This document supports the Literacy Focus for Writing, Genre in the primary curriculum section located in the

Literacy Teaching Toolkit (Department of

Education and Training, Victoria).

Explanation
Explanations can be written as stand-alone texts or part of a macro genre, particularly in Levels 3 to 6. For example, an information report about volcanoes
might also include an explanation about how a volcano erupts. There are three main types of explanation that students in the primary school might write:
causal, sequential and cyclical.

Causal explanations
Causal explanations written at Levels F to 2 will be quite rudimentary. However, exposure to the genre through reading and providing opportunities for
students to provide oral explanations and write simple explanations about phenomena they are learning about are important. For example, students can be
asked to talk or write about:
simple cause and effect or time related explanations
What happens if plants do not get watered? If plants do not get watered, they will die.
What happens when you mix paint with water? When you mix paint with water, the water changes colour.
simple definitions of phenomenon
Daytime is when you can see the sun shining. Night-time is when the sun is on the other side of the Earth.
tell how or why something happens
A rainbow happens because the sun shines through raindrops.

Sequential explanations
Sequential explanations explain a process and are quite simple ways of explaining a phenomenon. This type of explanation presents the sequence of a
process rather than a causal explanation. Sequential explanations differ from recounts because they are written in the timeless present tense and they are
about a generalised phenomenon rather than specific events or phenomena. The passive voice is also used in sequential explanations, although young
writers will not necessarily have developed this skill. Passive voice is used to emphasise the action rather than who is doing the action. The passive voice can
be modelled through texts which are read to or written with the students.

Cyclical explanations
Cyclical explanations explain a cyclical phenomenon, for example, the life cycle of a butterfly, the water cycle. This type of explanation involves the events in
the cycle but can also include some causal explanation.

References
Christie, F., and Derewianka, B. (2008). School Discourse: Learning to Write Across the Years of Schooling. London and New York: Continuum.
Derewianka, B. (2011). A new grammar companion for teachers. Newtown: PETAA.
Derewianka, B. & Jones, P. (2016). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.
Macken-Horarik, M., Love, K., Sandiford, C. & Unsworth, L. (2017). Functional Grammatics: Re-conceptualizing knowledge about language and image for school English.
Oxon, UK: Routledge.
Explanation

The following is a summary of major language or grammatical features for explanation at different levels in the primary years organised under the
Language sub-strands of the Victorian Curriculum. The language or grammatical features can be highlighted, modelled and taught through the use of model
or mentor texts and be the focus of explicit teaching about explanation in writing (and in reading).

F-2 3-4 5-6

Expressing and Verbs/ verb groups Verbs/ verb groups Verbs/ verb groups
developing ideas Simple verb groups Generalised nouns e.g. butterflies, light, Verb choices are more precise, technical
sound and nouns/ noun groups of e.g. Heat evaporates water from the
Simple present (or timeless present) increasing technicality, e.g. earth’s surface. Water vapour
tense metamorphosis, chrysalis, vibrations, condenses into tiny droplets of water.
sound waves Action verbs which relate behaviours of
Action verbs of some technicality related the entity/ focus topic with increased
to the phenomenon being explained e.g. Action verbs which relate behaviours of range of technicality and precision e.g.
sealed, labelled the entity/ focus topic which reflect some Tsunamis cause the most deadly
understanding of technicality and coastal floods. The sun’s heat
precision about the phenomenon e.g. evaporates water from the earth’s
When the egg hatches…, When you surface. Water vapour condenses into
sing, your vocal cords vibrate. As the tiny droplets of water.
Earth rotates, it revolves around the
sun More frequent use of more abstract and
technical language and precise choices
Relating (being & having) verbs used to of vocabulary particularly through verb
define, classify, describe or link with groups, noun groups and adverb groups
attributes e.g. A butterfly egg is round or e.g. Volcanoes are formed when magma
oval. Butterflies are insects. A force is a from within the Earth works its way to
push, a pull or a twist. the surface.
Simple present tense (also known as
timeless present) Varied examples of relating (being &
having) verbs used to describe or link
References
Christie, F., and Derewianka, B. (2008). School Discourse: Learning to Write Across the Years of Schooling. London and New York: Continuum.
Derewianka, B. (2011). A new grammar companion for teachers. Newtown: PETAA.
Derewianka, B. & Jones, P. (2016). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.
Macken-Horarik, M., Love, K., Sandiford, C. & Unsworth, L. (2017). Functional Grammatics: Re-conceptualizing knowledge about language and image for school English.
Oxon, UK: Routledge.
 F-2 3-4 5-6

with attributes, to classify and to define

e.g. The sun heats the water on the
Earth’s surface which makes it change
from a liquid to a gas. This is called
evaporation. The Earth's crust is made
up of huge slabs called plates.
Simple present tense (also known as
timeless present), use of other tenses as
appropriate
Nouns/ noun groups Nouns/ noun groups Nouns/ noun groups
Generalised nouns in simple noun Simple and expanded noun groups More complex and expanded noun
groups e.g. fruit, the fruit, the juice, which include pre- and/or post- groups which include pre- and/or post-
rainbows, the rainbow modification about the topic or modification about the topic or entity;
phenomenon e.g. The force of gravity varied use of post-modifiers (e.g.
pulls things towards the Earth. A tiny prepositional phrases, embedded
caterpillar hatches from the egg. The clauses) e.g. The Earth’s atmosphere
caterpillar spins a string of silk around contains gases that we breathe.
its body. Volcanoes form when magma from
within the Earth works its way to the
Noun groups mostly include factual surface. Caffeine is a stimulant usually
describers or adjectives (answering found in coffee that keeps you awake.
questions such as ‘What is it like?’,
‘What are its qualities?’) which can be Noun groups mostly include factual
intensified e.g. A very tiny caterpillar describers or adjectives (answering
hatches from the egg. They can also questions such as ‘What is it like?’,
include classifiers (answering the ‘What are its qualities?’) which can be
question ‘What type?’) which cannot be intensified e.g. As the water reaches
intensified. For example, A push force, a cooler temperatures, …. They can also
pull force. include classifiers (answering the
question ‘What type?’) which cannot be

References
Christie, F., and Derewianka, B. (2008). School Discourse: Learning to Write Across the Years of Schooling. London and New York: Continuum.
Derewianka, B. (2011). A new grammar companion for teachers. Newtown: PETAA.
Derewianka, B. & Jones, P. (2016). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.
Macken-Horarik, M., Love, K., Sandiford, C. & Unsworth, L. (2017). Functional Grammatics: Re-conceptualizing knowledge about language and image for school English.
Oxon, UK: Routledge.
 F-2 3-4 5-6

intensified, for example, an active

volcano, a dormant volcano, an extinct
volcano, volcanic eruptions

Adverbs, (adverbial) prepositional Adverbs, (adverbial) prepositional Adverbs, (adverbial) prepositional

phrases phrases phrases
Simple prepositional phrases of time and Expanded & varied use of prepositional More precise use of prepositional
place, or adverbs of time and place phrases and adverbs to elaborate the phrases and adverbs to elaborate the
related to the phenomenon e.g. peaches topic or entity e.g. A butterfly emerges topic or entity e.g. Water evaporates
fall into the boxes, the sun shines from a chrysalis. Gravity pull objects into the air. Volcanoes are formed when
through raindrops towards the Earth. After three magma from within the Earth works its
months, the gecko’s eggs hatch. Sound way to the surface. The friction causes
travels more quickly through water than earthquakes and volcanic eruptions near
air. The caterpillar spins a string of silk the edges of the plates. 
around its body.
Vocabulary Vocabulary Vocabulary
Some degree of technicality through Use of more technical language and Use of more technical language and
verb groups and noun groups. precise choices of vocabulary precise choices of vocabulary
particularly through verb groups, noun particularly through verb groups, noun
groups and adverb groups. groups and adverb groups.
Sentences and combining ideas Sentences and combining ideas Sentences and combining ideas
Simple and compound sentences with Simple and compound sentences and Simple and compound sentences and
clauses of equal status – resembling higher incidence of complex sentences higher incidence of complex sentences
spoken like language e.g. They put the to include dependent clauses e.g. When to include dependent clauses to express
peaches in the can and weigh them. sound waves travel, the vibrations cause and effect or time linked
May include use of unequal or make a noise. When you sing, your occurrences/ impacts e.g. If pressure
dependent clauses e.g. After the fruit is vocal cords vibrate. If you make a noise builds up in a volcano, an eruption will
picked…. in a large empty room, you will hear an occur. As the Moon orbits Earth, it
echo. spins or rotates. When clouds become
too heavy, rain falls. As the volcano

References
Christie, F., and Derewianka, B. (2008). School Discourse: Learning to Write Across the Years of Schooling. London and New York: Continuum.
Derewianka, B. (2011). A new grammar companion for teachers. Newtown: PETAA.
Derewianka, B. & Jones, P. (2016). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.
Macken-Horarik, M., Love, K., Sandiford, C. & Unsworth, L. (2017). Functional Grammatics: Re-conceptualizing knowledge about language and image for school English.
Oxon, UK: Routledge.
 F-2 3-4 5-6

continues to erupt, it will get bigger and

bigger
Victorian Curriculum Recognise that sentences are key units Understand that a clause is a unit of Understand the difference between main
Links: English for expressing ideas (VCELA143) grammar usually containing a subject and subordinate clauses and that a
Identify the parts of a simple sentence and a verb and that these need to be in complex sentence involves at least one
that represent ‘What’s happening?’, agreement (VCELA261) subordinate clause (VCELA323)
‘Who or what is involved?’ and the Understand that verbs represent Understand how noun groups/phrases
surrounding circumstances (VCELA178) different processes (doing, thinking, and adjective groups/phrases can be
Explore differences in words that saying, and relating) and that these expanded in a variety of ways to provide
represent people, places and things processes are anchored in time through a fuller description of the person, place,
(nouns including pronouns), happenings tense (VCELA262) thing or idea (VCELA324)
and states (verbs), qualities (adjectives) Understand that the meaning of Investigate how complex sentences can
and details such as when, where and sentences can be enriched through the be used in a variety of ways to
how (adverbs) (VCELA179) use of noun/groups/phrases and verb elaborate, extend and explain ideas
Understand that simple connections can groups/phrases and prepositional (VCELA350)
be made between ideas by using a phrases (VCELA292) Understand how ideas can be expanded
compound sentence with two or more and sharpened through careful choice of
clauses usually linked by a coordinating verbs, elaborated tenses and a range of
conjunction (VCELA214) adverb groups/phrases (VCELA351)
Language for Types of clauses Types of clauses Types of clauses
interaction Declarative statements e.g. The sun Declarative statements e.g. The butterfly Declarative statements e.g. Volcanoes
shines during the day. We see the moon emerges from the chrysalis. Gravity pulls can be dormant, active or extinct.
at night time. objects towards the earth. Volcanoes are formed when magma
from within the Earth works its way to
the surface.

Evaluative language Evaluative language Evaluative language

Little if any evaluation is evident, Little if any evaluation, mostly factual Little if any evaluation, mostly factual
however some evaluation might be describers or adjectives or classifiers describers or adjectives or classifiers
present e.g. The good fruit is peeled. e.g. A very tiny caterpillar hatches (see also noun groups in Expressing and
from the egg., a push force, a pull force. developing ideas). e.g. As the water

References
Christie, F., and Derewianka, B. (2008). School Discourse: Learning to Write Across the Years of Schooling. London and New York: Continuum.
Derewianka, B. (2011). A new grammar companion for teachers. Newtown: PETAA.
Derewianka, B. & Jones, P. (2016). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.
Macken-Horarik, M., Love, K., Sandiford, C. & Unsworth, L. (2017). Functional Grammatics: Re-conceptualizing knowledge about language and image for school English.
Oxon, UK: Routledge.
 F-2 3-4 5-6

(see also noun groups in Expressing reaches cooler temperatures, an active

and developing ideas). volcano, a dormant volcano, an extinct
volcano, volcanic eruptions

Victorian Curriculum Describe some differences between Examine how evaluative language can Understand the use of vocabulary to
Links: English imaginative, informative and persuasive be more or less forceful (VCELA272) express greater precision of meaning,
texts, and identify the audience of Incorporate new vocabulary from a and know that different words can have
imaginative, informative and persuasive range of sources, including vocabulary different meanings in different contexts
texts (VCELY188) encountered in research, into own texts (VCELA325)
Understand the use of vocabulary about (VCELA293) Investigate how complex sentences can
familiar and new topics and experiment Understand differences between the be used in a variety of ways to
with and begin to make conscious language of opinion and feeling and the elaborate, extend and explain ideas
choices of vocabulary to suit audience language of factual reporting or (VCELA350)
purpose (VCELA237) recording (VCELA305)

Text structure and Clause/ sentence beginnings Clause/ sentence beginnings Clause/ sentence beginnings
organisation Clauses usually begin with the subject Sequence in time can be expressed What occurs at the end of one clause/
e.g. The tractor takes the peaches to the using time connectives e.g. then, next, sentence is picked up in beginning of the
cannery. A machine peels the fruit. after that or through dependent clauses following, through referring words
e.g. After the butterfly emerges, … e.g.The slurry passes through a series
Dependent clauses might be used to of chemical treatments. This
begin the sentence e.g. If you make a treatment is necessary to…
noise in a large empty room, you will Connections between sentences also
hear an echo. When sound waves established through changing the word
travel, the vibrations make a noise. class e.g. from verb to noun ‘Gold
Some use of the passive voice places particles are smelted. Smelting is the
emphasis on the topic rather than on last process in gold mining.
who or what is doing the action e.g. The Adverbs, prepositional phrases or
fruit is picked. dependent clauses may occur at the
beginning of sentences e.g. Over time,
as the volcano continues to erupt, it
References
Christie, F., and Derewianka, B. (2008). School Discourse: Learning to Write Across the Years of Schooling. London and New York: Continuum.
Derewianka, B. (2011). A new grammar companion for teachers. Newtown: PETAA.
Derewianka, B. & Jones, P. (2016). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.
Macken-Horarik, M., Love, K., Sandiford, C. & Unsworth, L. (2017). Functional Grammatics: Re-conceptualizing knowledge about language and image for school English.
Oxon, UK: Routledge.
 F-2 3-4 5-6

will get bigger and bigger. When

pressure builds up, eruptions occur.
Passive voice places emphasis on the
topic rather than on who or what is doing
the action e.g. Small bits of ore are
mixed with water to form a thick mud
called slurry.
Nominalisation
Some examples of nominalisation.
Nominalisation is when verbs, for
example, are turned into nouns, e.g.
‘When evaporated water reaches cooler
temperatures, it condenses’ could be
written as ‘Condensation occurs when
the evaporated water cools’.
When words are made into nouns, there
is potential to build larger nouns groups,
to focus on concepts rather than actions
and to compress ideas into simple
sentences.
Connectives/ Conjunctions Connectives/ Conjunctions Connectives/ Conjunctions
Connectives to sequence the process, Sequence in time can be expressed Sequence in time can be expressed
e.g. then, next, after that. using time connectives e.g. then, next, using time connectives e.g. then, next,
Clauses joined mostly by simple after that or by subordinating after that or by subordinating
coordinating conjunctions (e.g. and, but, conjunctions when dependent clauses conjunctions when dependent clauses
so), also subordinating conjunctions are present, e.g. When sound waves are present, e.g. When pressure builds
might be used e.g. after – After the fruit travel, the vibrations make a noise up…. As the earth rotates on its axis, it
is picked…. also revolves around the Sun.
Images/ Diagrams Images/ Diagrams Images/ Diagrams
Images might accompany the Images or labelled diagrams might Images or labelled diagrams might
explanation sequence or be used to accompany the explanation sequence or accompany the explanation sequence or

References
Christie, F., and Derewianka, B. (2008). School Discourse: Learning to Write Across the Years of Schooling. London and New York: Continuum.
Derewianka, B. (2011). A new grammar companion for teachers. Newtown: PETAA.
Derewianka, B. & Jones, P. (2016). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.
Macken-Horarik, M., Love, K., Sandiford, C. & Unsworth, L. (2017). Functional Grammatics: Re-conceptualizing knowledge about language and image for school English.
Oxon, UK: Routledge.
 F-2 3-4 5-6

illustrate the phenomenon. be used to illustrate the phenomenon. be used to illustrate the phenomenon.

Victorian Curriculum Understand that texts can take many Understand how different types of texts Understand that the starting point of a
Links: English forms, and that imaginative and vary in use of language choices, sentence gives prominence to the
informative texts have different purposes depending on their purpose, audience message in the text and allows for
(VCELA141) and context, including tense and types of prediction of how the text will unfold
Create short imaginative and informative sentences (VCELA246) (VCELA321)
texts that show emerging use of Understand that paragraphs are a key Identify and explain how analytical
appropriate text structure, sentence-level organisational feature of written texts images like figures, tables, diagrams,
grammar, word choice, spelling, (VCELA259) maps and graphs contribute to our
punctuation and appropriate multimodal Identify features used in imaginative, understanding of verbal information in
elements (VCELY194) informative and persuasive texts to meet factual and persuasive texts
Understand that different types of texts the purpose of the text, and understand (VCELA340)
have identifiable text structure and how texts vary in complexity and Understand that cohesive links can be
language features that help the text technicality depending on the approach made in texts by omitting or replacing
serve its purpose (VCELA212) to the topic, the purpose and the words (VCELA348)
Understand that simple connections can intended audience (VCELA277) Plan, draft and publish imaginative,
be made between ideas by using a Understand how texts are made informative and persuasive texts,
compound sentence with two or more cohesive through the use of linking choosing and experimenting with text
clauses usually linked by a coordinating devices including pronoun reference and structures, language features, images
conjunction (VCELA214) text connectives (VCELA290) and digital resources appropriate to
Plan, draft and publish imaginative, purpose and audience (VCELY358)
informative and persuasive texts
containing key information and
supporting details for a widening range
of audiences, demonstrating increasing
control over text structures and language
features (VCELY299)

References
Christie, F., and Derewianka, B. (2008). School Discourse: Learning to Write Across the Years of Schooling. London and New York: Continuum.
Derewianka, B. (2011). A new grammar companion for teachers. Newtown: PETAA.
Derewianka, B. & Jones, P. (2016). Teaching language in context (2nd ed.). South Melbourne, Vic: Oxford University Press.
Macken-Horarik, M., Love, K., Sandiford, C. & Unsworth, L. (2017). Functional Grammatics: Re-conceptualizing knowledge about language and image for school English.
Oxon, UK: Routledge.