Introduction to English language teaching

• Heterogeneous discipline: hetero-other genus-type

It depends on other theories and research fields of different kinds
• (Bezugswissenschaften) ->These sister-disciplines form a network

SLA:
Second
Language
Acquisition

− philosophy/science of) education (Bildungswissenschaften)

− psychology (Psychologie)
− linguistics
− applied linguistics (Angewandte Linguistik)
− sociolinguistics (Soziolinguistik)
− pragmatics (Pragmatik)
− second language acquisition (Zweitspracherwerb)
− literary & cultural studies (Literatur- und Kulturwissenschaften)
− media studies (Medienwissenschaften)

• ELT is in a relationship with FLE(foreign Language teaching)

ELT: Theory FLE: Applied science

• ELT is referred to as different Acronyms in different regions:

• British context:
− English Language Teaching (ELT): TEFL + TESL
− Teaching English as a Foreign Language (TEFL)
− Teaching English as a Second Language (TESL)

• North American context:

− Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages (TESOL)
• Didaktik (theory/approach) vs. Methodik (method):
Wir verstehen "Didaktik (theory)als den Bereich der Ziele und Inhalte"
und "Methodik(method) als den untrennbar mit ihr verbundenen und
zugleich untergeordneten Bereich der Verfahren"

• However, ELT is much more than just methods and 'recipes',

as it engages with and combines relevant theories from a variety of
sources.
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DIFFERENT SCIENCES
• Fremdsprachendidaktik vs. Sprachendidaktik:
− modern languages (English / Spanish / French) vs. Latin / Greek
− different methods (learning how to speak it vs. learning grammar)
• Fremdsprachendidaktik vs. Fachdidaktik Englisch
− Foreign Language Education vs. English Language Education
− different historical & cultural contexts:
− cultural contexts: you can reach B2/C1 levels with English but not French
• Fremdsprachendidaktik vs. Sprachlehr-/lernforschung
(BW / Erziehungswissenschaft)
− Is an entirely different approach (e.g. quantitative research)
Institutional Language Learning (teaching in a school context)
• run by the state or institutions authorized by the state.
• Teaching takes place in public buildings (schools) - not in private homes.
• Lessons are conducted by teachers, who are professionally trained in
institutions that are directly controlled or authorized by the state.
• work is guided via curricula and legal frameworks.
• The state authorities set specific aims and standards concerning the
subjects (e.g. the CEFR language levels in English).
• attitudes/beliefs/cultural practices.
• Teaching is based on long-term planning (syllabi).
• Going to school is mandatory and thus involves compulsory attendance

WHAT TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE DOES A TEACHER NEED?

"received knowledge"
• studied at university: theories, terms, research etc.
• handed down from specialists to teachers in training
"experiential knowledge"
• personal observation
• practical knowledge (from experience)
"personal knowledge"
• individual, personal factors & interests
• e.g. from travelling, previous jobs, hobbies
"local knowledge"
• What type of school is this?
• What are the priorities (e.g. sports, languages)?
• Does the school have particular traditions?
• What is the school's reputation? etc.
MODELS OF TEACHER EDUCATION
Is teaching a craft, a science or an art?

1. Craft Model:
"The young trainee learns by imitating the expert's techniques, and by
following the expert's instructions and advice."

• practical training / demonstration & imitation

• based on experience (what worked best in the past)

• Criticism:
This training procedure "depends on an essentially static society"
Schools today exist in a dynamic society, geared to change.
New teachers might be better equipped and educated than old ones.

2. Applied science Model: (very theoretical)

• "The idea is that practical knowledge may be developed by the
application of scientific knowledge which is conveyed to student
teachers (in lectures) by those who are experts in the relevant areas."
• "It is up to the trainees to put the conclusions from these scientific
findings into practice."
Criticism:
• This model is essentially one-way
• the experts might be to be well removed from the day-to-day working
scene"
• Very often, the University Departments of Education and Colleges of
Education are physically separated from schools, which means that
there is an "almost complete separation between research on the one
hand and practice on the other"
• Many practicing teachers might not be able to understand the more
technical research articles, even if they bothered to read them
3.Reflective Model:
• The reflective model puts the teacher in the centre of attention:
• "It promotes a view of teachers as professionals competent to teach,
educate, evaluate, and innovate through reflecting upon educational
policies, pursuing personal and professional growth, analyzing their
practice and performance in lessons, and striving for creating a humane
school environment."
Society >School >Classroom >The didactic Triangle: Teachers, Students, Subject
How do student teachers become Teachers:
apprenticeship of observation vs. reflective model of teacher education

Apprenticeship Of Observation
• Student teachers have already spent thousands of hours as
schoolchildren observing and evaluating professionals in action. This
contrasts with novices learning other professions, such as those of
lawyers or doctor.
→ roughly 40 weeks (5 days) x 12 years → 2400 days of observation

• Teachers might not teach the way they were taught to teach but the way
they were taught. This Model focuses on:
personal beliefs, assumptions, knowledge ->SUBJECTIVE THEORIES
(=Mindset)

• The apprenticeship of observation is largely responsible for many of the

preconceptions [ideas] that pre-service student teachers hold about
teaching.

• People entering other professions are more likely to be aware of the

limitations of their knowledge -> student teachers may fail to realize
that the aspects of teaching which they perceived as students
represented only a partial view of the teacher's job
 • Students only see their teachers' frontstage actions and behaviour:
monitoring, correcting, assessing, lecturing, ...

• Students do not get to see the backstage part of the teacher's job:
preparing lessons, marking essays, selection of topics/materials,
reflection, …

• If unanalyzed and unreflected this leads to …

→ "folkways of teaching"
o → "ready-made recipes"
that become "default options at times of indecision or uncertainty
(That is why the reflective approach to teacher education is
important)

• Subjective theories are persistent ideas and convictions about one's own
person(ality), great teaching and what makes a good language teacher.

Subjective Theories are based on:

• one's own experiences during
o one's school years (being a pupil/student),
o practical training (~ pre-service)
o practical teaching (~ in-service)
• general knowledge or beliefs
o the impact of the best and worst in other teachers' behaviour
(Armbruckner)

Subjective Theories = Mindset

• Experiential knowledge [→ session 1] differs from formal and theory-
driven academic knowledge [received knowledge] because it is not
necessarily objective or explicit.
It may contain personal beliefs, individual assumptions or unjustified
conclusions, which interfere with or even overlie objective formal
knowledge.
• The teacher's mind-set denotes a system of personal beliefs,
assumptions, knowledge and attitudes any teacher holds on account of
his previous experiences with school, teaching and learning
What makes a good teacher?
Good teachers 'build rapport, are knowledgeable of their subject matter and
have very good classroom management skills. Specifically, respondents valued
teachers who were caring, creative, enthusiastic, patient, well-planned and
respectful
Good teachers also convey a passion for what they are teaching, and for their
students' learning achievements. Good teachers are creative and flexible and
fair, treating everyone equally.

Basic qualities:

Paradigm Shift (Mass-shift of a set of affairs) in Teaching:

The different roles of a teacher

ln the end, teachers are (or should be) facilitators – helping their students to
achieve their goals, whether by:
coaching them, teaching them or tutoring them.

The teacher as facilitator: student-centredness & learning

The communicative classroom has been described as a site where learning
arises from learners' experiences and minds.
-> Communicative Language Teaching (CLT)
Focus on the learner:
• making learners aware of their own capabilities
• The job of a teacher is to 'eazify' the learning for students
• fostering learner autonomy:
'vorwissenschaftliche Arbeit' – demands a great deal of independence
By focusing on the learner, the interaction between participants in classrooms
will be increased, will be more individualized and become less predictable as a
result. This puts additional demands on teachers' flexibility. Their changing
role has been described as having to step aside from the sage on the stage to
the guide on the side.

Patterns of classroom discourse: power relations & artificial communication

Classroom interactions are often different from everyday communicative
situations.
• unequal distribution of power and authority
• highly regulated interaction and communicative behaviour
Factors

• teacher controls topics, decides on what is a relevant contribution

and controls participation/speaking rights
• teacher can call on students, respond/ignore/listen to their
questions and comments, change the social setting
IRE/IRF Patterns:
Initiation: teacher takes the first step -a question
Response: student responds -an answer
Evaluation: teacher provides feedback -an
evaluation
Critique of the IRE/IRF Pattern:
It is an integral part of classroom discourse, but it limits the nature and quality
of language input in the classroom (only isolated sentences)
It restricts opportunities for language output and conversational interaction
The IRE pattern is useful and necessary when teaching younger learners, but it
is not compatible with communicative language learning
(too teacher-centered).

Native-speakerism in ELT
It is a pervasive ideology within ELT, characterized by the belief that 'native
speaker' teachers are the ideal speakers of the English language and better
with English language teaching methodology.
Pros of being a native speaker:
• pronunciation / intonation / fluency / proficiency
• cultural background knowledge / first-hand experience
• motivation of the students to learn the language

Pros of being a NNEST: (non-native English speaking teacher)

• NNESTs share their students' experience of learning English as a foreign
language (in an instructional setting)
• They often share some of their students' first language-background and
can maximize the benefits of the first language and English.
• They are familiar with local culture, learning styles and social contexts
• NNESTs are likely to be better models for English as an International
Language (EIL) and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF)
• They can function as role models: "If I can do it, so can you”
-> The potential special expertise 'nonnative' teachers have on the grounds
that they know the target language as a foreign language, share with their
students the experience of what it is like to try and make it their own, often
through the same first language/culture 'filter', and can represent relevant
role models for learners.
Advantages of non-native teachers:
• They are successful models of good language learners.
• They can predict learners' comprehension difficulties and they can
prevent and avoid them.
• They are familiar with a variety of learning strategies.
• They have theoretical grammatical knowledge about the target
language, and they are competent in explaining it.
• They very often work contrastively.
• They show empathy and understanding.
Curricula: HOW? & WHAT?

The Ministry of Education on the purpose of curricula:

Lehrpläne sind für Pädagoginnen und Pädagogen die Grundlage ihrer
eigenständigen und verantwortlichen Unterrichts- und Erziehungsarbeit.
• Aufgabe der Lehrerinnen und Lehrer ist es, durch geeignete Planung
und Gestaltung des Unterrichts den einzelnen Schülerinnen und
Schülern die Erreichung der im Lehrplan vorgegebenen Ziele zu
ermöglichen.
• Sie sind ein Orientierungsrahmen für Schülerinnen und Schüler sowie
Erziehungsberechtigte, über welches Wissen und Können Schülerinnen
und Schüler am Ende eines Schuljahres verfügen sollen.
• Darüber hinaus bilden sie den Bezugspunkt für die Entwicklung von
Lehrmitteln sowie für die Aus-, Fort- und Weiterbildung von
Lehrpersonen. Die Lehrpläne werden im Bundesministerium für Bildung,
Wissenschaft und Forschung erstellt."
 The primary goal of teachers is to enable students to reach the goals set by
the ministry's curricula. It informs students & parents about the overall
goals. It serves as a point of reference for the development of coursebooks
and for further education.
• CURRICULA ARE CENTRAL TO OUR WORK.
• THEY CLARIFY GOALS AND KEY COMPETENCES

The Curriculum as a Legal Framework:

• Curricula are BINDING LAWS
• THE LEVELS OF THE CEFR ARE PART OF THE CURRICULUM AND THUS
LEGALLY BINDING.
• How do we keep track?
-> Rechtsinformationssystem des Bundes (RIS) -Website
(legal information system of the federal government)

Austrian Curricula: Types of English

General education (MS, AHS) -> Bildung
→ General English (GE)
→ no specific curriculum for English
→ all modern languages have ONE curriculum (French, Italian, English…)
→ based on CEFR (Common European Framework of Reference) (A1,A2..)
Vocational education & training (BHS:HAK, HTL) -> Ausbildung
→ General English (GE) as well as:
→ English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
EST (English for Science and Technology), BE (Business English), …
→ they have specific curricula for English (syllabi for every year)

English in different schools as hours per week:

(don’t have to be learnt by heart, just to grasp the idea)
Vocational schools have less
hours of General English (GE) but
more hours of English overall
when you add English for specific
Purposes(ESP)
Curricula for schools providing general education:

English: Methodology and Content in this Curriculum – How & What?

Impact of the CEFR on Curricula:

huge jump ->

Advantages of these curricula:
• very short (no subject-specific content for English)
• modern, forward-thinking, up to date
• very open and liberal
• rely on professional, well-educated teachers
Why is there a temptation to ignore these curricula?
• approved text books -> instead of following the curriculum
• 'struggle to survive' during the first few years -> its easier to ignore them
• socialisation as a teacher (craft model) -> colleagues may ignore them
• planning around them is very challenging & time-consuming (at first)

Vocational Education and Training (VET)

happens in: (don’t have to be learnt by heart, just to grasp the idea)

English in vocational schools: dedicated curriculum for English

Vocational Schools list content for ESP as well as General English

Vocational Schools list content for ESP as well as General English
In general Education schools that is different, as there is no specific curriculum
just for English, but for living languages all together

English in vocational schools: Content & Language Integrated Learning

• Content and Language Integrated Learning is taught in all vocational
schools.
• Teachers in VS are supposed to teach 72 hours of CLIL a year in
collaboration with the English teachers. This collaboration is mandatory.
• CLIL means that students are being taught a subject, as well as the
necessary English Vocabulary at the same time. It doesn’t mean that
these lessons are taught in English
- CLIL ≠ EMI (English-medium Instruction)
- EMI: Lessons being held in English without any Language Teaching
Unique challenges of teaching English in a VS:
• General English (GE) + English for Specific Purposes (ESP)
• English for specific Purposes ESP:
BS -Business English, EST (= English for Science & Technology)
• Content & Language Integrated Learning CLIL
• limited number of lessons (only 2 per week in technical schools)
• requires professional, well-educated teachers
• temptation to rely too much on colleagues, textbooks and traditions

Methodology: focuses on the How? Of teaching

1. general didactic principles: co-education, learner autonomy, …
2. curricula of the individual subjects: modern languages for English
(see above)
Overview of the General didactic principles: (What is relevant when teaching)
(don’t need to be learnt by heart)
1. acknowledgement of students' previous knowledge and experiences
2. intercultural learning
3. multilingualism
4. inclusive pedagogy
5. supporting differentiation & individualisation of students
6. remedial teaching (helping children who struggle more than others)
7. learner autonomy
8. creating closeness to real life
9. reflective co-education & gender awareness
10.assessment & feedback

2) + 3) Multiculturalism & Multilingualism:

Der Zusammenhalt in der Klasse wird dadurch gefördert, dass alle Schülerinnen
und Schüler als gleichberechtigte Teilnehmerinnen und Teilnehmer an der
Diskursgemeinschaft der Klasse ihre besonderen Fähigkeiten und Stärken, zum
Beispiel ihre Mehrsprachigkeit, einbringen und dafür Anerkennung erfahren.
Sensibilität für die psychische und soziale Situation von Kindern mit
Migrationshintergrund ist besonders wichtig.
• MULTILINGUALISM AS AN ASSET & EQUAL PARTNERS
Interkulturelle Bildung behandelt nicht nur Fragen der Kommunikation über
sprachliche Unterschiede hinweg, sondern auch die Zusammenhänge zwischen
Sprachen und ihren kulturellen Hintergründen, Fragen des Austauschs und
des Verstehens zwischen Gruppen verschiedener sprachlicher, sozialer,
geographischer oder sonstiger Herkunft und damit Fragen der individuellen
und sozialen Identität sowie der Zugehörigkeit und der Strategien zum Umgang
mit kulturellen Praktiken.
• CULTURAL IDENTITIES
Unterschiedliche Sichtweisen und Konfliktthemen sollen auf der Grundlage
einer offenen und respektvollen Auseinandersetzung und unter Bezugnahme
auf die verfassungsrechtlich verankerten Grundrechte und Prinzipien
diskutiert und bearbeitet werden.
• NEGOTIATION OF MEANING

4) + 5) + 6) Supporting Individual Students' Developement

Schulen müssen mit der Heterogenität der Schüler*Innen konstruktiv
umzugehen, sodass individuelle Begabungen und Potenziale bestmöglich
gefördert und aktiviert werden.
• OPTIMAL SUPPORT FOR INDIVIDUAL STUDENTS
Es geht um individuelle und diskriminierungsfreie Lern-, Entfaltungs- und
Entwicklungsmöglichkeiten von Kindern und Jugendlichen unterschiedlicher
Herkunft mit unterschiedlichen Leistungsspektren. Eine zentrale Rolle dabei
spielt neben einem individualisierten Unterricht auch das soziale Lernen im
Raum Schule und der Umgang mit Diversität.
• HETEROGENEITY OF CLASSES & STUDENTS
7) Learner Autonomy
Im Unterricht ist durch das Schaffen einer Lernatmosphäre die selbsttätige
und selbstständige Form des Lernens besonders zu fördern. Dafür bieten sich
auch projektartige und offene Lernformen an.
Schüler*Innen sind ihrem Alter entsprechend zu kritischem und
eigenverantwortlichem Denken zu führen. Man muss die Entwicklung eigener
Wert- und Normvorstellungen bei den Schülerinnen und Schülern anregen und
fördern.
• CRITICAL THINKING
Den Schüler*Innen ist Lernen als Prozess verständlich zu machen. Sie sollen die
an sie gestellten Anforderungen kennen, sich selbst einschätzen lernen und
darin auch Motivation für ihre Arbeit finden.
• CRITICAL THINKING
Die Vermittlung von Lerntechniken ist eine unabdingbare Voraussetzung für
selbsttätiges Erarbeiten von Kenntnissen und Fertigkeiten
• LEARNING STRATEGIES
Schüler*Innen sind in zunehmendem Ausmaß zu befähigen, angebrachte
Recherchestrategien anzuwenden und Schulbibliotheken, öffentliche
Bibliotheken sowie andere Informationssysteme real und virtuell zu nutzen.
• RESEARCH

9) Co-education & gender

Lehrer*Innen sind angehalten, ein Klima der gegenseitigen Achtung zu schaffen
und einen Rahmen zur Verfügung zu stellen, in dem
Geschlechterungleichheiten, Geschlechterstereotypen und deren Ursachen –
sowohl gegenstandsbezogen als auch fächerübergreifend – bearbeitet werden
können.
• COMBATING GENDER STEREOTYPES & SOCIAL ROLES
Lehrer*Innen sollen Schüler*Innen dabei unterstützen und begleiten,
Haltungen und Kompetenzen zu entwickeln, die dem Ziel der Gleichstellung
und Geschlechtergerechtigkeit, sowie dem Abbau geschlechtshierarchischer
Rollennormen dienen.
• OVERALL AIM: GENDER EQUALITY & HUMAN RIGHTS

10) Assessment & Feedback

Eine detaillierte Rückmeldung über die erreichte Leistung ist wichtig und soll
auch zum Zweck der Nachvollziehbarkeit einer Leistungsbeurteilung stets
erfolgen. Klar definierte und bekannt gemachte Bewertungskriterien sollen
Anleitung zur Selbsteinschätzung sein und Schüler positiv beeinflussen.
• DETAILED FEEDBACK & CLEAR ASSESSMENT CRITERIA
Die Schüler*Innen sind in die Planung und Gestaltung sowie Kontrolle und
Analyse ihrer Arbeitsprozesse und Arbeitsergebnisse in zunehmendem Maße
einzubeziehen, damit sie schrittweise eigenständig und eigenverantwortlich
die Entwicklung ihrer Kompetenzen übernehmen können.
Produktorientierte Arbeitsformen mit schriftlicher Komponente, wie zB
Portfolio-Präsentationen oder (Projekt)Arbeiten unter Verwendung des
Computers sind für die Entwicklung von Selbstkompetenz und
Selbsteinschätzung geeignet. Besonderes Augenmerk ist dabei auf Entwicklung
von Präsentationskompetenz und die Einbeziehung moderner Technologien zu
legen.
• DETAILED FEEDBACK / CLEAR ASSESSMENT CRITERIA / SELF-
ASSESSMENT / DOCUMENTATION
• STUDENTS NEED TO KNOW HOW THEY ARE GOING TO BE ASSESSED.

CONTENT of English Lessons:

1. General educational aim: knowledge, skills, values, gender awareness, …

2. Curriculum of modern languages (there is none just for English)

General Aim/Allgemeines Bildungsziel: AHS

• general education
• preparation for university – in all subjects (including maths?)
• knowledge + competences + values (what values?)
• teaching independent thinking, autonomy & critical thought
• creating social orientation/participation
• creating a positive attitude towards shaping one's life independently
General Aim of an AHS: Values
What are today’s challenges?
• rapid social change, globalisation, migration, gender equality, …
What are the Values that are built into the Curriculum?

• Political discourse should be allowed to take place in classrooms

• Students should be confronted with ethical questions
• Dignity, liberty & integrity are important
• Critical media comprehension needs to be taught

General Aim of a MS
This type of school needs to also focus on vocational training, as well as all the
previously discussed values.
-> Preparing students for their future jobs
Die Mittelschule hat die Aufgabe, der Schülerin oder dem Schüler je nach
Interesse, Neigung, Begabung und Fähigkeit eine grundlegende
Allgemeinbildung und eine vertiefte Allgemeinbildung zu vermitteln und sie
oder ihn für den Übertritt in mittlere oder in höhere Schulen zu befähigen
sowie auf die Polytechnische Schule oder das Berufsleben vorzubereiten

General Aim of a HAK (Business Academy)

This type of school needs to also focus on vocational training, as well as all the
previously discussed values.
-> Preparing students for business related skills & values
Die Ausbildung orientiert sich gleichermaßen an den Zielen der
Beschäftigungsfähigkeit (employability) & der Studierfähigkeit (studiability).
Von zentraler Bedeutung ist eine umfassende Entrepreneurship Education, die
die Schülerinnen und Schüler befähigt, als Unternehmerin und Unternehmer,
Arbeitnehmerin und Arbeitnehmer, Konsumentin und Konsument aktiv und
verantwortungsbewusst zu agieren und damit Wirtschaft und Gesellschaft
mitzugestalten.
Educational Principles AHS (very broad content categories)
Even though they don’t focus on English skills, they are essential in education
• health education • ecological education
• gender equality • road safety
• critical media literacy • business education
• musical/art education • Education in the usage of
technologies
• political education
• preparation for a work environment
• intercultural learning
• General Ordinances on all these
• sex education
principles: Political Education
• literacy

Educational principles of a HAK: all the previous values as well as:

• Wirtschaftserziehung und Verbraucher*Innenbildung:
-kritisch reflexive Auseinandersetzung mit wesentlichen Themen der
Wirtschaft
• Entrepreneurship Education:
-Befähigung des Einzelnen zu Eigeninitiative und selbstständigem Denken
und Handeln als
Unternehmer*In, Arbeitnehmer*In als auch als Konsument*In

Key Concerns & Concepts in the education of modern languages:

Lower secondary:
• COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE
• Mastering everyday situations
• Successful communication (not near native performances)
• Social & intercultural competences -> empathy for other cultures
• Autonomous & lifelong learning - independent use of learning strategies
Key Concerns & Concepts in the education of modern languages:
upper secondary:
• AUTHENTICITY
Creating situations in the classroom that are as close to real life
applications of English as possible.
This can happen through foreign language assistants, texts and media from
an English-speaking source, exchange programs, language weeks, …

• LINGUISTIC COMPETENCES
Wortschatz, grammatische Strukturen und Idiomatik sind in allen
Fertigkeitsbereichen situationsorientiert, unter funktionalem Aspekt, im
Kontext und systematisch zu erweitern.
− Komplexität und Vielfalt der sprachlichen Mittel zur Bewältigung
kommunikativer Aufgaben sind im Laufe der Oberstufe stetig zu
intensivieren
− Das rezeptive Sprachvermögen der Schüler*Innen übertrifft das produktive
Sprachvermögen übertrifft
− Sprachrichtigkeit wird in zunehmendem Maße Bedeutung zugewiesen

• SOCIOLINGUISTIC COMPETENCES:
Mit fortschreitendem Lernzuwachs sind zunehmend Registerunterschiede
zwischen neutralen, formellen, informellen, freundschaftlichen und
vertraulichen Sprachformen zu beachten, die
-> sprachlich sozial angemessenes Verhalten & Höflichkeitskonventionen
− Nationale & soziale Sprachvarietäten werden wichtig.
Es werden auch regionale, soziale, berufsspezifische und
nicht-muttersprachliche Sprachvarianten berücksichtigt
− Handelt es sich bei der gelehrten Fremdsprache um eine Lingua franca,
können nicht-muttersprachliche Aussprachevarianten eingebracht werden.
(being able to listen to non-native speakers of English since many English
speakers have a different mother tongue in everyday situations)

• PRAGMATIC COMPETENCES:
Action oriented English: You want something to be done
How do I communicate that, what do I listen for?
− Die Befähigung, fremdsprachliche Mittel zu bestimmten kommunikativen
Zwecken einsetzen zu können -> Sprachfunktionen
(zB Absicht, Fähigkeit, Möglichkeit, Notwendigkeit, Wunsch, Vermutung, …)
− Bei der Anwendung einer Fremdsprache ist im Laufe des Lernzuwachses
zunehmend auf Kohärenz, Kohäsion, Flüssigkeit, Klarheit und
Angemessenheit des Ausdrucks zu achten.
− Begleitend zu den sprachlichen Mitteln ist ein Bewusstsein für grundlegende
Formen der non-verbalen Kommunikation zu schaffen
(kulturelle Konventionen bezüglich Gestik, Mimik, Körpersprache)

TOPICS -What topics are being incorporated and when?

Lower secondary topics: A1-B1
Family, friends, living situations, hobbies, feelings, celebrations, …
->talking about things that students find in their everyday lives (familiar things)
Upper secondary topics: B2
science, technology, art, literature, lifestyles, roles of media, …
->talking about situations and issues that go beyond everyday conversations
CEFR offers Tables that feature relevant content

LEARNER AUTONOMY
The didactic triangle
The autonomous language learner: ideal vs. reality
• All teachers want highly motivated and autonomous learners, but we do not
offer an environment in which greater autonomy is possible.
There is a mismatch here between the goal and what actually happens in
the classroom.
How should directed, regulated, and passive students convert suddenly
into self-determining and responsible adults? - Teaching needs to change.
• ELT methodology has moved towards the view that adult and adolescent
learners are capable of self-direction and able to organize and undertake
language learning with self-reliance. Being able to do this requires training

General Didactic Principle 5: differentiation & individualisation

In order to create a learning environment, teachers need to be:
• creating differentiated tasks
• acknowledging individual learner types, pre-knowledge, cultural
backgrounds, …
• offering different levels of support
• making students aware of their strengths (and weaknesses)
• giving detailed feedback
• creating and managing a learning environment

Learner autonomy
Learning strategies must be actively taught and tried out.
(working with dictionaries)
Students should acquire the necessary skills for life-long learning.
They should get a chance to demontrate/present their individual knowledge.

Key competences for learner autonomy:

• research skills: how to use libraries, books & online research
• presentation skills: opportunities for students to express themselves
• learning strategies: cognitive & memory strategies
(How do I study this text)
• learner strategies: social & affective strategies(How do I study texts)
• self-directed learning: metacognitive strategies (plans about learning)
Learning: adapting schemes/schemata
As we acquire experiences, our existing schemes often become inadequate,
and we are forced to adapt to function effectively.
(to adapt is to incorporate new information into existing knowledge)
Adaptation is the process of adjusting schemes and experiences to each other
to maintain equilibrium (to maintain balance)
All learning is based on the same cognitive processes (adaptation of
schemes), but the same content is understood differently by different
learners.

Two forms of adaptation:

Accommodation: An existing scheme is modified by new input, which creates a
new scheme in return. ->shorter process
Assimilation: A new input gets integrated into a scheme which modifies it, but
the scheme doesn’t turn it into an entirely new one. -> longer process^
Example “doggy” scheme:
"doggy" scheme of a young child – constantly revised and adapted
Assimilation:
The German shepherd is integrated into the existing 'doggy' scheme.
(Oh, a German shepherd is also a dog!)
Accommodation:
The bear is not a dog. The child needs a new bear scheme.
At the same time, the limits of the 'doggy' scheme have to be redefined
(Oh, a German shepherd isn’t a bear! So what’s a bear then, and what’s a dog?)
->a longer process.

How does a scheme work? Semantic networks

Links and associations of the mind are not isolated; they are all connected
These links all vary in intensity that differs from person to person.
Input doesn’t mean Intake!

Cognitivism & Constructivism:

• Knowledge is constructed by the learner and affected by the learner's prior
experiences. All cognitive theories are constructivist in nature in that they
all emphasize the active role of learners in making meaning out of their
experience.
• Strong focus on top-down processing:
Learners constantly use what they already know to make sense of new input
• Perception involves giving meaning to sensory input."
What we are seeing is already influenced by what we already know
(see example: "doggy" scheme)
Constructivism & ELT:
Learning is a process of building bridges between what we already know and
what we need to learn. This is the basis of the experiential approach to
education. We begin with the learners' own experiences, with what they
already know, and we find ways to 'hook' new learning onto this pre-existing
knowledge.
Teachers need to fascilitate a linking of knowledge to already existing
knowledge.
What can teachers do to facilitate learning?
Practical ideas to facilitate:
• Students have to be (inter)actively involved.
• Social contacts (group work) allow students to share and test their ideas.
• Relate the new information to things your students already know.
[= activiating schemata by brainstorming, mind mapping…]
• Your tasks should be challenging, so that the students' existing knowledge
structures (schemes) are tested and adapted. However, assignments that
are too difficult lead to frustration and resignation.
• Structure your input as much as possible.
• Cater to different learner types.
• Present new information in several ways (e.g. spoken, written, visualized).
• Explain to your students the meaning, purpose & benefit of what you are
teaching.
• Networks in long-term memory only get stronger with repeated use.
Students need practice!
• Your tasks should be close to real life.
• Let students make their own experiences. (don’t teach down onto them,
create learning environments for them gather knowledge interactively)
• Use mind maps and graphic organizers.
• Teach learning strategies: chunking, categorization, mind mapping, …

MOTIVATION – self-determination theory

Humans have three essential needs that are also relevant when teaching:
1) autonomy / self-determination:
I have control over my own life.
I can decide what to do. I have a choice.
Controlling environments essentially ignore people's need for autonomy and
instead pressure them to comply with a pre-arranged and externally-prescribed
way of thinking, feeling, or behaving
Autonomy-supportive environments encourage people to set their own goals,
direct their own behavior, choose their own ways of solving problems, and
basically pursue their own interests and values. What autonomy-supportive
environments are not, however, are environments that are permissive,
neglecting, indulging, or laissez-faire
1.1) Basic tips for autonomy
• Make the subject matter relevant to your students' lives.
Find out who they are and what they like!
• Make your lessons relevant and enjoyable.
• Explain your aims, standards, expectations and approaches.
• Give students a REAL choice.
• Let them work (and speak) independently.
Respect and acknowledge other points of view.
• Use rewards and punishments as little as possible.

2) Competence:
I am getting noticeably better at something. (mastery)
My efforts have an impact.
We want all to develop skills and improve our capacities, talents, and potential.
Competence provides an inherent source of motivation for seeking out and
putting forth the effort necessary to master optimal challenges.
Before people will engage in optimally challenging tasks, the social context
must tolerate (and even value) failure and error making. Optimal challenge
implies that considerable error making is essential for optimizing motivation.
Error tolerance, failure tolerance, and risk taking rest on the belief that we
learn more from failure than we do from success.

Optimal Challenges:
ANGRY BIRDS LEVELS
2.1) Basic tips for competence
• Establish clear structures. • Acknowledge success
(even a small step).
• Give students a chance to find
out and demonstrate what they • Break down complex tasks into
can do. smaller steps that can be
mastered individually.
• Provide challenging tasks
• FACILITATOR:
• Provide professional and detailed
offer help & strategies.
feedback
(Session 2)
• Watch your language
(threats/pressure)

3. Relatedness -> humans are social creatures

I want to be part of a group.
I want people to care about me.
I want to care about other people.
Relatedness is the need to establish close emotional bonds and attachments
with other people, and it reflects the desire to be emotionally connected to
and interpersonally involved in warm relationships.
3.1 developmental tasks:
A developmental task is a task which arises at or about a certain period in the
life of the individual, successful achievement of which leads to his happiness
and to success with later tasks, while failure leads to unhappiness in the
individual, disapproval by the society, and difficulty with later tasks."
Examples: establishing new and deepened relationships to peers of both sexes;
establishing a gender identity and relating to social expectations of male and
female behaviour; gradually becoming independent of one's parents;
developing ideas about future partners and potential family structures

3.2. Basic Tips for relatedness:

• Your relationships to the students
are more important than you think.
• supportive, non-threatening atmosphere
 • informational language: factual, but no judgments on the character of
the students, only on their competences
• Offer students a variety of social forms to interact with each other: more
student talking time!
• Give students a chance to contribute to the community, even if that
takes some effort.

2 DIFFERENT KINDS OF MOTIVATION ex. vs in.

Intrinsic Motivation
satisfies psychological (and not social) needs:
• closely linked to the achievement of greater autonomy and competence
• Intrinsic motivation comes from feeling competent and feeling self-
determined during an activity. ->leads to greater health & well-being
Extrinsic Motivation
DOING SOMETHING TO GET SOMETHING ELSE IN EXCHANGE.
(what's in it for me?)
Extrinsic motivation arises from environmental incentives and consequences
(e.g., food, money, social status). Instead of engaging in an activity to
experience the inherent satisfactions it can bring (as with intrinsic motivation),
extrinsic motivation arises from some consequence that is separate from the
activity itself.
Intrinsic motivation vs. Extrinsic motivation:
intrinsic motivation can be harmed by rewards –
doing it for other reasons than an internal gain of knowledge or competence.
Singer-Song writer(in) - Pop star (ex)
Hobby artist(in) - Professional artist (ex)

SLA- SECOND LANGUAGE AQUISITION

one of the sister disciplines of ELT
1. FLA- First Language Acquisition (Babies)
2. SLA – Second Language Acquisition (Children/Teens)
3. Theories, approaches and Methods in Foreign Language Teaching FLE (Uni)
Teachers act as mediators and fascilitators in SLA
Stages of FLA:

What is Behaviourism? -Skinner

• Behaviorism:
motto: Repeat what I say.
guru: B. F. Skinner (psychologist)
decisive factor: environment / input
• Innatism:
motto:Recognize what you hear.
guru: Noam Chomsky (linguist)
decisive factor: inborn language processor
• Interactionist / Developmental / Constructivist perspectives:
nature/genetics + nurture/culture
1. Behaviourism in FLA & SLA: Repeat what I say

Stimulus: e.g. language input

Response: imitation or trial & error
Reinforcement: positive (praise) or negative (punishment)
Habit formation: through imitation and practice

1. Linguistic stimuli are crucial for acquisition.

2. Parents, siblings and relatives encourage children to imitate them.
3. The environment provides feedback on a learner's performance
and progress (→ nurture!)
4. Parents, siblings and relatives offer positive reinforcement, e.g. praise or the
experience of successful communication.
5. Thus, children form habits of correct language use

• Learning a language is seen as similar to learning any other skill.

• The basic principles apply equally to animals and humans.
• Behaviorism had a strong influence on audiolingualism in ELT and
language labs
Criticism:
• Children do not (always) learn by imitation.
• Children are unable to produce sentences outside of the rules of
their developing grammar (interlanguage).
• Children do not learn languages through correction and
reinforcement.

2. FLA- Innatist perspective (linguistics)

Children are surrounded by imperfect language (spoken language, slang,…)
There is no systematic feedback or formal training.
But, still, children acquire full language competence.
Chomsky's main assumption:
Humans are equipped with an innate ability for language (→ NATURE)
Universal Grammar (Chomsky): Competence vs. performance´
linguistic competence:
a person's unseen potential to speak a language, mental process
= LANGUAGE KNOWLEDGE

linguistic performance:
observable realization of that potential, what is seen
= ACTUAL LANGUAGE USE
TODAY: COMPETENCE IS CLOSELY TIED TO PERFORMANCE!

1-2 Innate Perspective vs. Behaviourism:

Innate endowment(nature) or result of experiences(culture)?

3. INTERACTIONIST & DEVELOPMENTAL PERSPECTIVES

Cognitive and developmental psychologists argue that
• Innatists (Chomsky) place too much emphasis on the final stage, the
competence of (adult monolingual) native speakers and place too little
emphasis on the developmental aspects of language acquisition.
• Behaviorists (Skinner) are too focused on drills and mechanical learning
procedures, ignoring the social context.
• language acquisition is just one type of learning and not at all different from
other forms of learning (Skinner's view).
The interplay of innate learning abilities and the social environment plays an
important role. -> NATURE AND NURTURE

THEORIES OF L2 (SLA) LEARNING

1. Psychological theories (Skinner):
Language is processed by general cognitive mechanisms that are responsible
for a wide range of human learning (no specialized module is required).
-> Behaviourism, Cognitive Psychology
2. Linguistic theories (Chomsky):
Language acquisition is based on the presence of a specialized module of the
human mind containing innate knowledge of principles common to all
languages -> Universal Grammar (UG), Krashen's Monitor Theory
3. Recent developments:
These theories show a greater interest in the socio-cultural context of language
learning (nurture) and brain research/neuroscience (nature).
-> information processing theories, Connectionism, interactionist
perspectives

STEPHEN KRASHENS MONITOR MODEL (1982)

• Krashen's Monitor Model shares some assumptions with UG, but it was
specifically created for an SLA context.
• It resulted from a "growing dissatisfaction with language teaching methods
based on behaviorism" in the 1970s.
• The major similarity between UG and Krashen's model is this:
Human beings acquire language without any instruction or systematic
feedback as long as they are exposed to enough meaningful language
input.
• For his Monitor Model Stephen Krashen proposed
five hypotheses that capture his main ideas.
Review of Krashens Model:
Some of Krashen's hypotheses cannot be tested in empirical research
They are only ideas/intuitions without any proof.
However, all of them – especially 'comprehensible input' – have had an
enormous impact on SLA. All recent approaches to ELT ->
Communicative Language Teaching (CLT),
Task-based Language Teaching (TBLT) and
Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
-> are based on Krashen's idea of acquisition and immersion in language.

An indepth discussion: PSYCHOLINGUISIC PERSPECTIVES

Behaviourism / Cognitive Psychology/ Connectionism
Processability Theory / Interactionist Perspectives
1. THE INFLUENCE OF BEHAVIOURISM ON SLA & ELT
Behaviourism had a major influence on FLA, SLA & ELT
The contrastive analysis hypothesis is often linked to that.
Contrastive analysis = comparing two languages
Hypothesis = theory that lacks empirical evidence
Contrastive analysis hypothesis means:
A person learning another language L2 starts with the habits formed in the
mother tongue L1. This transfer of habits causes an interference.
Errors occur in the learned Language L2 because it interferes with SLA and
grammatical rules from the first language L1.
Therefore:
Where the first language (L1) and the target language (L2) are similar, learners
should acquire target language structures with ease (little interference); where
there are differences, learners should have difficulties (a lot of interference).
Examples:
Italian- and Spanish-speaking learners of English may prefer 'no' [in negations]
because it corresponds to the negative form in Italian and Spanish
(No tienen muchos libros.) They may continue to use this negation longer than
other learners because of the similarity to a pattern from their first language
Research says:
There is some EVIDENCE OF INTERFERENCE (overuse of 'no' in negations)
The contrastive analysis hypothesis applies to ELT:
BEHAVIOURISM: HABITS FROM MOTHER TONGUE ARE TRANSFERRED TO L2.
WITH SIMILAR LANGUAGES: LITTLE INTERFERENCE
WITH DIFFERENT LANGUAGES: HUGE INTERFERENCE
EXAMPLES: GERMAN → ENGLISH
"Diz iz not wot I'm saying." (pronunciation)
"What will you become at Christmas?" (false friends)
"I played with my brother tennis." (grammar: word order)

2. COGNITIVE PERSPECTIVES ON SLA

There is no language specific module in the brain, it is part of the learning
module.-> what is innate is simply the ability to learn
Noticing Hypothesis by Lightbrown & Spada (controversial)
Nothing is learned unless it has been noticed
-> opposite to STEPHAN KRASHEN´s Theory
-> both positions are likely too extreme, a middle path is most likely

3. CONNECTIONISM -> semantic networks : We learn through connecting

previously aquired knowledge to new information
• The role of the environment matters.
• The frequency with which learners encounter specific linguistic features in
the input and the frequency with which features occur together have an
influence on how quickly and efficiently learning takes place.
• Learners gradually build up their knowledge of language through exposure
to the thousands of instances of language.
• Learners develop stronger mental 'connections' between the elements they
have already learned.
• They connect new items to those already acquired.

4. PROCESSABILITY THEORY -> natural order hypothesis KRASHEN

processability: the ability to process (understand/remember/use) knowledge
Certain things are easier to learn, some are harder. Things that are harder to
understand need to be acknowledged later on in the learning process
In Processability Theory,
All learners go through certain stages: (don’t need to be learnt by heart)

5. INTERACTIONIST Theory -social learning

The central idea is that languages are learnt best through social interactions.
Listening to Music and watching TV isnt enough, interaction is how languages
are learnt.
Interlocutors (Speakers) adjust their speech to make it more accssible to
learners. The modification of interaction helps in comprehending & aquiring a
new language. -> not simplifying, but paraphrasing, repeating, slowing down…

Lev Vygotsky´s Zone of Proximal Development

Language develops primarily from social interaction
Children need a "supportive interactive environment"
Conversations provide the child with scaffolding -> a kind of supportive
structure that helps them.
This scaffolding is also called assited performance:
-> Children speak and get constant support and feedback from Adults.
The zone of proximal development is between the child's present skill or
developmental level and the level of competence that the child can reach with
the help of others (scaffolding).
6. INTERLANGUAGE
Larry Selinker (1972) gave the name interlanguage to: learners' developing
knowledge in a second language
Interlanguages have been found to be systematic, but they are also dynamic,
continually evolving as learners receive more input and revise their hypotheses
about the second language. The path through language acquisition is not
necessarily smooth and even
Language learning, no matter the language happens in:
developmental sequences
Crosslinguistic Influences

Language transfer explained

the effect of one language on the learning of another. → L1 transfer to L2 or L3
Interlanguage transfer: influence of non-native L on another non-native L → L2
transfer to L3
Reverse transfer: L2 to L1, L3 to L2, L3 to L1
Negative transfer, also known as interference, is the use of a source-language
pattern or rule which leads to an error or inappropriate form in the target
language. → differences cause problems
Positive transfer is transfer which makes learning easier, and may occur when
both the source language and the target language have the same form.
→ similarities facilitate learning
Why are SLA theories relevant for teachers?
Knowing more about SLA research will not tell you what to do in your
classroom tomorrow morning.
It will, however, hopefully encourage you to reflect on your experience in
teaching and thus contribute to a better understanding of your responsibilities
as a teacher and your students' abilities and responsibilities as language
learners
• Importance of FLA for SLA:
For children from minority-language backgrounds, programmes promoting
the development of the first language both at home and at school may be
more important for long-term success in the second language than an early
start in the second language itself
–> it is better to refine and perfect structures and connections for a childs
FLA rather than adding a new language on top in order to achieve long
term progress

• Acceptance of interlanguage & errors:

Language development is not just adding one rule after another. Rather, it
involves processes of integrating new language forms and patterns into an
existing interlanguage, readjusting and restructuring until all the pieces fit.

Errors are a natural part of language learning. Errors reflect the patterns of
learners' developing interlanguage systems – showing gaps in their
knowledge, overgeneralization of a second language rule, or an
inappropriate transfer of a first language pattern to the second language.
-> Errors and Mistakes are the best teachers

• input ≠ intake:
Teachers know from experience that students don't learn everything they
are taught. The fact that something is taught or made available in the input
does not mean learners will acquire it right away -> intake

• Importance of the social learning environment:

Practicing language in the form of meaningful interaction in a supportive
environment. It isnt useful to teach down onto a class. It is much more
useful and constructive to direct an interactive and learn-friendly
environment.