Solved papers

2013 - 2018
AS (All variants)

Physics
Paper 2
(Notes and solved past-paper questions)

Prepared by:

Sir A. N. Chowhan
(Headstart School, Islamabad)
Sole author of best-selling book on
A-level Physics Paper 5
(Best seller in 8 countries, including UK, Pakistan, UAE,
Saudi Arabia, China, Bangladesh, Malaysia and Nepal)

To order Sir A. N. Chowhan’s O/A-Levels and IGCSE Physics Notes (pdf files)

WhatsApp at +92 307 5059857

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS CHAPTER 1

1 SI Base Quantities and their Units

Base quantities are fundamental physical quantities. All other quantities may be expressed in terms of
base quantities. In SI (System International or International System of Units), seven quantities have
been selected as base quantities.

base quantity unit

length metre (m)

mass kilogram (kg)
time second (s)
temperature kelvin (K)
current ampere (A)
amount of substance mole (mol)
luminous intensity candela (cd)

Figure 1.1

Notes
 A physical quantity is described by a numerical magnitude and a unit (e.g. mass of a body = 2 kg)
 Luminous intensity is not included in A-level Physics syllabus.

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 1) in the same order:
10, 4

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

2 Determining SI Base Units of Derived Quantities

All physical quantities other than base quantities (e.g. speed) are called derived quantities. These
quantities may be expressed in terms of base quantities, and hence their units may be expressed as
–1
products or quotients of base units (e.g. SI base units of speed are ‘m s ’).
Notes
 The only thing needed to determine the SI base units of a derived quantity is its expression in
terms of base quantities.
 The correct definition of a physical quantity uses other quantities, NOT their units. For example, it
is technically incorrect to define density as the mass per cubic metre; rather, it should be defined
as the mass per unit volume.

Example 1
Determine SI base units of force (F). [1]
Solution
F = ma
So:
–2
SI base units of F = kg m s

Example 2
Determine SI base units of pressure (P). [1 or 2]
Solution
F ma
P= =
A A
So:
kg . m s 2 –1 –2
SI base units of P = = kg m s
m2

Example 3
Determine SI base units of work (w). [1 or 2]
Solution
w = Fs = ma . s
So:
–2 2 –2
SI base units of w = kg . m s . m = kg m s
Note
As work and energy have the same SI unit (joule), so SI base units of work can also be determined by
using the expression for kinetic energy (Ek) or gravitational potential energy (Ep) as done below:
1
Ek = mv 2
2
So:
–1 2 2 –2
SI base units of Ek = kg . (m s ) = kg m s
Likewise as:
Ep = mgh
So:
–2 2 –2
SI base units of Ep = kg . m s . m = kg m s

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

3 Checking the Homogeneity of Physical Equations

Example 1
Check whether or not the following equation is homogenous:
1 2
s = ut + at ………. (i)
2
where s is displacement, u is initial velocity, t is time and a is acceleration.
Solution
SI base unit of s = m
–1
SI base unit of ut = m s . s = m
1 2 –2 2
SI base unit of at = m s . s = m
2
As all the terms in Eq. (i) have the same SI base unit, so it is a homogenous equation.

Example 2
Check whether or not the following equation is homogenous:
1
s = ut 2 + at ………. (ii)
2
where s is displacement, u is initial velocity, t is time and a is acceleration.
Solution
SI base unit of s = m
2 –1 2
SI base unit of ut = m s . s = m s
1 –2 –1
SI base unit of at = m s . s = m s
2
As different terms in Eq. (ii) have different SI base units, so it is a non-homogenous equation.
Notes
 A correct physical equation (e.g. P = gh) is always homogenous.
 A non-homogenous equation is always incorrect.
 Rearranging an equation does not affect its homogeneity.

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 1) in the same order:
2, 7, 3, 13, 14, 8, 16

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Important Note
In all solved past-paper questions throughout the text, things (such as text/formula/drawing)
written/drawn in red serve as additional explanations only, so students are not required to write/draw
them in order to score the intended marks.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

4 Prefixes

prefix symbol value

–12
pico p 10
–9
nano n 10
–6
micro  10
–3
milli m 10
–2
centi c 10
–1
deci d 10
3
kilo k 10
6
mega M 10
9
giga G 10
12
tera T 10

Figure 1.2

Notes
 Prefixes are used to indicate decimal submultiples or multiples of both base and derived units. For
example: ‘1 cm’ is a decimal submultiple of metre (m).
 The symbol of prefix is always written before the symbol of unit (e.g. 1 mm for one millimetre).
 Two prefixes cannot be combined. For example, 1  10  10 m should not be written as: 1 Mkm;
6 3

rather, it should be written as: 1 Gm (which is equal to 1  10 m).

9

 The use of prefixes makes the process of converting a unit to a larger or smaller unit very simple.
For example:
–2
 2.4 cm = 2.4 × 10 m
–2 –4

2 2 2 2
2.4 cm = 2.4 (cm) = 2.4 × (10 m) = 2.4 × 10 m
–2 –6

3 3 3 3
2.4 cm = 2.4 (cm) = 2.4 × (10 m) = = 2.4 × 10 m

Classwork/homework
Now do workbook question 12 (of chapter 1).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

5 Conventions for Labelling Graph Axes and Table Columns

Let us imagine a car moving along a straight road with uniform acceleration. The table in Fig. 1.3 (a)
shows the values of velocity (v) of the car at different instants of time (t), and the graph in Fig. 1.3 (b)
shows the variation with time of the velocity of the car.

Figure 1.3 (a) Figure 1.3 (b)

Note
The column headings of a table (and likewise the labels of graph axes) should consist of the (symbol
2
of) physical quantity and its unit, with the distinguishing mark ‘/’ between them (such as t / 10 s).

6 Making Reasonable Estimates of Physical Quantities

Example 1
Make reasonable estimate of the mass, in grams (g), of an apple. [1]
Solution
(It may be assumed that there are on average 5 apples in 1 kg (or 1000 g). So, the mass of an apple
may be estimated to be:)
200 g
(According to the marking scheme, any value from 50 g to 500 g is acceptable for the reasonable
estimate of the mass of an apple)

Example 2
3
Make reasonable estimate of the volume, in cm , of the head of an adult person. [1]
Solution
(It may be assumed that the volume of the head of an adult person is almost equal to the volume of a
sphere of diameter 20 cm or radius 10 cm. Now, the volume of a sphere of radius 10 cm is calculated
as:
4 4
V = r 3 = (10)3 = 4189 cm
3
3 3
So, the volume of the head of an adult person may be estimated to be:)
3
4000 cm
3 3
(According to the marking scheme, any value from 2000 cm to 9000 cm is acceptable for the
reasonable estimate of the volume of the head of an adult person)
Notes
 When making an estimate, DO NOT try to state the whole range of acceptable values.
 State your estimate to no more than 2 significant figures.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

7 Scalars and Vectors

Scalar quantities only have magnitude (e.g. mass); whereas vector quantities have both: magnitude
and direction (e.g. force). [2]
Notes
 scalar × scalar = scalar (e.g. speed × time = distance travelled)
 scalar × vector = vector (e.g. mass × velocity = momentum)
 vector × vector = scalar or vector (e.g. force × displacement = work)
(also: force × displacement = moment of a force)

2
Square of a vector is always a scalar. (e.g. velocity is a scalar)

Representation of a Vector
Let us imagine a force (F) of 25 N acting on a body to the right. This force can be represented
graphically by a line segment, with an arrowhead drawn at the right end (or in the middle of the line),
as shown in Fig. 1.4.

Figure 1.4

Notes
 The length of line segment indicates the magnitude of the vector (according to the scale).
 The arrowhead indicates the direction of the vector.

Negative of a Vector
Negative of a vector A is a vector with the same magnitude as A, but with direction opposite to A as
shown in Fig. 1.5

Figure 1.5

Physical Significance of ‘+’ and ‘–’ Signs for Scalars and Vectors
–1
 If, when evaluated, a vector turns out to be negative (e.g. velocity after collision = – 2 m s ), it
means that its direction is opposite to the direction taken as positive, and vice versa.
 If however a scalar turns out to be negative (e.g. temperature = – 10 C), it does not mean that it
has opposite direction (as scalars don’t have direction); rather, it means that it is even less than 0,
and vice versa.
 If change in a scalar turns out to be negative (e.g. change in KE = final KE – initial KE = – 15 J), it
means that the scalar decreases, and vice versa.
–1
 If however change in a vector turns out to be negative (e.g. change in velocity = – 10 m s ), it
does not mean that the vector decreases; rather, it means that the change in the vector takes
place in the direction opposite to the direction taken as positive.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

8 Vector Addition and Subtraction

Example 1 (vector addition)

If:

Figure 1.6 (NOT TO SCALE)

then determine the magnitude and direction of the resultant of the two forces acting at point X. [3 or 4]

Method 1 (head-to-tail method)

Scale: 1 cm = 2 N

Now as:
length of resultant force vector = 11 cm (where 1 cm = 2 N)
so:
magnitude of the resultant force = 11 × 2
= 22 N
Likewise:
direction of the resultant force = 37 above the horizontal
Steps of Working
1 Chose appropriate scale.
2 Draw any one of the two vectors according to the scale, and in the right direction.
3 Starting from the head of the first vector draw the second vector (also according to the scale and
in the right direction).
4 Join the tail of the first vector to the head of the second (or final) vector by a straight line and draw
two arrowhead symbols (pointing from the tail of the first vector to the head of the second vector)
in the middle of the line. The length of this line indicates the magnitude of the resultant vector, and
its direction indicates the direction of the resultant vector.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Method 2 (parallelogram method)

Scale: 1 cm = 2 N

Now as:
length of resultant force vector = 11 cm (where 1 cm = 2 N)
so:
magnitude of the resultant force = 11 × 2
= 22 N
Likewise:
direction of the resultant force = 37 above the horizontal
Steps of Working
1 Chose appropriate scale.
2 Starting from the same point draw both vectors (according to the scale and in the right directions).
3 Draw a line parallel to one vector and passing through the head of the other vector.
4 Repeat step 3 for the other vector.
5 Join the tail point of both vectors to the point of intersection of the two lines drawn in steps 3 and
4 by a straight line, and draw two arrowhead symbols (pointing from the tail point of the vectors to
the point of intersection of the lines) in the middle of the line. The length of this line indicates the
magnitude of the resultant vector, and its direction indicates the direction of the resultant vector.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Example 2 (vector subtraction)

If:

Figure 1.7 (NOT TO SCALE)

then determine the magnitude and direction of F1 – F2. [3 or 4]

Solution
As:
F1 – F2 = F1 + (– F2)
So (the magnitude and direction of) ‘F1 – F2‘ can be determined by adding F1 to ‘– F2’ as done below:

Scale: 1 cm = 2 N

Now as:
length of F1 – F2 vector = 6.5 cm (where 1 cm = 2 N)
so:
magnitude of F1 – F2 = 6.5 × 2
= 13 N
Likewise:
direction of F1 – F2 = 79 below the horizontal

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 1) in the same order:
1, 6, 11, 15, 9, 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 PHYSICAL QUANTITIES AND UNITS

Important Note
The formulas/equations with borders (rectangles) drawn around them are very important from the
examination point of view, but the formula sheets of paper 1 (MCQ paper) and paper 2 (theory paper)
do not contain these formulas; so students are advised to memorise them.

9 Vector Resolution into Perpendicular Components

Let us consider a force of magnitude F acting at point O at angle  to the horizontal as shown in Fig.
1.8. If we draw a normal from the head of F onto horizontal axis, we get Fx (the horizontal component
of force F). Likewise, drawing a normal from the head of F onto vertical axis gives Fy (the vertical
component of force F).

Figure 1.8

Note that the vector addition of forces Fx and Fy gives force F. This implies that force F may be
represented by two perpendicular forces Fx and Fy acting together (i.e. simultaneously). Fx and Fy are
called the perpendicular components of force F. Now, in the right-angled triangle OAB:

F = Fx 2 + Fy 2

Fx = F cos

Fy = F sin

Fy
= tan
Fx

where F, Fx and Fy represent the side-lengths of the triangle OAB.

Notes
 In a right-angled triangle, the side opposite to the right angle is the hypotenuse (hyp.), and the
side opposite to angle  is equal to ‘hyp. × sin ’. So, if:

Figure 1.9
then:
Fx = F sin 
and:
Fy = F cos 

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 1

 Any vector quantity (e.g. displacement, velocity, momentum etc.) can be resolved into its
perpendicular components.

Example
If:

Figure 1.10

then determine the magnitudes of normal reaction R and friction f acting on the cube resting on the
inclined plane.
Solution
Resolving the weight W of the cube into perpendicular components (one along the inclined plane, and
the other, perpendicular to the plane) gives:

Now as the cube is stationary, so all the four forces acting on it (R, f, W cos  and W sin ) must be
cancelling out each other. In other words, any force acting on the cube in one direction must be equal
in magnitude to the force acting on it in the opposite direction; so:
f = W sin  and R = W cos 
= mg sin  R = mg cos 
= (0.5)(9.81) sin 30 = (0.5)(9.81) cos 30
= 2.5 N = 4.2 N
Note
Component of weight W of a body down an inclined plane is always equal to ‘W sin ’, where  is the
angle the plane makes with the horizontal.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES CHAPTER 2

Important Note
The formulas/equations with borders (rectangles) drawn around them are very important from the
examination point of view, but the formula sheets of paper 1 (MCQ paper) and paper 2 (theory paper)
do not contain these formulas; so students are advised to memorise them.

1 Vernier Caliper

Figure 2.1

Notes
 Vernier caliper is used to measure short lengths usually ranging from 1 cm to 10 cm.
(Lengths smaller than 1 cm are usually measured with a micrometer screw gauge, and lengths
greater than 10 cm are usually measured with a metre rule).
 The least count of a vernier caliper having 10 divisions on its vernier scale is 0.01 cm.
 The least count of a vernier caliper having 20 divisions on its vernier scale is 0.005 cm.

Example 1
A vernier caliper is used to determine the length of a small metal cylinder. Fig. 2.2 (a) shows the
reading with the gap between the jaws of the vernier caliper closed, and Fig 2.2 (b) shows the reading
with the cylinder held between the jaws.

Figure 2.2 (a) Figure 2.2 (b)

Use Figs. 2.2 (a) and (b) to determine the length of the cylinder.
Solution
Note that, in Fig. 2.2 (a), the ‘0’ of vernier scale is on the right of the ‘0’ of main scale. This implies that
the zero error of the vernier caliper is positive, so:
zero reading = coinciding division × least count

= 8 × 0.01 cm
= 0.08 cm

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Now, from Fig. 2.2 (b):

measured reading = main scale reading + (coinciding division × least count)

= 5.1 cm + (4 × 0.01 cm)

= 5.1 cm + 0.04 cm
= 5.14 cm
Finally:
corrected reading = measured reading  zero reading

= 5.14 cm – 0.08 cm = 5.06 cm

So, the length of the cylinder is 5.06 cm.
Notes
 Coinciding division is the vernier scale division that coincides with any of the main scale divisions.
 Main scale reading is the first main scale division on the left of the ‘0’ of vernier scale.
Example 2
A vernier caliper is used to determine the diameter of a small metal cylinder. Fig. 2.3 (a) shows the
reading with the gap between the jaws of the vernier caliper closed, and Fig 2.3 (b) shows the reading
with the cylinder held between the jaws.

Figure 2.3 (a) Figure 2.3 (b)

Use Figs. 2.3 (a) and (b) to determine the diameter of the cylinder.
Solution
Note that, in Fig. 2.3 (a), the ‘0’ of vernier scale is on the left of the ‘0’ of main scale. This implies that
the zero error of the vernier caliper is negative, so:
zero reading = (coinciding division  total no. of vernier scale divisions) × least count

= (3 – 10) × 0.01 cm
= – 0.07 cm
Now, from Fig. 2.3 (b):
measured reading = main scale reading + (coinciding division × least count)
= 2.1 cm + (6 × 0.01 cm)
= 2.1 cm + 0.06 cm
= 2.16 cm
Finally:
corrected reading = measured reading – zero reading
= 2.16 cm – (– 0.07 cm)
= 2.16 cm + 0.07 cm
= 2.23 cm
So, the diameter of the cylinder is 2.23 cm.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

2 Micrometer Screw Gauge

Figure 2.4 (a) Figure 2.4 (b)

Notes
 Micrometer screw gauge is usually used to measure lengths smaller than 1 cm (e.g. diameter of a
metal wire).
 A typical micrometer usually has 50 divisions on its circular scale.
 The least count of a typical micrometer is 0.01 mm.
 The distance between two successive divisions (one above and one below the datum line) on the
main scale is 0.5 mm (see Fig. 2.4 (b)).

Example 1
A micrometer is used to determine the diameter of a metal wire. Fig. 2.5 (a) shows the reading with
the gap between anvil and spindle closed, and Fig 2.5 (b) shows the reading with the wire in position
(i.e. held between anvil and spindle).

Figure 2.5 (a) Figure 2.5 (b)

Use Figs. 2.5 (a) and (b) to determine the diameter of the wire.
Solution
Note that, in Fig. 2.5 (a), the ‘0’ of circular scale is below the datum line (or the edge of circular scale
is on the right of the ‘0’ of main scale). This implies that the zero error of the micrometer is positive,
so:
zero reading = coinciding division × least count
= 14 × 0.01 mm
= 0.14 mm
Now, from Fig. 2.5 (b):
measured reading = main scale reading + (coinciding division × least count)
= 2.5 mm + (8 × 0.01 mm)
= 2.5 mm + 0.08 mm
= 2.58 mm
Finally:
corrected reading = measured reading – zero reading
= 2.58 mm – 0.14 mm = 2.44 mm

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

So, the diameter of the wire is 2.44 mm.

Notes
 Coinciding division is the circular scale division that coincides with the datum line.
 Main scale reading is the first main scale division on the left of the edge of circular scale.

Example 2
A micrometer is used to determine the diameter of a metal wire. Fig. 2.6 (a) shows the reading with
the gap between anvil and spindle closed, and Fig 2.6 (b) shows the reading with the wire in position.

Figure 2.6 (a) Figure 2.6 (b)

Use Figs. 2.6 (a) and (b) to determine the diameter of the wire.
Solution
Note that, in Fig. 2.6 (a), the ‘0’ of circular scale is above the datum line (or the edge of circular scale
is on the left of the ‘0’ of main scale). This implies that the zero error of the micrometer is negative, so:
zero reading = (coinciding division  total no. of circular scale divisions) × least count

= (47 – 50) × 0.01 mm

= – 0.03 mm
Now, from Fig. 2.6 (b):
measured reading = main scale reading + (coinciding division × least count)
= 3.5 mm + (32 × 0.01 mm)
= 3.5 mm + 0.32 mm
= 3.82 mm
Finally:
corrected reading = measured reading – zero reading
= 3.82 mm – (– 0.03 mm)
= 3.82 mm + 0.03 mm
= 3.85 mm
So, the diameter of the wire is 3.85 mm.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

3 Cathode-Ray Oscilloscope (CRO)

Figure 2.7

Notes
 The trace on the screen of CRO is actually the voltage-time graph of the input signal (and sound
is the original input signal in Fig. 2.7).
 Time interval between A and B is the time taken for 1 cycle (i.e. period T) of the input signal.

Example
If:

Figure 2.8

then determine:
(a) the time interval between A and B,
(b) the potential difference (p.d.) between A and B.

Solution
(a) time interval between A and B = time-base setting × x
–1
= 10 ms cm × 2 cm
= 20 ms
(b) p.d. between A and B = Y-gain setting × y
–1
= 5 mV cm × 3 cm
= 15 mV

Classwork/homework
Now do workbook question 8 (of chapter 2).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Important Note
In all solved past-paper questions throughout the text, things (such as text/formula/drawing)
written/drawn in red serve as additional explanations only, so students are not required to write/draw
them in order to score the intended marks.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

4 Actual (or Absolute) Uncertainty, Fractional Uncertainty and Percentage Uncertainty

Example 1
The reading for the diameter (d) of a wire is stated as:
diameter (d) = 2.43 ± 0.01 cm
(a) State the actual uncertainty (∆d) in d.
(b) Determine:
(i) fractional uncertainty in d.
(ii) percentage uncertainty in d.

Solution
(a) actual uncertainty (∆d) in d = ± 0.01 cm
d
(b) (i) fractional uncertainty in d =
d
0.01
= = ± 0.0041
2.43
d
(ii) percentage uncertainty in d = ×100
d
= 0.0041 × 100 = ± 0.41%
Notes
 The actual uncertainty (when stated with its quantity) should be stated to 1 significant figure.
 The fractional and percentage uncertainties should preferably be stated to 2 significant figures.

Example 2 (for addition and subtraction)

If:

Figure 2.9

where:
l = 24.5 ± 0.1 cm
w = 14.2 ± 0.1 cm
and:
perimeter, p = 2l + 2w
then determine p and its actual uncertainty (∆p).
Solution
p = 2l + 2w
= 2 (24.5) + 2 (14.2) = 77.4 cm
Now, from the expression for p, we can write:
∆p = 2∆l + 2∆w
= 2 (0.1) + 2 (0.1) = 0.4 cm

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Rule
If:
Z = aX + bY or Z = aX – bY
where ‘a’ and ‘b’ are constants, and X and Y are measurements, then the actual uncertainty in Z is
given by:
∆Z = a∆X + b∆Y
where ∆X and ∆Y are the actual uncertainties in X and Y respectively.

Example 3 (for multiplication and division)

If:
current, l = 5.24 ± 0.01 mA
voltage, V = 2.42 ± 0.02 V
and:
power, P = lV
then determine P and its actual uncertainty (∆P).

Solution
P = lV
= 5.24 × 2.42 = 12.6808 mW
Now, from the expression for P, we can write:
P I V
= +
P I V
P 0.01 0.02
 = +
12.6808 5.24 2.42
 ∆P = 0.129 mW

Rule
If:
aX
Z = aXY or Z= (where ‘a’ is a constant)
Y
then:
Z X Y
= +
Z X Y
Likewise:
Z X Y
×100 = ×100 + ×100
Z X Y

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

Example 4 (for power function)

If:

Figure 2.10

where:
l = 24.5 ± 0.1 cm
d = 2.4 ± 0.1 cm
and:
d 2 l
volume, V =
4
then determine V and its actual uncertainty (∆V).

Solution
d 2 l
V=
4
(2.4)2 (24.5) 3
= = 110.835 cm
4
Now, from the expression for V, we can write:
V d l
= 2. +
V d l
V 0.1 0.1
 = 2× +
110.835 2.4 24.5

3
∆V = 9.69 cm

Rule 1
If:
a
Z = aX or Z= (where a is a constant)
X
then:
Z X
=
Z X
Likewise:
Z X
×100 = ×100
Z X

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Rule 2
If:
a
Z = aX b or Z= (where a and b are constants)
Xb
then:
Z X
= b.
Z X
Likewise:
Z X
×100 = b. ×100
Z X
Rule 3
If:
aX b
Z = aX bY c or Z= (where a, b and c are constants)
Yc
then:
Z X Y
= b. + c.
Z X Y
Likewise:
Z X Y
×100 = b. ×100 + c. ×100
Z X Y

Examples (of determining actual uncertainty by using a general rule)

(a) If:
L = 40.0  0.5 m
then:
 1  1 1 1 1 –1
 =   =  = 0.000316 = 0.0003 m
 L   L  max L 39.5 40.0
(b) If:
L = 40 m  10%
then the value of L may be stated along with its actual uncertainty as:
L = 40  4 m
Now:
 1  1 1 1 1 –1
 =   =  = 0.002778 = 0.003 m
 L   L max L 36 40

(c) If:
Lmin = 35 m and Lmax = 45 m
then:
Lmin  Lmax 35  45
L= = = 40 m
2 2
and:
L = Lmax – L = 45 – 40 = 5 m

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

(d) If:
d2
d = 0.050  0.001 m, t = 0.086  0.002 s, and v =
2
t2
then:
2 d 
2
d 2 (0.051)2 (0.050)2
– v = 2  2 –2
v = v  2 = 
2 2
= 0.0306 = 0.03 m s
max
t  (0.084)2
(0.086)2
  max t
Rule
In any quantity, say x, the actual uncertainty x may always be determined by using the equation:
x = xmax – x
where xmax is the maximum possible value of the quantity (x), and x is the most probable (or average)
value.

5 Rule for Stating Calculated Quantity with its Actual Uncertainty

Example
If density  (of a substance) and its actual uncertainty (∆) are calculated as:
 = 2.437 kg cm–3
–3
∆ = ± 0.0461 kg cm
then the density is stated, with its uncertainty, to appropriate number of significant figures as:
 = 2.44 ± 0.05 kg cm –3
Rule
First round off the uncertainty to 1 significant figure; then round off the quantity to the same (decimal)
place as the uncertainty.

6 Rules for Determining Number of Significant Figures (s.f.)

All certain digits and the first uncertain digit in the value of a (measured or calculated) quantity are
called significant figures (or significant digits).
Note
Universal constants (e.g. ) and real numbers (e.g. 1, 2/3 etc.) have infinite no. of s.f.

Example 1 (when the value of a quantity is stated with its uncertainty)

If:
diameter, d = 2.74 ± 0.01 cm
then:
no. of s.f. in d = 3
Explanation
The first uncertain digit in the value of d is ‘4’ (as the uncertainty of ‘± 0.01’ implies that the value of d
may lie anywhere from 2.73 cm to 2.75 cm). So the no. of s.f. in the value of d: ‘2.74 cm’ is 3.

Example 2 (when the value of a quantity is stated in scientific notation)

If:
–2
diameter, d = 2.30 × 10 m
then:
no. of s.f. in d = 3
Rule
–2
no. of s.f. in a quantity (d) = no. of digits in the number part of its value (2.30 × 10 m)

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Example 3 (when the value of a quantity is stated as decimal-point value)

If:
diameter, d = 0.0230 m
then:
no. of s.f. in d = 3
Rule
The right-most zeros in the decimal-point value of a quantity are significant; whereas the left-most
zeros are not.

Example 4 (for multiplication and division)

If:
distance covered, d = 0.050 m (2 s.f. in d)
time taken, t = 0.0581 s (3 s.f. in t)
and:
d
speed, v =
t
0.050 –1
= = 0.860585197 m s
0.0581
then speed is rounded off to appropriate no. of s.f. as:
–1
speed, v = 0.86 m s (2 s.f. in v)
Rule
no. of s.f. in the calculated quantity = least no. of s.f. in the raw data
Explanation
In the above example, d and t serve as the raw data; whereas v is the calculated quantity. Now, d has
2 s.f. and t has 3; so the calculated quantity v has been rounded off to 2 s.f. (which is the least no. of
s.f. in the raw data).

7 Rules for Rounding off a Calculated Quantity

Examples (of decimal-point values)

 4.23189 m is rounded off to 2 decimal places (d.p.) as 4.23 m
 4.23589 m is rounded off to 2 d.p. as 4.24 m
 4.23689 m is rounded off to 2 d.p. as 4.24 m
Rules
1 The last digit to be retained in the value remains the same if the very next digit (to its right) is less
than 5.
2 The last digit to be retained in the value is increased by 1 if the very next digit (to its right) is 5 or
greater than 5.

Examples (of whole-number values)

 42318 m is rounded off to 3 s.f. as 42300 m
 42358 m is rounded off to 3 s.f. as 42400 m
 42368 m is rounded off to 3 s.f. as 42400 m
Rules
1 The last digit to be retained in the value remains the same if the very next digit (to its right) is less
than 5; whereas all the digits to be dropped are replaced with zeros.
2 The last digit to be retained in the value is increased by 1 if the very next digit (to its right) is 5 or
greater than 5; whereas all the digits to be dropped are replaced with zeros.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 2) in the same order:
9, 4, 6, 7, 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

8 Accuracy and Precision

Example
Two students A and B perform the same experiment separately to determine a value for the
acceleration of free fall g. They obtain the following sets of results:

–2
student results, g / m s

A 9.81 10.12 9.89 8.94

B 8.45 8.46 8.50 8.41

Identify the set of results that is:

(a) more accurate
(b) more precise

Solution
9.81+10.12 + 9.89 + 8.94
(a) mean value of results of A =
4
–2
= 9.69 m s
and:
8.45 + 8.46 + 8.50 + 8.41
mean value of results of B =
4
–2
= 8.46 m s
–2
As the mean value of the results of student A is closer to the true value of g (which is 9.81 m s ),
so the set of results of student A is more accurate.

(b) range of results of A = 10.12 – 8.94

–2
= 1.18 m s
and:

range of results of B = 8.50 – 8.41

–2
= 0.09 m s
As the range (or spread) of results of student B is smaller than that of student A (i.e. the
results/values obtained by student B are relatively close to each other), so the set of results of
student B is more precise.

Accuracy
It is concerned with how close the mean value of readings (or measurements) is to the true value. [1]

Precision
It is concerned with how close the readings (or measurements) are to each other. [1]

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Important Notes
 Keywords have been underlined throughout the text. Definitions/statements lacking keywords are
not awarded full marks (as indicated, in blue, at the end of the definitions/statements); so
students are advised to pay special attention to the keywords (as they memorise the
definitions/statements).
 Bracketed information only serves as an additional detail that is not required (in order for the
examiner to award the intended marks).

9 Systematic and Random Errors

Systematic Error
 Example: zero error
 It causes all the (repetitive) readings to be either greater or smaller (but not both at the same
time) than the true value by (almost) constant amount. [1 or 2]
 It cannot be reduced by taking several readings and then averaging them. [1]
 Reducing systematic error reduces the difference between the mean value of the readings and
the true value, and hence improves the accuracy of the readings (or the set of results). [1 or 2]

Random Error
 Example: reading scale from different angles as shown below (Fig. 2.11):

Figure 2.11

 It causes the (repetitive) readings to scatter about the true (or mean) value randomly. [1 or 2]
 It can be reduced by taking several readings and then averaging them. [1]
 Reducing random error reduces the range (or spread) of the readings and hence improves the
precision of the readings (or the set of results). [1 or 2]

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

Example 1
According to Ohm’s law, the current (I) in a metallic conductor is directly proportional to the voltage
(V) applied across it (provided the temperature remains constant). Three students A, B, and C
perform the same experiment separately to test the relationship between current and voltage (as
suggested by Ohm’s law). They each set up the following circuit (Fig. 2.12).

Figure 2.12

Ammeter and voltmeter of student A have no zero error. Besides, student A makes no mistake when
he takes the readings of current and voltage (i.e. neither systematic nor random error is present), and
thus obtains the I-V graph shown in Fig. 2.13 (a).
The ammeter of student B however has a positive zero error of 0.4 mA, so all the readings of current
taken by him are greater than the true values by 0.4 mA (i.e. systematic error is present).
Consequently, he obtains the I-V graph shown in Fig. 2.13 (b).
Ammeter and voltmeter of student C also have no zero error, but he reads their scales from different
angles when he takes the readings (i.e. random error occurs). Consequently, he obtains the I-V graph
shown in Fig. 2.13 (c).

Figure 2.13 (a) Figure 2.13 (b) Figure 2.13 (c)

Notes
 In Fig. 2.13 (b), the graph line does not pass through the origin (0,0); this shows the presence of
systematic error (i.e. zero error) in the readings. [1]
 In Fig. 2.13 (c), the plotted points are scattered about the line of best-fit; this shows the presence
of random error in the readings. [1]

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Example 2 (Q1/23/M/J/11)

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

Example 3 (Q6/11/O/N/02)

Answer: C

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 2) in the same order:
5, 1, 2

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

10 Calibration Curves

Example 1 (Q1/22/M/J/07)

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 2

Solution
(a) (i) & (ii)

(b) It is more sensitive in the low-volume region.

Example 2 (Q4/11/O/N/04)

Answer: A

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 MEASUREMENT TECHNIQUES

Example 3 (Q6/11/O/N/07)

Answer: A

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS CHAPTER 3

Important Notes
 The formulas/equations with borders (rectangles) drawn around them are very important from the
examination point of view, but the formula sheets of paper 1 (MCQ paper) and paper 2 (theory
paper) do not contain these formulas; so students are advised to memorise them.
 Keywords have been underlined throughout the text. Definitions/statements lacking keywords are
not awarded full marks (as indicated, in blue, at the end of the definitions/statements); so
students are advised to pay special attention to the keywords (as they memorise the
definitions/statements).
 Bracketed information only serves as an additional detail that is not required (in order for the
examiner to award the intended marks).

1 Distance, Displacement, Speed, Velocity and Acceleration

Distance and Displacement

 Distance is the total length of straight-line or curved path between two points. [1]
 Displacement (of a point) is the straight-line distance (of the point) from a fixed point (or reference
point). [1]
 Distance is a scalar; whereas displacement is a vector.

Speed and Velocity

Mathematically, speed is given by the expression:
d
v=
t
where d is the distance covered in time t. So, speed may be defined as:
distance covered
speed = [1]
time taken
Velocity, on the other hand, is given by the expression:
s
v=
t
where ∆s is the change in displacement in time ∆t. So, velocity may be defined as:
change in displacement
velocity = [1]
time taken
Notes
 Speed may also be defined as the distance covered per unit time. [1]
 Velocity may also be defined as the change in displacement per unit time. [1]
OR: The rate of change of displacement. [1]
 Speed is a scalar; whereas velocity is a vector. [1]

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Acceleration
Generally, acceleration is given by the expression:
v
a=
t
where ∆v is the change in velocity in time ∆t. So, acceleration may be defined as:
change in velocity
acceleration = [1]
time taken
Notes
 Acceleration may also be given by the expression:
v u
a=
t
where v is the final velocity and u is the initial velocity.
 Acceleration may also be defined as the change in velocity per unit time. [1]
OR: The rate of change of velocity. [1]

2 Displacement-Time, Velocity-Time and Acceleration-Time Graphs

Example 1 (displacement-time graph)

Fig. 3.1 shows the displacement-time graph of a body moving in a straight line.

Figure 3.1

Use Fig. 3.1 to determine the velocity of the body between A and B.
Solution
velocity = gradient of displacement-time graph (as: v = ∆s / ∆t)

10  5
=
42
–1
= 2.5 m s

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Example 2 (velocity-time graph)

Fig. 3.2 shows the velocity-time graph of a body moving in a straight line.

Figure 3.2

Use Fig. 3.2 to determine:

(a) the acceleration of the body between A and B.
(b) the displacement of B from A.

Solution
(a) acceleration = gradient of velocity-time graph (as: a = ∆v / ∆t)

10  5
=
42
–1
= 2.5 m s
(b) displacement of B from A = area under velocity-time graph from A to B

= <v>. ∆t (where <v> is the mean velocity between A and B)

5  10
= ×(4  2)
2
= 15 m
which is the magnitude of displacement (i.e. distance) of B from A.

Example 3 (acceleration-time graph)

Fig. 3.3 shows the acceleration-time graph of a body moving in a straight line.

Figure 3.3

Use Fig. 3.3 to determine the change in velocity from A to B.

Solution
change in velocity from A to B = area under acceleration-time graph from A to B

= <a>. ∆t
5  10
= ×(4  2)
2
–1
= 15 m s

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Example 4
Fig. 3.4 shows the displacement-time graph of a body moving in a straight line.

Figure 3.4

Use Fig. 3.4 to:

(a) describe the variation with time of the displacement (from the starting point), and velocity of the
body.
(b) draw velocity-time graph of the body.

Solution
(a)  From A to B, displacement and velocity (which is the gradient of the graph) are both zero.
 From B to C, displacement and velocity both increase.
 From C to D, displacement increases, however velocity remains constant.
 From D to E, displacement increases, but velocity decreases.
 From E to F, displacement is constant and velocity is zero.
(b)

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Example 5
A ball is dropped from a certain height towards the ground. It rebounds from the ground as shown
below (Fig. 3.5).

Figure 3.5

Use Fig. 3.5 to draw velocity-time graph of the ball.

Solution
(First of all, take one direction, say, upward as positive and the opposite direction as negative. Then
plot the points and join them)

Figure 3.6

Notes
 As:
gradient from A to B = gradient from D to E
so:
acceleration from A to B = acceleration from D to E
 As gradient from A to B, and also, from D to E is negative, so acceleration from A to B, and also,
from D to E is directed downwards (i.e. acceleration of free fall g).

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 3) in the same order:
3, 10

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Important Note
In all solved past-paper questions throughout the text, things (such as text/formula/drawing)
written/drawn in red serve as additional explanations only, so students are not required to write/draw
them in order to score the intended marks.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

3 Equations for Uniformly Accelerated Linear Motion (or SUVAT Equations)

Fig. 3.7 shows a body moving in a straight line with uniform (or constant) acceleration a. In time t, the
velocity of the body changes from u to v, and its displacement changes by s.

Figure 3.7

The acceleration of the body is given by:

v u
a=
t
 v = u + at ……… (i)
Now, the change in displacement of the body is given by:
u v
s = <v>. t (where: <v> = )
2
u v
 s= .t ………. (ii)
2
Putting ‘v = u + at’ into the above equation gives:
u  u + at
 s= .t
2
2u + at
= .t
2
2ut + at 2
=
2
2ut at 2
= +
2 2
1 2
 s = ut + at ………. (iii)
2
Now, rearranging Eq. (i) gives:
v u
t=
a
Putting the above expression for t into Eq. (ii) gives:
u +v v u
s= .
2 a
(v + u ).(v  u )
=
2a

v 2  u2
 s=
2a

 2as = v 2  u 2 ………. (iv)

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Notes
 Eqs. (i), (ii), (iii) and (iv), also known as the SUVAT equations, can only be used if:
1 the motion is along a straight line;
2 the acceleration is constant (or uniform); that is, the velocity changes at constant rate (or the
velocity-time graph is linear).
 The acceleration of a body moving vertically upwards or downwards under the action of gravity
only (i.e. when air resistance and upthrust are negligible) is almost constant (i.e. acceleration of
–2
free fall, g = 9.81 m s ). So, the SUVAT equations can be used for this type of motion too.

Example
If:

Figure 3.8

then determine s.
Solution
2 2 –2 –1
2as = v – u (where: a = 9.81 m s downwards, and u = 20 m s upwards)

2 2
2 (– 9.81) s = (0) – (20)
 s = 20.4 m
Note
When, in an equation, two vector quantities have opposite directions, then first take one direction as
positive and the other as negative, and then put values into the equation.

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 3) in the same order:
13, 12, 8, 11

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

4 Determining Acceleration of Free Fall (g)

Figure 3.9

For motion from A to B:

1 2
s = ut1 + at (where: u = 0 and a = g)
2 1
1 2
= (0)t1 + gt
2 1
1 2
 s= gt ………. (i)
2 1
Likewise, for motion from A to C:
1 2
s + h = ut2 + at
2 2
1 2
= (0)t2 + gt
2 2
1 2
 s+h= gt ………. (ii)
2 2
Now, subtracting Eq. (i) from Eq. (ii) gives:
1 2 1 2
h= gt  gt1
2 2 2
Rearranging gives:
2h
g=
t 2 2  t12

So, the value of acceleration of free fall (g) can be determined by putting values (of h, t1 and t2) into
the above expression (for g).
Note
Distance h is measured with a metre rule, and the values of t1 and t2 are obtained from the electronic
timer.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

5 Motion of Bodies Falling in a Uniform Gravitational Field

Without Air Resistance (i.e. when a body falls in a vacuum)

Figure 3.10

Notes
 The velocity of the falling body increases at constant rate (i.e. uniformly or linearly with time).
–2
 The acceleration is constant (i.e. acceleration of free fall, g = 9.81 m s ), as the only force acting
on the body (i.e weight, W) is constant.
So, the velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs of the body (in Fig. 3.10) are as shown below:

Figure 3.11 (a) Figure 3.11 (b)

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

With Air Resistance (i.e. when a body falls in air)

Figure 3.12

Notes
 At any point between A and B:
Fnet = W – Fair
The weight (W) of the body remains constant, but air resistance (Fair) increases with speed. When
air resistance becomes equal, in magnitude, to the weight, the resultant force becomes zero, and
so does the acceleration (a) of the body (as: Fnet = ma). [3]

 The velocity (v) of the body increases from zero at A to terminal velocity (vt) at B, and then
becomes constant. [2]

A body falling in air reaches terminal velocity (vt) when the air resistance acting on it becomes
equal, in magnitude, to its weight. [2]
–2
 The acceleration (a) of the body, on the other hand, decreases from g (= 9.81 m s ) at A to zero
at B, and then remains zero until the body hits the ground. [2 or 3]

So, the velocity-time and acceleration-time graphs of the body (in Fig. 3.12) are as shown below:

Figure 3.13 (a) Figure 3.13 (b)

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 3) in the same order:
2, 9

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

6 Projectile Motion

Figure 3.14

Notes
 No horizontal force acts on the projectile between A and B, so the horizontal acceleration of the
projectile is zero; that is, the velocity of the projectile is constant in the horizontal direction (see
Fig. 3.14).
 When dealing with the horizontal component of projectile motion, we use the following equation:
sx = v x t

where vx (= ux = u cos ) is the horizontal velocity of the projectile (which is constant), and sx is the
horizontal displacement of the projectile (from the point of projection A) after time t.
 The only force acting on the projectile between A and B is its weight (which is constant and
always directed vertically downwards), so the acceleration of the projectile between A and B is the
acceleration of free fall (g), which is also constant and always directed vertically downwards.
 When dealing with the vertical component of projectile motion, we use SUVAT equations (as
acceleration is constant in the vertical direction).
v y = uy + ay t

1 2
sy = u y t + at
2 y

2ay sy = v y 2  u y 2

where uy is the initial vertical velocity (uy = u sin ), vy is the final vertical velocity (after time t), ay
–2
is the vertical acceleration (ay = 9.81 m s ), and sy is the vertical displacement of the projectile
(from the point of projection A after time t).
 At the highest point (H), the vertical velocity of the projectile is zero (see Fig. 3.14).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Example 1
If:

Figure 3.15

then determine:
(i) the magnitude of final velocity v of the projectile at t = 1.5 s.
(ii) the direction (i.e. angle  with the horizontal) of v.

Solution

(i) v = v x2 + vy 2
where:
vx = ux = u cos  (as horizontal velocity is constant)
= 10 cos 60
–1
= 5.0 m s
and:
vy = uy + ay t (where uy is directed upwards and ay downwards)
= u sin  + ay t
= 10 sin 60 + (– 9.81)(1.5) (upward has been taken as ‘+’ and downward as ‘–‘ )
–1
= – 6.05 m s (‘–‘ sign indicates that vy is directed downwards)
So:
v = v x2 + vy 2

= (5.0)2 + (6.05)2
–1
= 7.8 m s
vy
(ii) tan  =
vx

6.05
 tan  =
5.0
  = 50
So:
direction of v = 50 below the horizontal

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Example 2
If:

Figure 3.16

then determine:
(i) the magnitude of displacement s of the projectile (from the point of projection) at t = 1.5 s.
(ii) the direction (i.e. angle  with the horizontal) of s.

Solution

(i) s = sx 2 + sy 2
where:
sx = vx t (where: vx = ux = u cos )
= (u cos ) t
= (10 cos 60) (1.5)
= 7.5 m
and:
1 2
sy = u y t + at (where uy is directed upwards and ay downwards)
2 y
1 2
= (u sin ) t + at
2 y
1
= (10sin60)(1.5) + ( 9.81)(1.5) 2
2
= 2.0 m
So:
s = sx 2 + sy 2

= (7.5)2 + (2.0)2
–1
= 7.8 m s
sy
(ii) tan  =
sx

2.0
 tan  =
7.5
  = 15
So:
direction of s = 15 above the horizontal

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 3) in the same order:
5, 4, 1, 6, 7

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 KINEMATICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS CHAPTER 4

Important Notes
 The formulas/equations with borders (rectangles) drawn around them are very important from the
examination point of view, but the formula sheets of paper 1 (MCQ paper) and paper 2 (theory
paper) do not contain these formulas; so students are advised to memorise them.
 Keywords have been underlined throughout the text. Definitions/statements lacking keywords are
not awarded full marks (as indicated, in blue, at the end of the definitions/statements); so
students are advised to pay special attention to the keywords (as they memorise the
definitions/statements).
 Bracketed information only serves as an additional detail that is not required (in order for the
examiner to award the intended marks).

1 Mass (m) and Weight (W)
 Mass is the property of a body that resists change in motion. [1]
 Weight is the gravitational force (that acts on a mass). [1]
 Mathematically, the weight of a body is given by the expression:
W = mg

where m is the mass of the body and g is the acceleration of free fall.
Note
 Weight may also be described as the effect of a gravitational field on a mass. [1]

2 Linear Momentum (p)

The linear momentum of a body of mass m moving with velocity v is given by the expression:
p = mv
So, linear momentum may be defined as:
linear momentum = mass × velocity [1]

Classwork/homework
Now do workbook question 7 (of chapter 4).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

Important Note
In all solved past-paper questions throughout the text, things (such as text/formula/drawing)
written/drawn in red serve as additional explanations only, so students are not required to write/draw
them in order to score the intended marks.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

3 Newton’s Laws of Motion

st
1 Law
st
Newton’s 1 law of motion states that a body continues in its state of rest, or uniform motion in a
straight line unless acted upon by a resultant (or unbalanced) force. [1]
nd
2 Law
nd
Newton’s 2 law of motion states that the resultant (external) force acting on a body (or system) is
equal to the rate of change of its momentum. [1]
Mathematically:
p
F= ………. (i)
t
So, the law may also be stated as:
change in momentum
resultant force = [1]
time taken
Notes
 From Eq. (i), it can be shown that:
F = ma ………. (ii)
where m is the mass and a is the acceleration of the body.
 Acceleration (a) always has the same direction as the resultant force (F).
 Acceleration is produced only for the time duration for which the resultant force acts on the body.
 Eq. (ii) can only be used for a body of constant mass.
 Eq. (i), however, can be used for both: a body of constant mass and a body whose mass changes
with time (e.g. a rocket).
rd
3 Law
rd
Newton’s 3 law of motion states that: when two bodies interact, they exert equal but opposite forces
on each other. [1]
Note
The action and reaction (forces) don’t cancel each other out because they act on separate bodies. [1]

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

4 Applying F = ma to Different Situations

Example 1
If:

Figure 4.1

then applying F = ma to mass m1 alone gives:

T – f1 = m1 a
Likewise, applying F = ma to mass m2 alone gives:
Fa – (T + f2) = m2 a
Now, applying F = ma to the whole system (comprising m1, m2 and the string) gives:
Fa – (f1 + f2) = (m1 + m2) a
Notes
 In the equation F = ma, F is actually the resultant external force acting on the body (or system).
 For m1 alone (and likewise for m2 alone), tension T in the string is an external force; however, for
the whole system (comprising m1, m2 and the string), tension T in the string is an internal force,
not external.
 At the ends of the string, the direction of tension in the string is towards the centre of the string.
 In the above example, it has been assumed that the string is massless and inextensible.

Example 2
If:

Figure 4.2

then for the whole system:

m2 g – m1g = (m1 + m2) a
Note
Both external forces m1g and m2g have the same direction (i.e. downward), but as they tend to rotate
the pulley in the opposite directions, so their resultant has been taken as m2 g – m1g.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

Example 3
If:

Figure 4.3

then for the whole system:

m2 g – f1 = (m1 + m2) a

Classwork/homework
Now do workbook question 8 (of chapter 4).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

5 Principle of Momentum Conservation

The principle of momentum conservation states that the total momentum of an isolated system
remains constant. [2]
Note
An isolated system is a system (of one or more bodies) for which the resultant external force is zero.

Isolated and Non-Isolated Systems

Figure 4.4 (a) Figure 4.4 (b) Figure 4.4 (c)

 For the block (resting on the Earth’s surface) in Fig. 4.4 (a), weight W and normal reaction R are
both external forces, and the resultant of W and R is zero, so the block alone makes an isolated
system.
 For the block (falling freely) in Fig. 4.4 (b), weight W is the only external force, which is not zero,
so the block alone makes a non-isolated system. However, for the combination of the block and
the Earth, W is the internal force and the only external force Fair is zero, so the combination of the
block and the Earth makes an isolated system.
 For the block (falling with constant velocity v) in Fig. 4.4 (c), weight W and air resistance Fair are
both external forces, and the resultant of W and Fair is zero, so the block alone makes an isolated
system. However, for the combination of the block and the Earth, Fair is the only external force,
which is not zero, so the combination of the block and the Earth makes a non-isolated system.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

6 Applying Principle of Momentum Conservation to Different Situations

Example 1 (one-dimensional collision)

If:

Figure 4.5

then by the principle of momentum conservation:

total initial momentum = total final momentum
i.e.
total momentum before collision = total momentum after collision
 m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2
Notes
 For the combination of the spheres in Fig. 4.5, the resultant external force is zero, so the
combination of the spheres is an isolated system.
 For the system comprising the spheres, F1 and F2 are actually the internal forces that the spheres
exert on each other during the collision.

rd
By Newton’s 3 law of motion:
F1 = – F2
p1 p p
 = 2 (as: F = )
t t t
where ∆t is the time of collision, which is the same for both spheres, so:
∆p1 = – ∆p2
that is, the change in momentum of sphere 1 is equal and opposite (in direction) to the change in
momentum of sphere 2. [3]
 During the collision, F1 changes the momentum of sphere 1 in one direction; whereas F2 changes
the momentum of sphere 2, by the same amount, in the opposite direction. This implies that the
overall change in the total momentum of the two spheres is zero, and hence the total momentum
of the spheres is conserved. [2 or 3]

Example 2 (nuclear decay)

If:

Figure 4.6

then by the principle of momentum conservation:

total momentum before decay = total momentum after decay
 0 = m1v1 + m2v2
 m1v1 = – m2v2
 magnitude of m1v1 = magnitude of m2v2

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

Example 3 (two-dimensional collision)

If:

Figure 4.7

then by the principle of momentum conservation:

 total horizontal momentum before collision = total horizontal momentum after collision
 m1u1 + 0 = m1v1 cos1 + m2v2 cos2
Likewise:
total vertical momentum before collision = total vertical momentum after collision
 0 = m1v1 sin1 + m2v2 sin2
 m1v1 sin1 = – m2v2 sin2
 magnitude of m1v1 sin1 = magnitude of m2v2 sin2

Classwork/homework
Now do workbook question 4 (of chapter 4).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

7 Elastic and Inelastic Collisions

Figure 4.8

The above collision (shown in Fig. 4.8) may be elastic or inelastic.

 If:
total KE before collision = total KE after collision
then the collision is referred to as an elastic collision. [1]
 If:
total KE before collision > total KE after collision
then the collision is referred to as an inelastic collision. [1]
Note
 In an inelastic collision, some of the total initial KE of the colliding bodies transforms into other
forms of energy (e.g. sound and heat produced) during the collision; however, the total energy (of
the system and the surroundings) is conserved. [1 or 2]
Mathematically:
intial KE = final KE + other forms of energy initial KE transforms into

Equations of Elastic Collision

For the collision shown in Fig. 4.8:
m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2 ………. (i)
Assuming that the collision is elastic, we can write:
1 1 1 1
m1u12 + m2u22 = m1v12 + m2v 22
2 2 2 2 ………. (ii)
From Eqs. (i) and (ii), it can be shown that:
u1  u2 = (v1  v 2 ) ………. (iii)

 magnitude of (u1 – u2) = magnitude of (v1 – v2)

The above equation may be interpreted as:
relative speed of approach = relative speed of separation
Note
Eqs. (ii) and (iii) hold true only for a perfectly elastic collision; so any one of them may be used to
determine whether the collision is elastic or not.

Typical Examples of Elastic Collision

1 If the bodies colliding elastically are identical (i.e. m1 = m2), then:

Figure 4.9

That is, when two identical bodies collide elastically, they exchange their velocities.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

2 If m1 << m2 and u2 = 0, then the elastic collision between m1 and m2 is as shown below:

Figure 4.10

That is, m2 remains stationary, and m1 rebounds with the same speed (as before collision).

Typical Example of Inelastic Collision

Figure 4.11

Fig. 4.11 shows that the colliding bodies join together during the collision, and then start moving with
the same v, which can be determined by using the principle of momentum conservation; i.e.
m1u1 + m2u2 = (m1 + m2)v
Note
The collision shown in Fig. 4.11 is inelastic, as the relative speed of approach (u1 – u2) is not equal to
the relative speed of separation (which is zero, as the bodies have joined together).

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 4) in the same order:
2, 3, 6, 1, 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 4

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 DYNAMICS

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE CHAPTER 5

Important Notes
 The formulas/equations with borders (rectangles) drawn around them are very important from the
examination point of view, but the formula sheets of paper 1 (MCQ paper) and paper 2 (theory
paper) do not contain these formulas; so students are advised to memorise them.
 Keywords have been underlined throughout the text. Definitions/statements lacking keywords are
not awarded full marks (as indicated, in blue, at the end of the definitions/statements); so
students are advised to pay special attention to the keywords (as they memorise the
definitions/statements).
 Bracketed information only serves as an additional detail that is not required (in order for the
examiner to award the intended marks).

1 Gravitational and Electric Forces
 Gravitational force is the force experienced by a mass in a gravitational field. [1]
Mathematically, it is given by:
FG = mg

where m is the mass (of the body) and g is the gravitational field strength (also known as the
acceleration of free fall).
 Electric force is the force experienced by a charge in an electric field. [1]
It is given by:
FE = qE

where q is the charge (on the body) and E is the electric field strength.

2 Upthrust (U)

Figure 5.1

The pressure due to liquid increases with the depth (as: p = gh). So, when an object is immersed in
a liquid, the pressure exerted by the liquid on its bottom surface is greater than that exerted on its top
surface. The pressure difference (∆p) between the top and bottom surfaces of the object gives rise to
an upward force acting on the object by the liquid; this force is known as the upthrust (of the liquid).
[2 or 3]
For the object shown in Fig. 5.1:
U = ∆p.A (where: ∆p = gh and A is the area of cross section of the object)
 U =  ghA (where: hA = volume V of the liquid displaced)

 U = Vg (where: V = mass mL of the liquid displaced)

 U = mL g (where: mLg = weight WL of the liquid displaced)

 U = WL [3]

Note
Anything that can flow is called fluid (e.g. liquid or gas). All fluids exert upthrust on the objects
immersed (partially or completely) in them.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

3 Dissipative Forces
These are the forces that always oppose motion and result in heating; for example friction, air
resistance etc.

Friction
It is the force that opposes the relative motion between two solid surfaces in contact.
Example

Figure 5.2

Notes
 Normal reaction and friction are both contact forces.
 Normal reaction always acts perpendicular (or normal) to the surface; whereas friction always
acts along the surface area in contact.

Viscous Force (e.g. air resistance)

When an object moves through a fluid (e.g. air), it experiences a force that opposes its motion; this
force is known as the viscous force (e.g. air resistance).
Example

Figure 5.3

For a body falling through air with constant velocity (i.e. with zero acceleration, and thus with zero
resultant force acting) as shown in Fig. 5.3:
sum of all upward forces = sum of all downward forces
 upthrust + air resistance = weight
Note
Compared to the air resistance, the upthrust is very small (almost negligible), as the weight of the air
displaced by the falling body (sphere) is negligible.

4 Centre of Gravity
It is the point where the whole weight of an object appears to act. [1 or 2]
OR
It is the point where the whole weight of an object may be assumed to act. [1 or 2]

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

5 Moment of a Force (T)

If:

Figure 5.4

then:
T = F . r sin ………. (i)
So, the moment of a force may be defined as:
moment = force × perpendicular distance of the force from pivot [1 or 2]
Note
In Eq. (i),  is the angle between the vectors F and r (i.e. the angle that forms when their heads are
joined together or when their tails are joined together, NOT the angle that forms when the head of one
vector is joined with the tail of the other vector.

6 Torque of a Couple (T)

If:

Figure 5.5

then the torque of couple (i.e. due to both forces) is given by:
T = Fd (where: d = r sin )
So, the torque of a couple may be defined as:
torque of a couple = one force × perpendicular distance between the two forces [1 or 2]
Note
Two forces are said to constitute a couple if:
1 they are equal and opposite;
2 their lines of action do not coincide (i.e. the perpendicular distance between them is not zero).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

7 Equilibrium

Conditions for Equilibrium

An object (or a system) is said to be in equilibrium if:
1 the resultant force acting on it (along any direction) is zero;
2 the resultant moment (or torque) acting on it (about any point) is zero. [2]

Notes
 From the first condition for equilibrium, it follows that: when an object is in equilibrium:
sum of upward forces acting on it = sum of downward forces acting on it
and:
sum of rightward forces acting on it = sum of leftward forces acting on it
Symbolically, the above two equations may be stated as:
Fup = Fdown
and:
Fright = Fleft
 From the second condition for equilibrium, it follows that: when an object is in equilibrium:
sum of clockwise moments about a point = sum of anticlockwise moments about it
The above principle is known as the principle of moments. [2]
Symbolically, the above equation may be stated as:
Tc = Ta

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Principle of Triangle of Forces

Figure 5.6 (a) Figure 5.6 (b)

The principle of triangle of forces states that: if three forces (acting at a point P) are in equilibrium (i.e.
cancelling out each other), then they can be represented by the sides of a triangle taken in order as
shown in Figs. 5.6 (a) and 5.6 (b). [2]
Notes
 If three forces (acting at a point P) are in equilibrium, then the resultant of any two of them is
equal and opposite to the third force as shown below (in Fig. 5.7):

Figure 5.7

 If an object, acted upon by three forces, is in equilibrium, then the lines of action of all three forces
must meet at the same point (M) as shown below (in Fig. 5.8):

Figure 5.8

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 5) in the same order:
4, 6, 9, 5, 7, 12, 11, 1

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Important Note
In all solved past-paper questions throughout the text, things (such as text/formula/drawing)
written/drawn in red serve as additional explanations only, so students are not required to write/draw
them in order to score the intended marks.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

8 Density ()
The density of a substance of mass m and volume V is given by the expression:
m
=
V
So, density may be defined as:
mass
density = [1]
volume

Example (density of a gas, and mean separation of gas molecules)

If:

Figure 5.9

then the density of the gas is given by the expression:

Nm
= (where: Nm = mass of all N molecules)
V
and the mean separation (d) of the gas molecules is given by the expression:
V 31
d =( )
N
V
where is the volume available to one gas molecule.
N

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

9 Pressure (p)
If:

Figure 5.10

then the pressure on the surface due to force F is given by the expression:
F
p= (where F is the normal force)
A
So, pressure may be defined as:
normal force
pressure = [1]
area
Notes
 Pressure is a scalar quantity, and its SI unit is pascal (Pa).
 The pressure on a surface is said to be 1 pascal if a force of 1 N acts perpendicularly (or
2
normally) on 1 m area of the surface. [2]

Example
If:

Figure 5.11

then the pressure on the inclined plane due to the block is given by the expression:
mg cos
p=
A
(Note that here ‘mg cos  ’ is the normal force, as it acts normal to the inclined plane)

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

10 Pressure due to Liquids

Derivation of p = gh Formula for a Liquid Column

If:

Figure 5.12

then the pressure due to the liquid (of volume V) on the base of the container is given by:
F
p= (where: F = weight ‘mg' of the liquid)
A
mg
= (where: m = V)
A
Vg
= (where: V = Ah)
A
 Ahg
=
A
Hence:
p =  gh [2 or 3]

Note
The pressure given by the above expression is the pressure on the base of the container due to the
liquid alone. However, the total pressure (PT) on the base of the container is given by the expression:
PT =  gh + Patm

where Patm is the atmospheric pressure on the surface of the liquid (see Fig. 5.12).

Example 1
If:

Figure 5.13

then the pressure difference between points A and B is given by the expression:
p =  gh

where h is the vertical distance between A and B.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Example 2
If:

Figure 5.14

then:
pressure at A = pressure at B (as both points are at the same depth h in the same liquid)
Note
In the same liquid, the pressure at all points on the same horizontal level is the same.

Example 3
If:

Figure 5.15

then:
pressure at A = pressure at B
 1 g hA + Patm = 2 g hB + Patm
 1 g hA = 2 g hB
Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 5) in the same order:
10, 8, 3, 2

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 FORCES DENSITY AND PRESSURE

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 5

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER CHAPTER 6

Important Notes
 The formulas/equations with borders (rectangles) drawn around them are very important from the
examination point of view, but the formula sheets of paper 1 (MCQ paper) and paper 2 (theory
paper) do not contain these formulas; so students are advised to memorise them.
 Keywords have been underlined throughout the text. Definitions/statements lacking keywords are
not awarded full marks (as indicated, in blue, at the end of the definitions/statements); so
students are advised to pay special attention to the keywords (as they memorise the
definitions/statements).
 Bracketed information only serves as an additional detail that is not required (in order for the
examiner to award the intended marks).

1 Work (W)
If:

Figure 6.1

then the work done by force (F) is given by:

W = Fs cos ………. (i)
Note that ‘s cos ’ is the component of s in the direction of F (see Fig. 6.1). So, work done by a force
may be defined as:
work = force × distance moved in the direction of force [1 or 2]
Notes
 In Eq. (i),  is the angle between the vectors F and s (i.e. the angle that forms when their heads
are joined together or when their tails are joined together, NOT the angle that forms when the
head of one vector is joined with the tail of the other vector.
 The work done by a force may also be defined as:
work = force × displacement in the direction of force [1 or 2]
 Work is a scalar quantity, and its SI unit is joule (J).
 The work done is said to be 1 joule if a force of 1 N acts on an object, and displaces it by a
distance of 1 m in its own direction. [2]

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Example 1 (positive, negative and zero works)

If:

Figure 6.2

then from Eq. (i), it follows that:

 work done by applied force F = F s cos 0 = F s (1) = F s

 work done by frictional force f = f s cos 180 = f s (–1) = – f s

 work done by weight W = W s cos 90 = W s (0) = 0

 work done by normal reaction R = R s cos 90 = R s (0) = 0

Notes
 As the dissipative forces (e.g. friction, air resistance etc.) always act opposite to the direction of
motion (i.e.  = 180 and cos 180 = –1), so the work done by them is always negative and
results in heat production. [2]
 In the above example, the overall work done by the resultant force is zero (as the resultant force
itself is zero).

Example 2
Fig. 6.3 shows the force-extension graph of a spring.

Figure 6.3

The work done in stretching the spring from extension x1 to x2 can be determined by calculating the
area under the graph from x1 to x2:
work done = area under F -x graph from x1 to x2

= <F>.∆x (where <F> is the average force over the interval ∆x)
F1 + F2
=( )( x2  x1 )
2

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Example 3
If:

Figure 6.4

then the work done by the gas in expanding against the constant external pressure p is given by:
W = pV (where: ∆V = Ax is the change in volume of the gas)

 W = pAx

Note
In the above example, it has been assumed that the heat is continuously supplied to the gas at such a
rate that the gas pressure is always equal to the constant external pressure.

Classwork/homework
Now do workbook question 7 (of chapter 6).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Important Note
In all solved past-paper questions throughout the text, things (such as text/formula/drawing)
written/drawn in red serve as additional explanations only, so students are not required to write/draw
them in order to score the intended marks.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

2 Energy and its Types

 Energy is the ability (or capacity) of a body to do work. [1]
 Kinetic energy (KE) is the energy possessed by a body due to its motion (or speed). [1]
Mathematically, it is given by the expression:
1
Ek = mv 2
2
where m is the mass and v is the speed of the body.
Note
From the expression for KE, it follows that when m becomes 2 times, Ek also becomes 2 times;
however, when v becomes 2 times, Ek becomes 2 times (i.e. 4 times), as Ek  v .
2 2

 Gravitational potential energy (GPE) is the energy stored in a mass situated in a gravitational
field. [1]
 Electric potential energy (EPE) is the energy stored in a charge situated in an electric field. [1]
 Elastic potential energy (EPE) is the energy stored in an object due to its deformation. [1]
(e.g. energy stored in a stretched spring)
 Mechanical energy is the sum of kinetic and potential energies of a body (or system). [1]
 Internal energy is the sum of microscopic kinetic and potential energies associated with the
molecules (or atoms or particles) of a system. [2]

Classwork/homework
Now do workbook question 6 (of chapter 6).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

3 Principle of Energy Conservation

The principle of energy conservation states that the total (mechanical) energy of an isolated system
remains constant. [2]
Note
An isolated system is a system (of one or more bodies) for which the resultant external force is zero.

Isolated and Non-Isolated Systems

Figure 6.5 (a) Figure 6.5 (b) Figure 6.5 (c)

 For the block (resting on the Earth’s surface) in Fig. 6.5 (a), weight W and normal reaction R are
both external forces, and the resultant of W and R is zero, so the block alone makes an isolated
system.
 For the block (falling freely) in Fig. 6.5 (b), weight W is the only external force, which is not zero,
so the block alone makes a non-isolated system. However, for the combination of the block and
the Earth, W is the internal force and the only external force Fair is zero, so the combination of the
block and the Earth makes an isolated system.
 For the block (falling with constant velocity v) in Fig. 6.5 (c), weight W and air resistance Fair are
both external forces, and the resultant of W and Fair is zero, so the block alone makes an isolated
system. However, for the combination of the block and the Earth, Fair is the only external force,
which is not zero, so the combination of the block and the Earth makes a non-isolated system.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Example
If:

Figure 6.6

then for the Earth-block system (which is an isolated system):

total initial mechanical energy = total final mechanical energy
i.e.
total mechanical energy at B = total mechanical energy at A
 EkB + EpB = EkA + EpA
 (EkB – EkA) + (EpB – EpA) = 0
 ∆Ek + ∆Ep = 0
 ∆Ek = – ∆Ep
 magnitude of Ek = magnitude of Ep ………. (i)

1
 mv 2  0 = mgh
2
Notes
 ∆Ek is the change in the KE of the block from A to B, and ∆Ep is the change in the gravitational PE
of the block (and Earth system) from A to B.
 As the block falls from A to B, its KE increases and PE decreases. So, ∆Ek is ‘+’ and ∆Ep is ‘–’, but
their magnitudes are both ‘+’.
 Eq. (i) can only be used for an isolated system.
 In Eq. (i), ∆Ep may be the change in the gravitational PE, the electric PE or the elastic PE of the
system (depending on the situation).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

4 Work and Mechanical Energy Relationship

When a resultant external force acts on a system, it changes the total mechanical energy of the
system (as the system no longer remains isolated). From the principle of energy conservation, it
follows that the change in the total mechanical energy (∆E) of a non-isolated system is equal to the
work (W) done on it by the resultant external force acting on it; mathematically:
E = W ………. (i)
 Ek + Ep = W ………. (ii)

Notes
 Eqs. (i) and (ii) are used for a non-isolated system only, (as, for an isolated system, W is always
zero).
 From Eq. (i), it follows that when W is ‘+’, ∆E is also ‘+’ and when W is ‘–’ ∆E is also ‘–’. That is,
when the resultant external force does positive work on the system, the mechanical energy of the
system increases; and when the resultant external force does negative work on the system, the
mechanical energy of the system decreases.

Example 1
If:

Figure 6.7

then for the Earth-block system (which is a non-isolated system):

∆Ek + ∆Ep = W (where W is the work done by Fair)
Notes
 As the block falls from A to B, its KE increases, PE decreases, and air resistance Fair acts
opposite to the direction of motion. So, ∆Ek is ‘+’, ∆Ep is ‘–’, and W is also ‘–’.
 In the above example, the resultant external force acting on the Earth-block system is a
dissipative force (Fair) which results in heat production. So, applying principle of energy
conservation to the above situation gives:
initial energy at A = final energy at B + heat produced from A to B
 The gravitational potential energy (of the Earth-block system) arises from the interaction between
the block and the Earth. So, if we don’t include the Earth into the system, weight (mg) becomes
external force and ∆Ep becomes zero, and hence the equation: ‘∆Ek + ∆Ep = W ’ reduces to:
∆Ek = work done by the (average) resultant of mg and Fair

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

2
Example 2 (derivation of Ek = ½mv )
If:

Figure 6.8

then by work and mechanical energy relationship:

∆Ek + ∆Ep = W (where: ∆Ek = Ekf – Eki, ∆Ep = 0 and W = Fs)
 Ekf – Eki = Fs (where: Eki = 0 and F = ma)
 Ekf – 0 = mas ………. (i)
th 2 2
Rearranging the 4 SUVAT equation: 2as = v – u gives:

v 2  u2
as =
2
Plugging the above expression for ‘as’ into Eq. (i) gives:

(v 2  u 2 )
Ekf = m (where: u = 0)
2
So:
1
Ekf = mv 2 [3 or 4]
2
Note
 The block moves in a straight line with constant acceleration a (as the force F is constant); so
the SUVAT equations are applicable here.

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Example 3 (derivation of ∆Ep = mgh)

If:

Figure 6.9

then by work and mechanical energy relationship:

∆Ek + ∆Ep = W
Putting ∆Ek = 0 (as the speed of the block is constant) and W = Fh into the above equation gives:
∆Ep = Fh (where: magnitude of F = magnitude of mg)
 Ep = mgh [2 or 3]

Notes
 In the equation: ∆Ep = mgh, ∆Ep is the change in the gravitational PE of mass m near the Earth’s
surface, and h is the vertical distance between the initial and final positions of its centre of mass.
 Near the Earth’s surface, the gravitational field strength (or acceleration of free fall) g is assumed
–2
to be constant, and its value is taken to be 9.81 m s .

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 6) in the same order:
8, 5, 4, 1, 2

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

5 Relationship between Force and Potential Energy in a Uniform Field

Example
If:

Figure 6.10

then the magnitude of the gravitational force acting on mass m is related to the change in its
(gravitational) PE from A to B by:
Ep
FG = ………. (i)
h
Notes
 The magnitude of electric force acting on a charge (in a uniform electric field) is also related to the
change in the (electric) PE of the charge by an equation of the same form as Eq. (i).
 In Eq. (i), h is the distance between A and B in the direction of the field.
 The force of force field (e.g. gravitational force, electric force etc.) always acts in the direction in
which the PE decreases most rapidly (see Fig. 6.10).

6 Power (P)
If a force acts on a body and does work W in time t, then the power (of the source providing the force)
is given by the expression:
W
P= ………. (i)
t
So, power may be defined as:
work done
power = [1]
time taken
Notes
 Power may also be defined as the rate of doing work. [1]
 Power is a scalar quantity, and its SI unit is watt (W), where:
1 joule
1 watt = [1]
1 second
 Putting W = ∆E into Eq. (i) gives:
E
P= (where ∆E = ∆Ek + ∆Ep is the change in mechanical energy)
t
Ek + Ep
 P=
t
That is, power is also equal to the rate of energy transfer (or the rate at which energy is converted
from one form to another).

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Derivation of P = Fv
If:

Figure 6.11

then the power of the source providing force F is given by:

W
P= (where W = Fs is the work done by F)
t
Fs s
 P= (where = v is the velocity of the block)
t t
 P = Fv ………. (i) [2]
Note
In Eq. (i), v is the average velocity of the block over time t.

Example
If:

Figure 6.12

then the power of the engine at the instant shown in the diagram (Fig. 6.12) is calculated as:
Pengine = Fengine . v
= (2000)(5) = 10 000 W
Likewise, the rate of heat dissipation at the instant shown is calculated as:
Pair = Fair . v
= (1000)(5) = 5000 W

Classwork/homework
Now do the following workbook questions (of chapter 6) in the same order:
10, 9, 3

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER

7 Efficiency ()

Example 1
If:

Figure 6.13

then the efficiency of the filament lamp (in Fig. 6.13) is calculated as:
useful energy output
efficiency = ×100 [1]
total energy input

10
= ×100 = 10%
100
Note
Efficiency of a system (or device) may also be defined as:
useful power output
efficiency = ×100 [1]
total power input

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 CHAPTER 6

Example 2 (Q18/12/M/J/12)

Answer: D

Prepared by Sir A. N. Chowhan (Headstart School, Islamabad)

 AS Physics Plan of Work (of Sir A. N. Chowhan’s online class)

week 1 week 2 week 3 week 4

Physical quantities and Measurement  Precision and  Equations of motion

units techniques accuracy
 Linear motion in
 Checking homogeneity  Calipers, micrometer  Systematic and uniform gravitational
by SI base units random errors field
 c.r.o.
 Use of prefixes Kinematics  Determining
 Uncertainties
acceleration of free fall
 Scalars and vectors  Displacement, speed,
 Significant figures velocity, acceleration
(g)
 Vector resolution
 Projectile motion
 s-t, v-t and a-t graphs

week 5 week 6 week 7 week 8

Dynamics  Elastic and inelastic  Density and pressure  Principle of energy

collisions conservation
 Mass, weight, linear  Use of p = gh
momentum Forces, density and  Work-energy
pressure Work, energy and
relationship
 Newton’s laws of power
motion  Upthrust and viscous  Power
drag  Work
 Use of F = ma  Efficiency
 Moment and torque  Different types of
(E = Pout / Pin × 100)
 Principle of momentum energy
conservation  Equilibrium

week 9 week 10 week 11 week 12

 Resistance, and  Kirchhoff’s 1 and 2

st nd
Deformation of solids Electric field
use of V = RI laws
 Hooke’s law  Electric field strength
 Electrical power  Resistors connected in
 Stress, strain and  Use of E = ΔV / Δd
series and parallel
Young modulus  Internal resistance and
Current of electricity
terminal p.d.  Potential divider
 Determining Young
 Electric current
modulus of a wire D.C. circuits  potentiometer
 e.m.f. and p.d.
 Strain energy  Circuit symbols

week 13 week 14 week 15 week 16

Particle and nuclear  Properties of -, - and  Determining frequency  Diffraction

physics -radiations of sound waves
 Coherence
 Nuclear model of atom Waves  Doppler effect
 Two-source
 Isotopes and nuclides  Some important terms Superposition interference
relating to wave motion
 Fundamental particles  Principle of  Diffraction gratings
 Phase difference superposition
 Radioactive decay
 Intensity of a wave  Stationary waves

 Sir A. N. Chowhan’s lecture notes (covering 100% syllabus) and solutions to topical-workbook questions
(2013 to 2018) will be WhatsApped (in the form of pdf files).

 Online MCQ test will take place at the end of each chapter. The test will cover ALL topics of the chapter.
 For registration and further queries, WhatsApp us at +92 307 5059 857