. Remember the linkage assembly device in the
Introduction? Each thin film layer required a pattern; therefore, each layer required
photolithography.
Each layer within a microsystem has a unique pattern. The initial process used to transfer this
pattern into a layer is photolithography. The photolithography process transfers the pattern of a
mask or reticle (depending on the method of exposure) to a photosensitive layer (resist). In the
construction of microsystem devices a subsequent process step, usually etch or liftoff, transfers the
pattern from the photosensitive layer into an underlying layer. These steps are illustrated in the
graphic below.
This thin film to be patterned is in blue, photoresist in red. The pattern in the mask is first
transferred in the photoresist (left) then an etch process transfers that pattern into the underlying
layer.
After the pattern transfer, the resist is usually stripped or removed.
Learning Module Objectives
• Develop an outline of the photolithography process.

• Briefly describe each step of the photolithography process using the correct terminology.

Steps of Photolithography
Steps of Photolithography - Coat, Expose, Develop
There are three basic steps to photolithography:
• Coat - A photosensitive material (photoresist or resist) is applied to the substrate surface.
• Expose - The photoresist is exposed using a light source, such as Near UV (Ultraviolet), Deep
UV or X-ray.
• Develop - The exposed photoresist is subsequently dissolved with a chemical developer. The
type of photoresist (positive or negative) determines which part of the resist is dissolved.
Photolithography vs. Photography
The photolithography process is analogous to a twentieth century

photographic process that uses exposed film as the patterned mask
(referred to as a "negative" in photography). The exposed film is
removed from a camera and developed to create the patterned mask or
negative. In a dark room, the negative (patterned mask) is placed
between a light source and a prepared sheet of photosensitive paper.
• The paper has been coated with a light-sensitive photographic
emulsion.
• The paper is exposed when the light travels through the negative.
• The exposed paper is placed in a liquid developer, which
chemically reacts with the emulsion, transferring the negative’s
image to the photographic paper.
Photographer/Painter: Jean-Pol
Grandmont, shot and develop
(b&W) and scanner
[Courtesy of Jean-Pol Grandmont]

Coat Process: Step 1 - Surface Conditioning
The first step of the Coat Process is Surface Conditioning. Surface conditioning prepares the wafer
to accept the photoresist by providing a clean surface, coated with an intermediate chemical (such as
HMDS or Hexamethyldisalizane) that creates a hydrophobic surface which boosts adhesion of the
photoresist to the wafer’s surface. HMDS is the most commonly used intermediate chemical.
There are several reasons for conditioning the wafer’s surface:
• The presence of other molecules or particles can create problems for resist adhesion and
subsequent resist thickness uniformity; therefore, the wafer must be thoroughly cleaned and
dried.
• Intermediates such as HMDS prepare the surface for adhesion of photoresist.
• Photoresist is an organic material that must interface with the substrate material which, in most
cases, is inorganic. As an intermediate, HMDS allows this interface to occur.
• Different surface materials can have different surface tensions or affinity for organic materials
such as photoresist. Again, as an intermediate between the underlying surface and the
photoresist, HMDS acts as a buffer and promotes the adhesion of photoresist to surface
materials.
• Photoresist adheres best to a hydrophobic surface. A hydrophobic surface is defined as a surface
that does not like (phobic) water (hydro). A layer of HMDS provides a hydrophobic surface.

Steps of Surface Conditioning
Bake, Prime and Cool
There are three basic steps to conditioning the wafer’s surface: bake, prime and cool.
Bake
After the wafer is cleaned (rinsed/dried) and prior to applying a primer (HMDS), water molecules
present on the wafer surface must be removed. One way is to heat the wafer to 100° C, the boiling
point of water. The wafer is heated or baked in a small vacuum chamber or on a hot plate to remove
water molecules on the wafer surface.
Prime
• HMDS is applied (prime) to create a hydrophobic surface. The hydrophobic surface prevents
water molecules from re-accumulating on the surface once the wafer is returned to the
environment.
Cool
• After the wafer is primed, it is cooled to room temperature (sometimes using a chill plate). This
brings the wafer to the same temperature as the resist for the subsequent resist dispense step.
After the surface is conditioned, the wafer is coated with photoresist.

The Photoresist (Resist)
Photoresist - Positive vs. Negative resist
Photoresist is a mixture of organic compounds held together in a solvent solution.
There are two basic types of photoresist: negative or positive. Their primary difference is how they
respond to the light source (as shown in the graphic).
Negative resist and UV: The regions of resist exposed to ultraviolet light (UV) become insoluble or
harden. When developed, the hardened resist remains on the wafer and the non-exposed resist
dissolves. The result is a negative resist pattern on the wafer.
Positive resist and UV: The regions of resist exposed to the UV become more soluble. When
developed, the exposed resist dissolves and the unexposed resist remains. A good way to remember
this is “What shows, goes”. The result is a positive resist pattern on the wafer. Positive resist is
more commonly used for microsystems fabrication.

Coat Process
Spin Coating
The coat process is the application of photoresist to the wafer’s surface. There are several methods
used to coat the wafer (spin, spray and electrodeposition (ED)). The goal of the coat process is to
distribute a uniform thickness of resist across the wafer's surface with a desired thickness. The
resist must be thick enough and durable enough to withstand the next process steps. It must also be
uniform in order to prevent problems during the expose process.
Spin coating is the most common methods for coating a wafer. The image below shows a spin
coater. You can see the wafer sitting on the chuck and the excess resist (red) that has spun off the
wafers.
• The wafer is placed on a vacuum chuck.

• A vacuum chuck holds the wafer.
• Photoresist is applied either before the chuck
begins to spin (static dispense), or when the
chuck starts to spin slowly (dynamic
dispense).
• The chuck quickly accelerates to a pre-
programmed rpm to spread the resist across
the entire wafer.
• At maximum spin speed (SS) the excess
resist is thrown off the wafer and a uniform
resist thickness results.
The chuck continues to spin until most of the
solvents in the resist have evaporated.
(Photo courtesy of the MTTC, University of New Mexico)

Photoresist Thickness Activity
If you need a break or would like to learn more about the coating process, you may stop and
complete the activity “Photoresist Thickness”. In this activity you will further explore the coat
process and the factors that determine the photoresist thickness.
Softbake
After the photoresist is applied to the desired thickness, a

softbake is used to remove the residual solvents of the
photoresist.
After the softbake, the wafer is cooled to room temperature.
Softbake after Applying Resist
Align
The expose process consists of the align and expose steps.
Alignment is one of the most critical steps in the

entire microsystems fabrication process. Due to the
microscopic size of these devices, a misalignment
of one micrometer (micron or 1µm) or even smaller
can destroy the entire device and all the other
devices on the wafer. It is important that each layer
is aligned properly and within specifications to the
previous layers and subsequent layers.
Take a look at the microscopic hinge. Notice the

1µm scale in the bottom right. Using this scale we
might estimate the width of the space between the
hinged component and the edge of the loop to be
approximately 0.5 µm or 500 nm.
What would be the result if the mask for the loop component is misaligned by 0.5 µm?

Align Procedure
The patterned mask (or reticle) is a quartz or glass plate

with the desired pattern (usually in chrome). The picture
shows a mask used to expose an entire wafer. Notice that
there is a repeating pattern throughout the mask. Each of
these patterns is a die containing few micro-sized
components, in the case shown here - 9.
Some equipment do not use masks. Instead a smaller

quartz plate is used with just a few die (inset). Regardless
of which is used, a mask or a reticle, the plate is locked into
the expose equipment. The wafer is aligned to the mask or
reticle along the x and y coordinates. The z-coordinate is adjusted to define the focal plane of the
image.
When a mask is used, a single pulse of light will expose the entire wafer. When a reticle is used, the
wafer or the reticle is “stepped” in the x, then y directions, exposing a small portion of the wafer
with each step. This type of expose equipment is called a "stepper".
Expose
During expose, the photoresist layer is exposed when ultraviolet (UV) light from a source travels
through the mask to the resist, exposing the resist. UV light sources normally include mercury
vapor lamps and excimer lasers. The UV light hitting the resist causes a chemical reaction between
the resist and the light. Only those areas not
protected by the mask undergo a chemical
reaction.
Let's see if you remember what happens

when the light hits the resist. Do you
remember positive vs. negative photoresist?
What happens to exposed negative resist?

What happens to exposed positive resist?

The Develop Process
In the develop process, portions of the photoresist are

dissolved by a chemical developer. With positive resist
(the more commonly used resist), the exposed resist is
dissolved while the unexposed resist remains on the wafer.
With negative resist, the unexposed resist is dissolved
while the exposed resist remains.
The develop process leaves a visible pattern (seen by the

naked eye) within the resist.
Develop Processes
Immersion and Spray-on
Develop is usually a wet process. The wafers are physically placed in the develop solution
(immersion) or the developer is sprayed onto the wafer.
The timing of this process is critical. Too long of a time leads to an "overdeveloped resist"; too little
of a time leads to an "underdeveloped resist" – both of which negatively affect line width. An
underdeveloped resist could prevent access to the underlying layer by leaving too much resist on the
wafer.
To stop the chemical reaction of the developer with the photoresist, the wafers are rinsed with de-
ionized (DI) water then spin-dried.

Hardbake
Hardbake Temperatures
A post-develop hardbake is used to harden the photoresist for the subsequent process. In order to do
this, the temperature of the hardbake is higher than that of the softbake after coat. The hard bake
temperature for positive resist is approximately 120°C to 140°C.
However, too high of a temperature could cause the photoresist to reflow, destroying the pattern.
After the hardbake, the wafer is cooled to room temperature.
Inspect – What to Look for
Wafers are inspected immediately after the photolithography process and before subsequent
processes such as etch. The inspection specifications vary depending on the product requirements.
Three critical parameters of the photolithography process are alignment, line widths and defects.
Alignment – the pattern must be positioned accurately to the previously layer.
Line width or critical dimension (CD) – the pattern images are in focus and have the correct size.
Defects– things that could affect subsequent processes and eventually the operation of the devices
(i.e. particles, scratches, peeling (lifting) of the resist, holes in the resist, scumming (an
underdeveloped or underexposed pattern))
The inspection step ensures that the pattern is properly aligned to the previous layers and that the
critical dimensions are correct. Because of the 3-dimensional characteristic of MEMS devices,
inspection is more challenging than with integrated circuits.

Inspect – How is it done?
Inspecting a wafer
High powered microscopic equipment is used to inspect wafers at the end of the photolithography
process. The smaller the CD's the more technologically advanced the equipment needs to be. Many
tools are equipped with software that can measure the width of a printed structure and provide the
information to the inspecting technician.
Alignment marks are designed into the masks and reticles and, in turn, are patterned into each layer
to be used as reference points during inspect. In this way, the overlay of a subsequent step can be
measured against the previous
step and the misalignment can
be quantified or measured.
The microscopes are powerful

enough to allow the technician
to see various types of defects
(particles, scratches, peeling
(lifting) of the resist, holes in
the resist, scumming (an
underdeveloped or
underexposed pattern). The
type of defect, if one exists,
determines if the wafer can be
reworked or not.

Review Questions
What are some of the critical parameters that should be inspected during the photolithography
process and as a final inspection?
Critical dimensions are getting smaller. Objects are getting smaller. In microsystems technology,
some objects are required to "float" above the substrate. What do you think are some of the
limitations, if any, of the photolithography process described here when applied to these advancing
technologies?
Summary
Coat, Expose, Develop
Photolithography uses three basic process steps to transfer a pattern from a mask to a wafer: coat,
develop, expose. The pattern is then transferred into the wafer’s surface or an underlying layer
during a subsequent process (such as etch). The resist pattern can also be used to define the pattern
for a deposited thin film.
Glossary of Key Terms

Alignment: The ability of the alignment tool to accurately overlay the mask/reticle pattern to the
wafer for transferring the first pattern.
Coat: A photosensitive material (photoresist or resist) is applied to the substrate surface.
Deep UV (ultraviolet): A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (in the range of 100-250 nm)
containing wavelengths often used to expose photoresist. It can produce smaller image widths.
Develop: The exposed photoresist is subsequently dissolved with a chemical developer.
Etch: The process of removing material from a wafer (such as oxides or other thin films) by
chemical, electrolytic or plasma (ion bombardment) means. Examples: nitride etch, oxide etch.
Expose: Subjecting a sensitive material (photoresist) to light or other radiant energy (such as Deep
UV (Ultraviolet), Near UV or x-ray).

Focal Plane: The plane perpendicular to the axis of a lens or optical system that contains the focal
point.
Intermediate: Something that lies or occurs between two states, forms or extremes. In
photolithography, HMDS is an intermediate lying between the photoresist and the previous layer.
Liftoff: A method for patterning films that are deposited. A pattern is defined on a substrate using
photoresist. A film, usually metallic, is blanket-deposited all over the substrate, covering the
photoresist and areas in which the photoresist has been cleared. During the actual lifting-off, the
photoresist under the film is removed with solvent, taking the film with it, and leaving only the film
which was deposited directly on the substrate.
Mask: A glass plate covered with an array of patterns used in the photomasking process. Each
pattern consists of opaque and clear areas that respectively prevent or allow light through.
Near UV: A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum (in the range of 400 nm – 300 nm) containing
wavelengths often used to expose photoresist.
Photolithography: The transfer of a pattern or image from one medium to another, as from a mask
to a wafer.
Resist: Thin film used in lithography to transfer a circuit pattern to the underlying substrate.
Reticle: An exposure mask with the image of a single die, or small cluster of die (called a field).
The image on the reticle is stepped across the wafer and is exposed multiple times.
Substrate: The base material on or in which MEMS components and circuits are constructed.
Thin film: Thin material layers ranging from fractions of a nanometer to several micrometers in
thickness.
UV (Ultraviolet) light: A portion of the electromagnetic spectrum from 250 to 400 nm. High-
pressure mercury sources emit UV light for photoresist exposure. The region below 250nm is
known as deep UV (DUV).
X-ray: A form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength in the range of 10 to 0.01

nanometers.
References
• Photolithography Lab.ppt, Fabian Lopez, Central New Mexico Community College
• Photolithography. Module 40. MATEC. NSF Center. Arizona.
• "Comparing the costs of photoresist coating using spin, spray, and electrodeposition systems".
Nga P. Pham and Pasqualina M. Sarro, Delft University of Technology. MicroMagazine.com.
2007.
• "Photolithography". Wikipedia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photolithography

Disclaimer
The information contained herein is considered to be true and accurate; however the Southwest
Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) makes no guarantees concerning the authenticity of
any statement. SCME accepts no liability for the content of this unit, or for the consequences of any
actions taken on the basis of the information provided.
Support for this work was provided by the National Science Foundation's Advanced Technological
Education (ATE) Program through Grants. For more learning modules related to microtechnology,
visit the SCME website (http://scme-nm.org).


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Photolithography Overview for Microsystems

Primary Knowledge (PK)

Description and Estimated Time

Microsystems fabrication uses several thin film layers to

Photolithography is the process step used to define and

Estimated Time: Allow at least 30 minutes to review material in this unit.

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

For some layers, the resist

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

After the pattern transfer, the resist is usually stripped or removed.

Learning Module Objectives

• Develop an outline of the photolithography process.

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

Steps of Photolithography - Coat, Expose, Develop

There are three basic steps to photolithography:

• Coat - A photosensitive material (photoresist or resist) is applied to the substrate surface.

Photolithography vs. Photography

The photolithography process is analogous to a twentieth century

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

There are several reasons for conditioning the wafer’s surface:

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

Bake, Prime and Cool

After the surface is conditioned, the wafer is coated with photoresist.

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

Photoresist - Positive vs. Negative resist

Photoresist is a mixture of organic compounds held together in a solvent solution.

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

• The wafer is placed on a vacuum chuck.

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

After the photoresist is applied to the desired thickness, a

After the softbake, the wafer is cooled to room temperature.

Softbake after Applying Resist

The expose process consists of the align and expose steps.

Alignment is one of the most critical steps in the

Take a look at the microscopic hinge. Notice the

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

The patterned mask (or reticle) is a quartz or glass plate

Some equipment do not use masks. Instead a smaller

Let's see if you remember what happens

What happens to exposed negative resist?

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

In the develop process, portions of the photoresist are

The develop process leaves a visible pattern (seen by the

Immersion and Spray-on

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

After the hardbake, the wafer is cooled to room temperature.

Inspect – What to Look for

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

The microscopes are powerful

(Photo courtesy of the MTTC, University of New Mexico)

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

Coat, Expose, Develop

Glossary of Key Terms

Coat: A photosensitive material (photoresist or resist) is applied to the substrate surface.

Develop: The exposed photoresist is subsequently dissolved with a chemical developer.

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

X-ray: A form of electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength in the range of 10 to 0.01

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK

Southwest Center for Microsystems Education (SCME) Photolithography Overview PK