PSP 202 - INTRODUCTION TO - Ideas and doctrines set out

POLITICAL THEORY normative questions, as they are

concerned with what ought (or
Lesson 1: What is Political Theory? should) more than what is.
Political Science - Examples of normative questions:
- Rooted in science ● Why should I obey the state?
- Science is empirical, as its means ● What should be the limits of
to acquire knowledge is through liberty?
observation, experimentation and ● How should rewards be
measurement. distributed?
- Being empirical, political science - Political theory has various
claims to describe, analyze and traditions, approaches and styles
explain government and political but it is “united by theorizing,
institutions in a rigorous and critiquing and diagnosing
impartial manner. norms, practices and
organization of political action
Political Theory/Political Philosophy in the past and present, in our
- Political philosophy a.) clarifies own places and elsewhere”.
and refines concepts employed in
political discourse; b.) provides Political Science vs Political Theory
critical evaluation of political Political Science
beliefs. ➢ Empirical
- Political theory uses tools and ➢ Descriptive
content of political philosophy. It ➢ What is/ How things are
“involves the analytical study Political Theory
of ideas and doctrines that ➢ Theoretical
have been central to political ➢ Normative
thought, focusing on major ➢ What ought to be/ How things
thinkers or canon of classic ought to be
texts”.
Political Theory ● Valuational statements about
- Examine philosophers’ analysis what ought to happen
of political concepts and their ○ Statements about what
justification of their views ought to happen
- Contain newer resources 2 Roles:
(traditions like feminism, - Contribute theories to the
socialism, anarchism, etc.) abstract world of thought
- No ultimate definition of the - Create beliefs that are influential
discipline. Areas of enquiry are ● Beliefs are influential not because
changing. they are true but because they
- “Political theories… are secreted are believed.
in the intestines of political and ● Political theories can hardly be
social crisis.” said to be true.
- Political theories are produced
not by the crisis, but by the Relation with other disciplines:
reaction of the crisis on those - Political Science (Political theory
who have sensibility to be aware provides symbols and categories
of the crisis. that organize lives and framework
2 Elements: of understanding)
● Intellectual Apparatus - matters - History (Historical context is
taken from institutional realities needed to understand theories
● Institutional Realities - e.g. better.)
religion, law, etc. - Philosophy (Philosophy starts
3 Factors: with wonder)
● Factual statements about affairs - Real-world politics (Political
that gave rise to it theory engages with real-world
○ political/social crisis that development and may lead to
were part of the setting real-world development - “ano
● Causal statements about nature daw???”)
○ Questions what/will
happen
 ➢ Citizens or members of the city
Lesson 2: The Greek Polis - count politically
Introduction
- History of Western political theory Greek Polis
begins with the ancient Greeks, Democratic citizenship as center of
as they became critical about life
rules and institutions - Smallness of the polis allowed
- They were also the first to citizens to participate in a
have substantial written communal way of life
records ● Active involvement of people in
- “Criticism aids problem” public affairs
- It is necessary to examine the ● Communal life is shared for
conditions under which they lived mutual advantage
- “Polis” is the root term of - The purpose of the law is to find
“politics”, “politician”, “political”. the place or the station or
“police” function of man in the total life of
- Small self-contained the city (Sabine, 1937).
institutional form which Democratic citizenship as center of
provided intense communal life life
- Equivalent to a city-state (small - Greek direct participatory
territory dominated by a single democracy
city) ● Direct participation on matters
that affect the lives of everyone in
Population/Social Classes the city
➢ Slaves - institutions in the ● All males above a certain age join
Ancient World; serve as the Assembly and law courts
possessions and do not count Democratic citizenship as center of
politically life
➢ Resident foreigners or metics - - Political service as part of
no way for legal naturalization; citizen’s life
not count politically; free entity
 ● Brief terms of office, rapid principles (assuming religious
turnovers, large numbers of form) which humans were able to
citizens are directly involved discover, and these were
● Law, not the ruler, is sovereign. reflected in the laws of their
Law deserves the citizen’s city
respect. - Implication: Attitude towards
● Aristotle: Citizens are able to rule law is unquestioning
and be ruled obedience.
Democratic citizenship as center of
life Challenge to Traditional Values
- Political and social are - Increased contact between Greek
overlapping. and other societies led to greater
● Aristotle: Man is a political animal. awareness of significant
● The political absorbed a far larger difference between laws and
share of life lived in association customs
with fellows. - Furthermore, thinkers began to
ask why they should behave in
Traditional Values accordance with
- Nomos: Greek word for law, but laws/conventions
also refers to customs. This ● Made distinction between what is
indicates that Greeks had no right by nature and what is right
distinction between laws and by laws/conventions
customary values/beliefs. ● Some reflected on how
● Laws of Greek polis were laws/conventions do not reflect
relatively stable because 1.) what is right by nature
Societal conditions do not change Antiphon
easily and 2.) There is a tradition - What is right by nature is what is
of reverence for the law because to one’s advantage
it is the law. - It is often not in one’s best
- Citizens used to believe that interest/advantage to keep the
there were true moral laws of one’s society
 - Conclusion: Obey human laws Lesson 3: Socrates
only when there are witnesses. Introduction
Do what nature dictates because ● Father of Western Philosophy
it is what is advantageous to one, ○ part of intellectual
regardless if it conforms to revolution
conventions ● Most of what is known came from
Thrasymachus writings or works of others
- Crime often does pay. Immorality (specifically, Plato’s works)
enhances a wrongdoer’s life and ● He roamed around city squares
ruins the life of his victims and market places to talk to
- Conclusion: Actively flout existing people from all states of life.
laws/conventions ● Mission is not just to investigate
Callicles claims of knowledge, but to show
- Conventional moral standards are the errors in their thinking
made by many in intentional ● Method: Socratic Method/
violation of what is right by nature Dialectics
- Nature does not espouse ● Using his method, he tried to get
equality. The stronger should people to attain clear and precise
naturally rule the weaker and definitions of concepts.
have a larger share. ● He used dialogue as a method
- Conclusion: Being immoralist of learning. Instead of instructing
people, he would ask a question
Implication of these challenges to to start conversations.
traditional values ● He would get people to remove
- For Thucydides (historian), preconceptions and realize the
casting aside traditional values is weakness of their own
a major reason for the descent of arguments, so they would attain
the Greeks into chaos, horror and clarity and recognize what is right
slaughter. and wrong. This would allow
people to give birth to correct
insights.
Process of Seeking Wisdom: ❖ Sophists - ethical relativism (no
- person’s answer (person is quite ultimate right and wrong)
certain of it) -> ask question to - Downside with both: People
challenge the answer -> person thought conventional moral belief
to realize contradictions or had no foundation and ultimately
weakness of answer (be aware of fell into relativism because both
one’s ignorance) -> attain clarity induce doubts about traditional
hopefully and revise his answer values.
-> give birth to correct insight
Fundamental Moral Questions
★ He believed that the correct - What kind of person should
insight leads to the correct one be?
action. When one does wrong, it ● Look into the nature of human
is due to the lack of knowledge excellence
and wisdom (ignorance - lack of ● When a person knows what arete
clear distinction between right is, he will attempt to achieve it.
and wrong), rather than inherent ● Virtue is knowledge. Virtue can
evils in humans. be learned and taught.
● Implication on electing official
★ Oracle of Delphi - wisest man in - Why should one care for the
the world is Socrates soul?
● Traditional view vs Socrates’ view
Socrates vs Sophists ● Traditional view: focus on
- Both induced doubts about tangible attainments and worldly
traditional values and doubts success; give importance to
about the unquestioning justice because of its possible
obedience to these traditional effects (worldly success –
values happiness)
❖ Socrates - positive moral ● Socrates’ view: tangible
teaching (not leave them in moral attainments and worldly success
vacuum) are important but not as important
 as the soul; give importance to been disliked and regarded as a
justice because it is essential to danger to the society. You have
the welfare of the soul and a been indicted, tried and
worthwhile life condemned to death in an unjust
- Why should justice matter? manner.
● In Gorgias, Socrates argues that ● Your friends arranged an
justice is a sufficient condition for opportunity for you to escape and
happiness. It is better to suffer they will not be in danger for
wrong than to commit it (Injustice doing so. Most people think it is
harms the soul. With a tainted right for you to escape.
soul, life is unbearable). ❖ Should you take the
● Difference between what people opportunity?
think they want AND what they
really want (ex. Wealth is Socrates’ Death
desirable only if it leads to - Sentenced to death by drinking
happiness; it leads to happiness hemlock for impiety and
only if it is used well.) corrupting the youth
- He was offered a chance to
★ ARETE - virtue and excellence escape but he refused. In Crito,
he answered in his way:
Socrates ● We ought not to harm anyone. By
- “I am the wisest man alive, for I escaping, he would harm the
know one thing, and that is that I state, violate and disregard its
know nothing.” laws.
- “True insight comes from within.” ● When one remains living in a
- “The unexamined life is not worth state when one could leave, one
living.” tacitly agrees to obey the law. If
● Suppose you are trying to be a he escapes, then he’s breaking
good person, do your duty and the agreement. We ought not to
advocate the good of your break a promise.
fellowmen. However, you have
 ● One’s society or state is one’s ● Valuational statement: Reform
parent/teacher. We ought to obey must come from outside the
our parent/teacher. existing political process
❖ (Plato got involved in political
PLATO (PART 1: DEFENSE OF affairs through his teachings ->
JUSTICE) created lawyers and advisers to
Background rulers)
● Context: Traditional values were
under attack by imm oralists and The Republic
skeptics ● Greek title: Politeia (constitution
● Plato’s aim: Develop a or way of life of a city)
counter-attack and defend justice ● Alternate title: On Justice
● Thought that the Athenian ● Content: Glaucon and
constitution was beyond Adeimantus praised injustice
redemption, except through which Socrates tried to rebut
miracles since he saw how it ● Concerns:
failed Socrates. A centerpiece for ○ What is justice?
The Republic was that “existing ○ How does justice pay?
cities are hopelessly corrupt and ○ How can people be made
must remain so unless they can just?
be rescued from their plight by ● Glaucon requested to examine
philosophic rulers.” the benefits of justice more
deeply.
Plato's Political Theory ○ Goods - those that benefit
● Factual statement: Poor city, the possessor-leading to
corrupt political institutions happiness
● Causal statement: Existing ○ 2 ways to benefit:
political institutions cannot immediate and remote
remedy the situation ○ 3 classifications:
■ Immediately
beneficial without
 remote for justice matters, not
consequence justice itself.)
■ Immediately ● Plato’s common-sensical
beneficial with argument to defend justice:
remote benefits Justice pays (Just man benefits.
■ Immediately harmful Justice is better than injustice.
with remote benefits Justice is necessary to attain a
● Socrates’ concept of justice vs happy life.)
Glaucon’s concept of justice
○ For Socrates, justice is Analogy Between Soul and City
immediately beneficial with ● Justice in the human soul is
remote benefits small, so it is harder to observe.
○ For Glaucon, justice is ● Make the analogy between soul
immediately harmful with and city.
remote benefits. Justice is ● Individuals (soul) are
to be avoided if possible, decisively-shaped by the society
but necessary to get he is in. A city is as it is because
rewards. One should be of the kind of people in it.
unjust as long as he is not ● Discussion of justice in the city
caught. helps to understand the nature of
● Glaucon praises the unjust life. justice in the soul.
○ By nature, there is desire ● Moral reform (justice in the soul):
for undue gain, but this This can be achieved not through
desire is restrained by Socratic dialogue, but only by
others. being raised in a just city.
○ No one is just willingly (ex. ● Just city is where just souls can
Gyges’ ring) be formed.
○ Injustice is better than
justice. (Unjust man Just City
flourishes more than the ● Just city is where just souls can
just man. Only reputation be formed
● Just city is characterized with accept their place in the
rigid differentiation of function and society
division of labor among 3 classes ○ Justice - require each
(known as principle of person to stay in his own
specialization) place in the society and do
○ Rulers – philosopher kings his own job for which he is
○ Auxiliaries – fighting force naturally-suited. Decisions
○ Productive class – will be made by those
responsible for economic competent to make them.
life of city ● Justice is what allows other
● Division is necessary for virtues to exist. Only if each
efficiency and so that people take person accepts his place and
on roles for which they are not constantly working against
naturally-suited. social order can there be
● Emphasized education and smooth functioning of the
training of rulers and auxilliaries society.
(both called Guardians)
● If education system is successful, Just Souls
it will be a smoothly functioning ● Just city is where just souls can
city that possesses the virtues be formed
● 4 traditional virtues: wisdom, ● Moral reform demands political
courage, temperance, justice power. A properly-governed just
○ Wisdom - wise rulers who city can harmonize the soul of the
make intelligent decisions inhabitants.
make a wise city ○ Being subjected to the rule
○ Courage - courageous of a wise ruler is for
fighting force makes a everyone’s advantage.
courageous city ○ If the person is not yet just,
○ Temperance - concerns he can be reformed by
relations between classes; being in the just city (with
the classes are willing to its laws).
 ● For Plato, politics must benefit Justice Pays
people by imposing order on their ● Compared just city with other
souls. Must properly condition the unjust city:
soul while still young, since the ○ Timarchy - Just city turns
environment shapes people. to timarchy when
● Soul has 3 parts: auxiliaries elevate
○ Rational part (rulers) - themselves to rulers
calculates what is good for (enslave lower classes)
the soul ○ Oligarchy - Auxiliaries
○ Spirited part (auxiliaries) - amass wealth and rule to
ability to feel, form preserve it, leading to
self-image that moves a economic inequality (poor
person becomes poorer; rich
○ Appetitive part becomes richer).
(productive class) - can ○ Democracy - Poor
see only their pressing conquer rich. Poor kills
needs, demand some rich and expels the
satisfaction regardless of others. The rest have
other considerations equal share of political
office. Mob is intolerant
Just soul (shows that justice pays) and may lead to political
● Justice in the soul: A just man is instability.
a master of himself, allows other ○ Tyranny - Tyrant first
virtues to exist. It pays to have a arises as champion of the
balanced, moderate life (leads to people. He appears nice at
happiness). first to cement the favor of
● The unjust man is a slave to the people, then his true
appetite. He has constant character emerges. (Starts
desires that are unfulfilled (leads a war to tax the people into
to unhappiness). poverty; poverty will make
people focus on daily
 needs instead of politics;
tyrant launches war to
purge/suppress enemies)
■ EX: Marcos started
as a good ruler but
after re-election
(acquiring
loyalty/favor of
majority) he became
a tyrant as he
abused his power
and declared Martial
Law.
● In the unjust city, the ruling class
is happy at the expense of the
city.
● Just city as a whole is happier
because ruling class rules in the
interests of all classes and all
classes will be satisfied (leading
to political stability)
★ Just Souls in the Just City = City
functioning as a whole