The Meaning of Philosophy The Branches of Philosophy

 Etymologically, the word "philosophy"  METAPHYSICS

comes from two Greek words, Philo,
- an extension of a fundamental and drive in
meaning "to love," and Sophia, meaning every human being to know what is real.
"wisdom." Philosophy originally meant, "love
of wisdom," - concerned with the nature of existence,
being and the world
 Wisdom is still the goal of philosophy.
- appearance and reality (Thales- “everything
 Philosophy is also defined as the science is water”
that by natural light of reason studies the  ETHICS
first causes or highest principles of all things.
- is the branch of philosophy that explores the
a. Science. nature of moral virtue and evaluates human
- the investigation is Systematic. It follows actions.
certain steps or it employs certain procedures. -
- it is an organized body of knowledge just like - generally a study of the nature of moral
any other sciences. judgments
b. Natural Light of Reason.
- what is morally good and bad; morally right
- Philosopher uses his natural capacity to think
and wrong
or simply, human reason alone or the so-called
unaided reason.  EPISTEMOLOGY
c. Study of All Things.
- deals with nature, sources, limitations, and
- This sets the distinction between philosophy
validity of knowledge (Soccio, 2007)
from Other sciences.
- a philosopher studies human beings, society, - “theory of knowledge”
religion, language, God, and plants, among - Epistemology explains: (1) how we know what
other concerns. we claim to know; (2) how we can find out
- the reason is that philosophy is not one what we wish to know; and (3) how we can
dimensional or partial. differentiate truth from falsehood.

d. First Cause or Highest Principle. A principle is - Epistemology addresses varied problems: the
that from which something proceeds in any reliability, extent, and kinds of knowledge; truth;
manner whatsoever. The First Principles: language; and science and scientific
knowledge.
 Principle of Identity - whatever is is; and
whatever is not is not; everything is what it is. INDUCTION
Everything is its own being, and not being is
- a method where they believe that general
not being. ideas are formed from the examination of
 Principle of Non-Contradiction - it is particular facts
impossible for a thing to be and not to be
at the same time, and at the same respect. -Some philosophers think that the particular
 Principle of Excluded Middle - a thing is things seen, heard, and touched are more
either is or is not; everything must be either important.
be or not be; between being and EMPIRICISM
not-being, there is no middle ground
possible. - a view that knowledge can be attained only
through sense
 Principle of Sufficient Reason - nothing
exists without a sufficient reason, for its
being and existence.
- philosophers who feel that knowledge is - We are human beings possessed with reason
acquired in this way are called empiricists (e.g.,
John Lock )
 AESTHETICS
- real knowledge is based on what our sight,
hearing, smell, and other senses tell us is really - Aesthetics is the science of the beautiful in its
out there, not what people make up in their various manifestations— including the sublime,
heads. comic, tragic, pathetic, and ugly
DEDUCTION - concerned with the nature and appreciation
of art, beauty, and good taste
- a method where other philosophers think it is
more important to find a general law -Hans-Georg Gadamer, a German philosopher,
according to which particular facts can be argues that our tastes and judgments
understood or judged regarding beauty, work in connection with
one's own personal experience and culture
- its advocates are called rationalists (e.g.,
Rene. Descartes)

RATIONALISM

- is that real knowledge is based on the logic, Filipino Thinking

the laws, and the methods that reason
develops  LOOB: HOLISTIC AND INTERIOR DIMENSIONS

- best example of real knowledge, the - Kagandahang-Loob, kabutihang-loob, and

rationalist holds, is mathematics, a realm of kalooban are terms that show sharing of one's
self to others.
knowledge that is obtained entirely by reason
that we use to understand the universe. - In short, the Filipino generally believes in the
innate goodness of the human being.
 LOGIC

- the study of reasoning or the study of the

principles and criteria of valid inference and  FILIPINO PHILOSOPHY OF TIME
demonstration
- believes in the gulong ng palad (literally,
- term "logic" comes from the Greek word "wheel of fortune")
logike and was coined by Zeno, the Stoic
- life as a series of ups and downs (Timbreza
(c.340-265BC)
1992)
- Etymologically, it means.
- Often, Filipino Time is mistakenly interpreted as
always delayed in the committed time of
- Logic is not interested in what we know arrival.
regarding certain subjects. Its concern, rather,
 BAHALA NA
is the truth or the validity of our arguments
regarding such objects. - Bahala na literally means to leave everything
to God who is Bathala in the vernacular.
_________
- The bahala na philosophy puts complete trust
- Logical reasoning makes us certain that our
in the Divine Providence; it contains the
conclusions are true, and this provides us with
element of resignation.
accepted scientific proofs of universally valid
propositions or statements - Bahala na (come what may) nonetheless, is
one of the most outstanding Filipino virtues. It is
- Since the time of Aristotle, the study of lies or
in one aspect perceived as courage to take
fallacies has been considered an integral part
risks.
of logic.
 FILIPINO THOUGHTS VALUES: POSITIVE AND doctrines centered on certain common
NEGATIVE ASPECTS themes

- Philippine values and system, in line with - human freedom

Filipino philosophy, are indirect need to be
- the significance (and unavoidability) of
used as positive motivation.
choice and decision in the absence of
- Reciprocating debts of gratitude between certainty and;
coordinates and subordinates holds the whole - the concreteness and subjectivity of life as
group together— superordinate and lived, against abstractions false
subordinate (utang na loob). objectifications.
- positive Filipino values such as bayanihan or - As the first existentialist, Kierkegaard insisted
helping others in times of need. Bayanihan is that the authentic self was the personally
another moving spirit of the Filipino people. chosen self, as opposed to public or “herd”
identity.

- Existentialism – we need to create our own life

(value)
Methods of Philosophizing
- “God does not exist”
- Philosophizing is to think or express oneself in a
philosophical manner. -“Existence perceive essence” -Jean-Paul
Sartre
- It considers or discusses a (matter) from a
philosophical standpoint - Sartre, a French philosopher, emphasizes the
importance of free individual choice,
regardless of the power of other people to
 Phenomenology: On Consciousness
influence and coerce our desires, beliefs, and
- study on live experience decisions.
- concerned with the study of phenomenon
 Postmodernism: On Cultures
that arise from the experience of being in the
world - reality cannot be known nor described
objectively by postmodernists
- Edmund Husserl founded phenomenology
- Postmodernists believe that humanity should
- This focuses on careful inspection and come at truth beyond the rational to the
description of phenomena or appearances non-rational elements of human nature,
- defined as any object of conscious including the spiritual.
experience, that is, that which we are - Postmodernists consider that to arrive at truth,
conscious of (Johnston 2006). humanity should realize the limits of reason and
- The word "phenomenon" comes directly from objectivism.
the Greek (phainömenon), meaning  Analytic Tradition
"appearance.
- language cannot objectively describe truth
- it does not imply a contrast between the
appearance and some underlying reality - For Ludwig Wittgenstein, an analytic
philosopher, language is socially conditioned
- Phenomenology is the scientific study of the
essential structures of consciousness - Philosophical problems, puzzles, and errors
are rooted in language and can be solved or
 Existentialism: On Freedom avoided by a sound understanding of
- is it exactly a set of doctrines but more of an language and careful attention to its workings
outlook or attitude supported by diverse
 Logic and Critical Thinking: Tools in Example: Human beings have hands; the clock
Reasoning has hands. He is drinking from the pitcher of
water; he is a baseball pitcher.
- is centered in the analysis and construction of
arguments. d. Composition

- Critical thinking is distinguishing facts and - This infers that something is true of the whole
opinions or personal feelings. from the fact that it is true of some part of the
whole. The reverse of this fallacy is division.
- Critical thinking helps us uncover bias and
prejudice and open to new ideas not e. Division
necessarily in agreement with previous thought
- One reasons logically that something true of a
- there are two basic types of reasoning: thing must also be true of all or some of its parts.
deductive and inductive.
f. Against the Person (Argumentum ad
hominem)

INDUCTIVE REASONING - This fallacy attempts to link the validity of a

premise to a characteristic or belief of the
- Is based from observations in order to make
person advocating the premise. However, in
generalizations.
some questions of personal conduct,
- This reasoning is often applied in prediction, character, motives, etc., are legitimate if
forecasting or behavior relevant to the issue.

- Specific to general g. Appeal to force (Argumentum ad baculum)

DEDUCTIVE REASONING - An argument where force, coercion, or the

threat of force, is given as a justification for a
- draws conclusion from usually one broad conclusion.
judgment or definition and one more specific
assertion, often an inference. h. Appeal to the people (Argumentum ad
populum)
- General to specific
- Claiming that something is true simply
 Fallacies because the majority believes it to be so
- is a defect in an argument other than its i. False cause (post hoc)
having false premises. To detect fallacies, it is
required to examine the argument's content - Assumes that one event causes another

a. Appeal to pity (Argumentum ad

misericordiam)

- A specific kind of appeal to emotion

The Human Person as an Embodied Spirit
- tries to win support for an argument or idea by
 Hinduim
exploiting his or her opponent’s feeling pity or
guilt. - Aum image is Self-Hood at the heart of
Hinduism lies the idea of human beings' quest
b. Appeal to ignorance (Argumentum ad
for absolute truth, so that one's soul and the
ignorantiam)
Brahman or Atman (Absolute Soul) might
- Whatever has not been proved false must be become one.
true, and vice versa.
- Aum (Om) is the root of the universe and
c. Equivocation everything that exists and it continues to hold
everything together
- this is a logical chain of reasoning of term or a
word several times, but the particular word a - Hindus generally believe that the soul is
different meaning each time. eternal
- but is bound by the law of Karma (action) to - while resting and meditating in a grove of
the world of matter, which it can escape only trees, he came to a clear realization that the
after spiritual progress through an endless series solution lays in his own mind.
of births
-"Dharma" or Law of Salvation—a simple
- “Soul is the truth” presentation of the gospel of inner cultivation
of right spiritual attitudes
- manity's basic goal in life is the liberation
(moksha) of spirit (jiva). - Reduced to its simplest form, the teaching of
Buddha has been set forth traditionally in the
- Hinduism holds that humanity's life is a
"Four Noble Truths" leading to the "Eightfold
continuous cycle (samsara).
Path" to perfect character or arhatship, which
- Moksha, thus, is an enlightened state wherein in turn gave assurance of entrance into
one attains one's true selfhood and finds Nirvana at death. In the Four Noble Truths,
oneself one with the One, the Ultimate Reality, Gautama taught:
the All-Comprehensive Reality: Brahman.
(1) life is full of suffering;
- Ultimate moksha leads the spirit out of the
(2) suffering is caused by passionate desires,
monotonous cycle of life and death (samsara)
lusts, cravings;
to a state of "nothingness" (i.e., in the context of
physical being) (3) only as these are obliterated, will suffering
cease
- "The concepts of Brahman and Atman (soul,
self) are central ideas in all the Upanishads, (4) such eradication of desire may be
with "Know your Atman" as their thematic accomplished only by following the Eightfold
focus. Path of earnest endeavor.

- True knowledge (vidya) consists an - it is important not to view these precepts as a

understanding and realization of the set of rules, for Buddhism stresses the cultivation
individual’s real self (atman) as opposed to of wisdom and discernment (Velasquez 1999).
lower knowledge that is limited to an In other words, blind obedience to the
interpretation of reality based solely on the precepts is not encouraged.
data offered by sense experience.

- One concept common to all expressions of

Hinduism is the oneness of reality. This oneness is ST. AUGUSTINE AND ST. THOMAS AQUINAS
the absolute, or Brahman, which the mind can (WILL AND LOVE)
never fully grasp or express in words.
- Augustine's writing is considered to be the
- Only Brahman is real; everything else is illusory most influential in the early medieval period-
manifestation of it. This section looks at the reasonableness of
belief in God's existence.

 Buddhism - Religious people definitely do not treat God's

existence as a hypothesis, for God is a constant
- Another Major Eastern tradition is Buddhism, presence
contained in the teachings of its founder,
Siddhartha Gautama or the Buddha. - For Augustine (354—430 CE), philosophy is
amor sapientia, the love of wisdom; its aim is to
- Gautama began searching for answers to the produce happiness.
riddle of life's sufferings, disease, old age, and
death. He explored Brahminic philosophies, - wisdom is not just an abstract logical
then tried the rigors of asceticism, but all to no construction; but it is substantially existent as
avail. the Divine Logos.

- philosophy is the love of God: it is then,

religious
- Teachings of Christianity are based on the The Human person in the Environment
love of God, which Augustine's, Aquinas', and
Anselm's arguments are basically rooted.  Anthropocentrism

- Christianity, as presenting the full revelation of - humans are superior and central to the
the true God, is the only full and true universe
philosophy. However, we can love only that - focuses on the significant role of humankind in
which we know. the world and considers nature as the means
- All knowledge leads to God, so that faith by which humans are able to meet their needs
supplements and enlightens reason that it may and survive
proceed to ever richer and fuller - this view believes that humans are the most
understanding. important species on the planet
- Augustine speaks in Platonic phrase of - they are to transform nature and use its
humanity as a rational soul using a mortal body. resources
Later, he favors "man is a rational substance
constituted of soul and body." In both cases,  Ecocentrism
the soul retains its proper entity, and the soul - the ecological or relational integrity of the
apart from the body may be considered as a humans, provides meaning of our morals and
substance. values
- Augustine's theory of knowledge is at one with - this view believes that humankind is part of a
the procedures of speculative mysticism. From greater biological system or community and
this mystic love and intuition of God follow all that we have a significant role as stewards or
the principles to direct humanity in all their guardians of nature.
undertakings.

- For St. Augustine, physically we are free, yet

morally bound to obey the law. Pray. Best luck sa oral exam, payting!
-Layikaaaa
- For St. Thomas Aquinas, another medieval
philosopher, of all creatures, human beings
have the unique power to change themselves
and things for the better.

- His philosophy is best grasped in his treatises

Summa Contra Gentiles and Summa Theologia
Aquinas considers the human being as moral
agent.

- The unity between both elements indeed

helps as to understand our complexity as
human beings.

- Our spirituality separates us from animals; it

differentiates moral dimension of our fulfillment
in action. Through our spirituality, we have a
conscience. Thus, whether we choose to be
"good" or "evil" becomes our responsibility.