Unit 15

Introduction to Life Science

Table of Contents

Table of Contents 1

Introduction 3

Essential Questions 4

Review 4

Lesson 15.1: The Evolving Concept of Life 5

Objectives 5
Warm-Up 5
Learn about It 6
Key Points 14
Web Links 14
Check Your Understanding 15
Challenge Yourself 16

Lesson 15.2: Classical Experiments That Led to the Discovery of First Life 17
Objectives 17
Warm-Up 17
Learn about It 18
Key Points 22
Web Links 23
Check Your Understanding 23
Challenge Yourself 25

Lesson 4.3: Early Forms of Life 26

Objectives 26
Warm-Up 26
Learn about It 28
Key Points 36
 Web Links 36
Check Your Understanding 37
Challenge Yourself 38

Lesson 15.4: Connections and Interactions Among Living Things 39

Objectives 39
Warm-Up 39
Learn about It 41
Key Points 47
Web Links 47
Check Your Understanding 48
Challenge Yourself 49

Laboratory Activity 50

Performance Task 53

Self Check 54

Key Words 55

Wrap Up 57

Photo Credits 57

References 58

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GRADE 11/12 | EARTH AND LIFE SCIENCE

Unit 15
Introduction to Life Science

In the 21st century, humans became more interested in understanding the origin
and the concept of life. “What is life?” is a common question that the human race
has kept on asking since the dawn of mankind. During the Greek era, Aristotle, a
great naturalist, enumerated several concrete ideas on the definition of “life” that
has been passed from one generation to another. However, through the advent of
science and the emergence of curious minds, these ideas were invalidated and the
deductive understanding of life has been beset with difficulties.

With several discoveries that allow humans to understand the complexity of life like
the “double helix structure” of the DNA illustrated by Watson and Crick in 1953,
several doors were opened to direct the path for the emergence of modern life
science. With life science, it became possible for humans to understand life with the
use of concepts and principles from other sciences like physics, chemistry, and
mathematics that are continuously being refined over time. Life science as a body
of knowledge has rapidly developed and provided humans with the knowledge

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about different organisms with regards to its origin, structures, and other
complexities.

This unit covers the basic definition of life science and tackles the different
prevailing theories concerning the origin of life and the evolution of the first living
organism that appeared on Earth. How is it possible that all organisms emerge
from a single-celled life form that existed during the primitive Earth?

Essential Questions
At the end of this unit, you should be able to answer the following questions.
● How did primitive organisms emerge on Earth?
● What are the classic experiments that modeled conditions which might have
enabled first forms of organisms to evolve?
● How do the unifying themes in the study of life show the connections and
interactions among living things and their environment?

Review
● Biology is the study of life. Recall that “bio” refers to life, and “logos” means
study, making biology as the study of life. Some branches of biology include
microbiology, zoology, botany, ecology, and genetics.
○ Microbiology is the study of microscopic organisms, which also deals
with their interactions with one another and other living organisms.
○ Zoology is the study of animals with regard to their physiology,
classification, growth and development, and behavior.
○ Botany is the study of plants. Traditionally, botany has also included
the study of fungi and algae.
○ Ecology is the study of the interactions of living organisms with each
other and with the nonliving things in their environments.
○ Genetics is the study of heredity, including the nature of the genetic
material and genetic variation in biological populations.
● Scientists have calculated that the Earth is 4.54 billion years old.
● The earliest life forms emerged on Earth 3.77 billion years ago or possibly
as early as 4.28 billion years ago after the oceans were formed.

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 Lesson 15.1: The Evolving Concept of Life

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● enumerate theories that explain how life emerged on Earth; and
● explain how life was formed and evolved.

Life is believed to have existed on Earth for billions of years now. Scientists do not
know exactly when life began on Earth. However, they have proposed several
theories about how life developed and evolved based on pieces of evidence. What
are the theories that tried to explain the origin of life? Which of these are still
valid and recognized by science?

Warm-Up

What is Life?
This activity aims to introduce life by determining the characteristics that make it
different from nonliving things. Through observation of ecosystems, several distinct
characteristics can be noted from the living organisms.

Materials:
● an internet-connected device
● pencil
● paper
● illustration of an ecosystem

● What is Life Activity

Quipper. 2018. ‘What is Life Activity.’
https://drive.google.com/drive/folders/1f-P_UILzF9c_eU9qVts_O35EskiPqVD
G?usp=sharing

5
Procedure:
1. Find a partner and form a pair.
2. By using your internet-connected device, access the provided link and
download the image to be evaluated.
3. By using the figure, enumerate the different organisms present.
4. After enumerating the organisms, identify the characteristics they exhibit in
the photo that proves they are alive.
5. Summarize your answer by using the table below.
6. Present your answer in the class and see if you got everything correctly.
7. Answer the guide questions that follow.

Characteristics of organisms in the evaluated figure.

Organisms Exhibited Characteristic of Life

Guide Questions:
1. How many organisms were you able to identify?
2. What is the most common characteristic shown in the figure that proves the
existence of life?
3. How do you think each organism in the figure interacts with one another?
4. Sharing similar characteristics of life, do you think these organisms came
from similar ancestors? Why?

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 Learn about It

Life Science as a Science

Life science is a collection of disciplines that is made up of theories and principles
that tackle the structure and function of living things starting from the molecular
level up to entire ecosystems. This field advances our knowledge about the
anatomy, cell biology, ecology, genetics, molecular biology, and physiology of all
living things on Earth. Life science is a vital field for understanding issues about the
web of life on Earth. It is an interdisciplinary field that involves concepts of biology,
biochemistry, chemistry, and physics.

Characteristics of Life
Not all people of science agree on a single concept regarding life. But several
characteristics describe most living things, and these distinguishing features
separate a living from a nonliving thing. These allow us to have a unifying
understanding of the concept of life and classify an individual living creature as an
organism. Organisms belonging to different kinds share the following
characteristics that allow us to identify that they are living:
1. They respond to their environment.
2. They grow and develop.
3. They are capable of reproduction.
4. They exhibit metabolism.
5. They maintain homeostasis.
6. They are made up of cells.

The succeeding discussions focus on each of these characteristics.

Response to Their Environment

All living organisms respond to their environment. In order to survive, a living thing
must know what is going on around them, and it should be capable of responding
to the changes in its environment. Adaptation is the process of adjusting to the
changes in the environment. This includes structural, physiological, or even
behavioral changes that increase the likelihood of survival of an organism. For
example, humans tend to perspire whenever exposed to a hot environment. This is
one method to regulate temperature inside their bodies.

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Growth and Development
All living things have the ability to grow and change, like seeds grow into whole new
plants, while animals develop to reach full adulthood and be sexually mature for
reproduction. Growth refers to the ability of organisms to increase in size, weight,
and height, while development refers to the differentiation of cells to form highly
specialized structures in your body. Organisms grow by increasing their size, height,
or weight. On the other hand, development is evident in the formation of organs
like the development of the mammary glands during puberty in humans.

Fig. 1. Development of a human embryo as seen

in an ultrasound imaging machine.

Reproduce and Have Offspring

All living organisms have the capacity to reproduce. Living organisms create new
individuals or offspring to maintain a population of new generations, which will
sustain the species’ continuity of existence. Most animals produce their offspring
through birth or external fertilization. As for plants, reproduction often happens by
the formation of seeds enclosed in fruits that develop into new individuals.

Exhibit Metabolism
All living things have several metabolic processes happening in their bodies.
Metabolism refers to the total chemical reactions in an organism that allow it to
function properly. Simple examples of processes in animals that demonstrate
metabolism include breathing, excretion, and perspiration. These involve chemical
processes that should take place in order to maintain balance in the body.

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Maintain Homeostasis
Homeostasis refers to the equilibrium state in an organism’s body. A human body
has a temperature of 37 degrees Celsius, and this must be maintained to allow
several processes to occur efficiently. Living things keep a stable internal
environment within a certain range despite the several changes in their external
environment. There are several ways in which organisms maintain homeostasis.
One common example is through thermoregulation in animals and water
conservation in plants. These are all dependent on the changes in the
environment.

Made up of Cells
All living things are highly organized up to the
microscopic level, starting from atoms up to the
entire living organism. The cell is the
fundamental structural and functional unit of
all living organisms. Cells with similar functions
work together and form tissues. Then, tissues
form the organs. Organs are connected with
one another and form organ systems, which
can work together to form the entire organism.
Trying to observe an animal or plant tissue
under the microscope will let you notice several
building blocks in the form of cells. These serve
as the smallest unit that is capable of
performing various critical functions that help
sustain life.

Theories on the Origin of Life

Theories that describe how life on Earth first
existed include the spontaneous generation
theory, primordial soup theory, and theory of
panspermia.

Theory of Spontaneous Generation

The theory of spontaneous generation described that life came from lifeless or
nonliving material through a mysterious process. The idea of abiogenesis, or the
formation of life from nonliving materials, had popularized this theory. Abiogenesis
is the process by which life emerges naturally from inanimate or nonliving
materials.

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This theory was assumed to have originated from Anaximander, a Greek
philosopher in the 6th century BCE. Other philosophers, including Aristotle,
adapted and expanded Anaximander’s idea. Moreover, Aristotle explained in his
writing, The History of Animals that was written in 350 BCE, that some organisms
appeared from inanimate objects spontaneously. For instance, when hay was piled,
mice appeared. When garbage was left for some time, maggots appeared. From
these coincidences, he assumed that clutter gave rise to vermin through
spontaneous generation, a process that transmuted lifeless objects to living
organisms by supernatural means.

In order to disprove the abiogenesis concept of the spontaneous generation theory,

Francesco Redi (1668) challenged the idea by using the concept that maggots
came from rotting meat. In his experiment (as shown in the figure below), a rotting
meat was placed in a variety of open containers with cloth cover to allow the entry
of air (uppermost left), sealed container (uppermost right), open container without
the cloth cover (lowermost left), and partially covered jars (lowermost right). He
insisted that maggots will not be formed (or appear) in totally and partially sealed
containers. However, results of this experiment did not convince the scientific
community during that time.

Fig. 3. Experiment of Francesco Redi in 1668 on abiogenesis.

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By contrast, John Needham (1745) conducted an experiment on boiled broths to
support spontaneous generation theory. He believed that boiling kills
microorganisms in the broth. He actually conducted an experiment with boiled
broth and sealed it afterwards. He hypothesized that the broth would become
cloudy and still form microorganisms, thus supporting the belief in spontaneous
generation. This experiment was criticized by a lot of people including Lazzaro
Spallanzani. In 1768, Lazzaro Spallanzani made some modifications on Needham’s
experiment by excluding the possibility of contamination factor prior sealing the
bottle after boiling. He boiled the broth in a partially sealed jar with the air partially
evacuated to avoid explosions while boiling. He did not observe any growth,
although the issue of the role of air remains in question to disprove spontaneous
generation theory.

Francesco Redi Lazzaro Spallanzani

(1626 - 1697) (1729 - 1799)

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Lastly, in 1859, a French scientist, Louis Pasteur
made an experiment to totally disprove the
spontaneous generation theory. In his
experiment, Pasteur boiled a meat broth in a
goose-like flask having a long curved neck. He
explained that the bend in the neck prevented
particles from reaching the meat broth and still
allowed free air to flow. In his observation, the
flask remained clear and there was no cloud
formation observed for an extended period. This
experiment of Pasteur convinced a lot of
scientists during his time and led to the exclusion
of spontaneous generation theory as a valid idea
to explain the origin of life.

Theory of Panspermia
This theory was proposed by the astronomer
Fred Hoyle in the 19th century. It states that
life on Earth was seeded from a celestial
source. The theory of panspermia is also called exogenesis, as some of its
hypotheses suggested that building blocks of life came from another planet. These
include comets colliding the Earth and depositing living cells or the precursors of
life, and aliens making life-essential materials in a
laboratory. Most scientists who believe in
panspermia stick to the origin of life from comets.

This particular theory does not focus on the

origin of life itself but on the possible
transmission of life that allowed it to be
distributed to different parts of the planet.
Organisms like bacteria and other
microorganisms might have travelled in dormant
stages within comets and asteroids that heated
the Earth. These dormant organisms became
activated and started colonizing the Earth, which
served as their new environment. Until now, the
integrity of the theory remained in question as
there is no evidence supporting its hypothesis.

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 Primordial Soup Theory
The primordial soup theory is the
most predominant theory about
the origin of life. According to the
primordial soup theory proposed
by Alexander Oparin and John
Haldane, life started in a
primordial soup of organic
molecules. This theory explains
how catalysts for nonliving things
became living cells from chemical
compounds abundant on early
Earth. It began with the
assumption that life first formed
from primitive seas when simple molecules of the early atmosphere reacted to
produce complex molecules. At this time, Oparin and Haldane failed to conduct an
actual experiment to prove their theory. However, the principles of the theory
remained strong and logical that considered the theory valid until now. The
formation of life based on primordial soup theory has been theorized based on the
following series of events:

1. The surface of the early Earth was very hot. There were lots of volcanoes that
erupted frequently and spewed gases, such as methane, ammonia, sulfur,
hydrogen, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and inert nitrogen. These gases were
the major components of the primitive atmosphere.
2. The gases in the early atmosphere were constantly exposed to high voltages
coming from the lightning, high energy particles from immense radioactivity,
and high ultraviolet radiation from the sun due to the lack of an ozone layer.
3. As the gases were exposed to high energy particles, their molecules reacted,
and the reactions formed larger, more complex molecules.
4. As the temperature cooled at night, the water vapor condensed, forming fogs
or clouds. The condensed water droplets formed new molecules.
5. Droplets fell to Earth’s surface and gradually formed more highly
concentrated molecular pools in ponds or cracks. The primordial soup of
organic molecules was then formed.
6. From the primitive sea or primordial soup bowls, all building blocks of life like
amino acids, fatty acids, nucleobases, and sugars were assumed to have
condensed to form life on Earth.

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Below is a schematic representation of the conditions of the early Earth and how
biological molecules were synthesized from gases and minerals.

Fig. 5. Schematic diagram of the processes that happened during the primitive
Earth according to the primordial soup theory.

At present, the most valid theory about the origin of life is presented by the
primordial soup theory that was validated by the experiments conducted by Miller
and Urey. Several scientists validated their experiments and obtained the same
outcome. Several modified experiments are still being conducted to determine the
dynamics of organic materials in the primordial soup present during the primitive
Earth.

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 Key Points

● Life science is a collection of disciplines made up of theories and principles

that tackle the structure and function of living things starting from the
molecular level up to entire ecosystems.
● An individual living creature is termed as an organism.
● All living organisms are capable of reproduction, growth and
development, adaptation, movement, exhibiting metabolism, and
maintaining homeostasis.
● The spontaneous generation theory and the panspermia are two of the
classical theories regarding the origin of life.
● The primordial soup theory is one of the most valid theories trying to
explain the origin of life on Earth.

Web Links

To learn more about the evolving concept of life, you can check the following web
links:

● Read more about the primordial soup theory.

Leuwenwu. 2015. The Primordial Soup Theory.’
http://leiwenwu.tripod.com/primordials.htm

● Spontaneous generation theory in a wrap! Visit this website to

learn more
Brian Cardella. 2015. ‘Spontaneous Generation Theory.’ Video.
https://youtu.be/7rOr-mEycwA

● Watch this short magnificent clip on the origin of life supporting

the claims of the theory of panspermia.
Labidiomas. 2017. Órigin of Life: Panspermia.’ Video.
https://youtu.be/51V363V1bkI

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 Check Your Understanding

A. By using the Venn diagram below, compare the three prevailing theories on the
origin of life.

B. Write the word true if the given statement is correct and false if otherwise.
1. Abiogenesis states that living organisms originated from preexisting living
organisms.
2. The spontaneous generation theory is still considered as a valid theory up
to date.
3. All living organisms are made up of cells.
4. Maintaining a stable internal condition is not important to living things.
5. Microorganisms that cause clouding in the experiment of John Needham
came from the boiled broth.

Challenge Yourself

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Briefly answer the following questions.
1. What do you think is the problem with John Needham’s experiment?
2. If you are given the chance to modify John Needham’s experiment, what part
will you improve? Rationalize your choice.
3. Do you agree with Louis Pasteur’s experiment in disproving spontaneous
generation theory? Why?
4. Do you believe in abiogenesis theory on the origin of life? Why?
5. What do you think is the most useful characteristic of life that advanced the
existence of living organisms on Earth?

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 Lesson 15.2: Classical Experiments That
Led to the Discovery of First Life

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● enumerate classical experiments that explain early life formation
on Earth; and
● describe how these classical experiments proved the formation
of early life forms.

About 4.6 billion years ago, Earth began to exist. The existence of life, as believed by
many scientists, started from the moment Earth’s environment became stable to
support life. When was the first time that a life-form emerged on Earth? What
are the experiments conducted to explain how the first life-form on Earth
emerged?

Warm-Up

Writing Earth’s History

Scientists estimated that the Earth was formed 4.6 billion years ago. The Earth
started as a lifeless planet that was filled with hydrogen and methane but was
devoid of water. It was way different from the planet you call your home today. In
this activity, you are about to write milestones in Earth’s history.

Materials:
● 46 sheets of paper
● a laptop
● a working internet connection
● reference books
● marker

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Procedure:
1. The 46 sheets of paper represent 100 million years in the lifespan of Earth’s
history.
2. Using the marker, label each sheet as follows: 4.6 billion years ago; 4.5 billion
years ago; 4.4 billion years ago; 4.3 billion years ago; and so on (with 0.1
billion year difference).
3. After labelling, look for important geologic events that happened within the
given time frame represented by each sheet of paper. You can use reference
books and the given links below for this purpose.

● The geologic time scale.

International Commission on Stratigraphy. 2015. ‘Geologic Time Scale.’
https://web.archive.org/web/20140530005940/http://www.stratigraphy.o
rg

● How geologic time is organized.

Fossil Project. 2019. ‘How Geologic Time is Organized.’ Video.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hrD5VMBkFkM

4. Present your Earth’s geologic time scale in front of the class and point out
important milestones in Earth’s life history.
5. Answer the guide questions that follow.

Guide Questions:
1. Which time period exhibited the most number of developments on Earth?
2. At which period the first life form emerged? What do you think was the
condition of the Earth’s environment during that time?
3. How long have the animals existed? What about human beings?
4. How much time would the average human existence cover on the scale you
have constructed?

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 Learn about It

Several scientists conducted different experiments that modeled conditions which

may have enabled the first life forms to evolve. Among these experiments are the
electrical discharge, thermal synthesis, and the protocell experiments.

Electrical Discharge Experiment

The electrical discharge experiment was conducted by Stanley Miller and Harold
Urey in 1953. They recreated the primitive Earth as described in the
Oparin-Haldane theory by simulating the formation of organic molecules in early
Earth. They confined methane, ammonia, water, and hydrogen in a closed boiler
representing the ocean and applied continuous electrical sparks with the use of
electrodes (lightning in the atmosphere) to trigger the formation of the building
blocks of life. The boiler was also exposed to heat using the burner for the
simulation of the heat that goes to the ocean from the sun.

Stanley Miller Harold Urey

(1930 - 2007) (1893 - 1981)

After a day, they observed a change in color of the solution. The continuous
electrical sparks in the experiment may be compared to lightning, which could have
a similar effect on the gases in the primitive atmosphere. After a week, the solution

20
was tested, and they found out that several amino acids such as glycine, alanine,
and aspartic acid were produced.

In this experiment, Miller and Urey were able to prove the formation of amino acids
and carbohydrates from the mixture of organic substances. The purpose of this
experiment was not to try and produce amino acids; rather, its purpose was to
explore the conditions of the early Earth and what naturally occurring results would
be.

In 2007, scientists tried to reexamine the experiment of Urey and Miller. They were
able to detect different amino acids from sealed vials preserved from the original
experiment. More recent evidence point out that the Earth's original atmosphere
could be different from the gas composition used in the experiment of Urey and
Miller.

Fig. 6. The electrical discharge experiment of Stanley Miller and Harold Urey.

The Thermal Synthesis Experiment

The thermal synthesis experiment was conducted by Sidney Walter Fox in 1958.
Fox demonstrated the origin of life in his experiment by using a specific mixture of
pure, dry amino acids. After heating the mixture, he observed that an aqueous
solution was formed and cooled into microscopic globules called proteinoid
microspheres.

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The globules looked like coccoid bacteria and seemed to be budding. Budding is a
form of reproduction in some microorganisms. Fox claimed that the proteinoid
microspheres constituted protocells — spherical materials that looked like cells,
and even multiplied through division like true cells. He believed that these cells
were the link between the primordial environment and the true living cells.

Fig. 7. Proteinoid microspheres under a microscope.

Recent reviews about the thermal synthesis of amino acids from interstellar
components similar to ammonia and formaldehyde is considered in the context of
the origin of life. The self organization of thermal proteins to cells is instantaneous.
This process includes the extrusion of hot and dry amino acids and its conversion
into peptides present in aqueous environment that occurs as the second step of
self organization in living organisms.

The Protocell Experiment

The protocell experiment was conducted by Jack Szostak. Szostak thought that the
simplest possible living cells or protocells just required two components to be
formed: a nucleic acid genome to transmit the genetic information and a lipid sac
which encapsulated the genome and let itself grow and divide.

The formation of compartmentalizations within cells is important in explaining the

emergence of life. The membranes form enclosed compartments that separate
internal areas from the external environment of the cell. These allow cells to have
specialized functional aqueous spaces. Because of the semipermeability of the lipid
bilayer of cell membranes, cells have membrane transport systems that import
important molecules and export wastes. Construction of the protocells can be very

22
challenging from molecular assemblies. The protocell
must have vesicles which are important to cellular
functions, such as membrane transport and cell division
with the use of fat-loving molecules. During the primitive
Earth, chemical reactions of organic and inorganic
compounds produced the building block molecules of life.
During this phase, the production of vesicle molecules
played an important role in the evolution from molecular
assembly to cellular life.

Szostak built lipid sacs made in fatty acids and a replicase

— an RNA molecule that catalyzes its own replication in a
test tube. He found out that lipid sacs with more RNA
grew faster. He suggested that such test tube evolution
was possible. The results suggested that the early forms of
life with just a single gene, an RNA gene, could have
undergone a Darwinian evolution.

Fig. 8. A model showing replication and growth of a protocell.

Key Points

● The electrical discharge experiment was conducted by Stanley Miller and

Harold Urey in 1953.
● Miller and Urey recreated the primitive Earth as described in Oparin-Haldane
theory by simulating the formation of organic molecules in early Earth.

23
 ● The thermal synthesis experiment was conducted by Sidney Walter Fox in
1958. Fox demonstrated in his experiment the origin of life by using a specific
mixture of pure, dry amino acids.
● The protocell experiment was conducted by Jack Szostak. Szostak thought
that the simplest possible living cells or protocells just required two
components to be formed: a nucleic acid genome that can transmit genetic
information and a lipid sac which can encapsulate the genome and let itself
grow and divide.

Web Links

To learn more about the classical experiments that lead to the discovery of first life,
you can check the following web links:

● Want to look at an accurate visual illustration of the Urey-Miller

experiment? Visit this site:
Stated Clearly. 2015. ‘What was the Urey-Miller Experiment?.’ Video.
https://youtu.be/NNijmxsKGbc

● Can’t get enough of the protocell experiment? Learn more by

visiting this site:
Exploring Origins. 2012. ‘Protocells.’
http://exploringorigins.org/protocells.html

● What do you think is the earliest life form on Earth? And where
do you think we can find them?
Pappas, Stephanie. 2017. ‘What Was the First Life on Earth?.’
https://www.livescience.com/57942-what-was-first-life-on-earth.html

Check Your Understanding

A. Using the Urey-MIller experiment, explain the importance of each component

of their experiment in the simulation of the early condition of the Earth and the
formation of essential molecules for the creation of life.
1. boiler flask with water

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 2. electrodes
3. condenser
4. methane, hydrogen gas, water, and ammonia
5. heating burner

B. Match the given words in set A to the items listed in set B.

Set A Set B

1. Stanley Miller a. One of the scientists who proposed

the electric discharge experiment.

2. Jack Szostak b. It is a method of reproduction where

cells split into two equal parts.

3. protocells c. He is the proponent of the protocell

experiment.

4. budding d. It is the material used in the electric

discharge experiment which
represented the presence of thunder

25
 during the primitive Earth.

5. Sidney Walter Fox e. It is the material used in the electric

discharge experiment which
represented the heat coming from
the sun during the primitive Earth .

6. proteinoid microspheres f. It is the material used in the electric

discharge experiment which
represented ocean water during the
primitive Earth.

7. electrode g. It is the material used in the electric

discharge experiment which
represented the cooling of the
atmosphere at night during the
primitive Earth.

8. heating burner h. These are structures that are highly

similar to true cells due to the
presence of membrane divisions.

9. boiler i. These are microscopic globules

formed during cooling of the primitive
Earth.

10. condenser j. He is the proponent of the thermal

synthesis experiment.

Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the following questions.

1. How do you think the primary components of the Earth’s atmosphere
affected the formation of the early life forms on Earth?
2. If given the chance to modify the Urey-Miller experiment, what modifications
will you do?
3. What is the implication of the thermal synthesis experiment in the formation
of the first living cell on Earth?

26
4. What is the implication of the protocell experiment in the formation of the
first cell on Earth?
5. How do you think the first living cell survived the harsh environmental
condition during the primitive Earth?

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 Lesson 4.3: Early Forms of Life

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● identify early life forms on Earth; and
● describe the course of evolution for these organisms.

The first form of life is believed to have appeared some 3.5 billion years ago. From
this point, the diversity in form and structure of living organisms became more
complicated to adapt to extreme conditions, unpredictable changes in the evolving
environment on Earth. How did the first living forms on Earth look like? Are
they similar to humans?

Warm-Up

Who is our Oldest Ancestor?

Knowing our common ancestor is an interesting part of science. In this activity, the
common ancestor of organisms can be determined with the use of shared and
unique characteristics present in specific organisms.

Materials:
● pen
● paper
● figures of nails and nuts

● Hardware Organism Key

NOVA Online. 2012. ‘The Missing Link.’
https://web.archive.org/web/20141212000150/https://www-tc.pbs.org/wgbh/
nova/education/activities/pdf/2905_link_02.pdf

28
Procedure:
1. Click the given link to access the images of nails and nuts that will represent
different “hardware organisms”.
2. Observe the physical appearance of the following and focus on the following
traits:
a. a cylindrical object with head
b. presence of a partly threaded shaft
c. presence of a completely threaded shaft
d. presence of a flat bottom
e. presence of a nut
f. presence of a nut fixed to thread
3. Complete the table below by determining whether the given characteristic is
present or absent in each hardware organism. Put ‘1’ if present and ‘0’ if
absent.

Trait A Trait B Trait C Trait D Trait E Trait F

common
nail

flat head
wood
screw

flat head
sheet
metal
screw

flat head
stove bolt

flat head
machine
screw
with nut

round
head
wood

29
 screw

round
head
sheet
metal
screw

round
head
machine
screw
with nut

carriage
bolt with
nut

4. Analyze the table. The presence of several characteristics in one hardware

organism makes it well adapted to its environment by exhibiting new
additional traits that allows it to work and survive on certain conditions in its
environment.
5. On the other hand, organisms with the least acquired characteristic makes it
the oldest form and the ancestor of the rest of hardware organisms.
6. Answer the guide questions that follow.

Guide Questions:
1. Based on your table, which do you think is the earliest hardware organism
that existed?
2. Based on your table, which hardware organism is the youngest and has the
most well adapted traits? based on the table?
3. How does these hardware organisms adapt to their environment and
develop new and advanced ‘species’?
4. If these are real organisms, what do you think are the common
environmental factors that drive their evolution?

30
 Learn about It

Early Evidence of Life on

Earth
The Earth was formed about 4.5
billion years ago while the first
life form emerged 3.7 billion
years ago. All present-day
organisms are known to have a
shared common ancestor that
evolved through time. The
earliest known evidence of life
on Earth includes the
stromatolite fossils collected
from various samples of
metasedimentary rocks in
western Greenland and were
aged 3.7 billion years old.
Stromatolites are layered
columns of sedimentary rocks
formed through the growth of
cyanobacteria, a single-celled
photosynthesizing microbe.
These fossils provide records of
ancient life on Earth.

Series of new fossils were found

by several scientists. In 2015,
fossils of potential life dated 4.1
billion-year-old were collected
in Western Australia. In 2017,
researchers have reported
evidence of the oldest life on
Earth in the form of fossilized
microorganisms collected from hydrothermal vent precipitates in Quebec,

31
Canada. This was dated to be 4.280 billion years ago, which occurred 200 million
years after the first ocean was formed.
The evolution of photosynthetic
organisms was dated at around
3.5 billion years ago and led to the
buildup of its by-product, oxygen
gas, in the Earth’s atmosphere. The
increase in the concentration of
oxygen in the atmosphere of the
Earth at around 2.4 billion years
ago was responsible for providing
optimum living conditions to
organisms. One of the organisms
that emerged are the multicellular
eukaryotes that dated 1.85 billion
years ago. The emergence of
multicellular organisms with highly
differentiated cells performing
specialized functions was observed
to be around 1.7 billion years ago.
Animals with proportional body
symmetry appeared by 555 million
years ago, while the earliest
complex land plants dated back to
around 850 million years ago.

The most advanced form of

animals, such as the vertebrates or
animals with backbones, first
appeared about 525 million years
ago during the Cambrian
explosion. It is an event that
happened 541 million years ago in
the Cambrian period and was
responsible for the emergence of
most major animal phyla. This event resulted in the divergence of most modern
animals and plants. Prior to this event, most living things are simple and only
consist of individual cells that clump together and form colonies. For over 70 to 80

32
million years after the Cambrian explosion, the rate of diversification of organisms
accelerated, which formed the variety of life forms that present today.

Early Life on Earth

Cyanobacteria or Blue Green Algae
Cyanobacteria or the blue green algae are forms of organisms that obtain their
energy from sunlight through photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria are prokaryotic
organisms that lack nuclei in their cells. As a consequence, most prokaryotes are
unicellular in nature. Cyanobacteria lack a true nucleus in their cells and are
unicellular but often form colonies. Their colonies may be in the form of filaments,
sheets, balls, or thick-walled microstructures.

Cyanobacteria is a diverse group of microorganisms. They are present in different

habitats from the equator to the poles. They thrive in freshwater lakes, oceans, and
even in damp soils. These organisms are highly visible when they bloom or
overgrow due to the presence of high nutrients in both freshwater and saltwater
ecosystems. Lastly, they are capable of converting atmospheric nitrogen into nitrate
or ammonia, which are essential components of the nitrogen cycle.

Fig. 12. Algal bloom of cyanobacteria that covers the water in the pond.

33
Red Algae
The first multicellular organisms
are thought to be red algae that
appeared 1.2 billion years ago.
The earliest microfossils of red
algae were collected in northern
Arctic Canada and were dated 1.2
billion years ago. The red algae
are unique as it started sexual
reproduction in organisms.

The use of sexual reproduction

through egg and sperm cells is a
characteristic of most multicellular
organisms. This allowed the emergence of more complex life forms like humans to
eventually evolve and adapt to the changes in Earth’s condition.

Trilobites
Trilobites were the dominant species
during the Cambrian period. These
organisms are extinct forms of
arthropods, animals having hard shells
and jointed legs. Trilobites were relatives
of modern lobsters and horseshoe crabs.
This first animal on Earth had three
segmented top-plated bodies. They curl
up like balls to protect themselves in
seas with predators.

Trilobites have several varieties. They

usually range from an inch to more
than 2 feet in length. These organisms
have been the most successful

34
prehistoric animals. More than 17,000 species are known to have existed that
survived for 300 million years.

Anomalocaris
One of the most dominant animals
of the Cambrian Period is the giant
Anomalocaris. They trap prey using
their two claws lined with hooks
located in front of their mouths
and eyes. These are gigantic
creatures that reach up to six feet
in length. Anomalocaris is a
free-swimming animal that moves
like a dolphin. They feed on
trilobites and other arthropods
and worms. Anomalocaris is
considered as the largest and most
fearsome predator of the
Cambrian Period.

Land Plants
About 450 million years ago, plants began to thrive on land. The first plants
penetrated marshland where they could easily obtain water from the damp soil
that is needed for photosynthesis. Earliest plants do not have vascular tissues that
transport water very well so these species were forced to stay close to water
sources.

Another leap on the evolution of land plants is the widespread evolution of spores
which is also present in today’s fern species. Spores are unicellular structures that
are mobile and are capable of reproducing new plant individuals. The spores
eventually evolved into seeds, which contain multicellular structures needed for the
reproduction of higher plant species.

For approximately 430 million years ago, the first appearance of vascular plants
started. These are the common terrestrial plants that you usually see in the
environment. These plants contain veins that allowed the transport of water and
nutrients to different parts of their body. As a consequence, plants of this era grew
larger and increased the complexity of internal functions like in plants of today.

35
 Fig. 16. Fern with spores that are essential for reproduction

Lastly, around 300 million years ago, conifers appeared and thrived in the
terrestrial ecosystem. These are cone bearing plants that include pine trees, cycads,
and ginkgos.

Fig. 17. Ginkgo biloba, the living fossil.

36
Land Animals
The transition from living in water to land was a major step that requires a lot of
time. Primitive Earth did not have an ozone layer that protects the organisms
against the effects of UV radiation from sunlight. With the oxygen-rich atmosphere,
an ozone layer was formed that made land a safer ecosystem to tread. The first
large animals to walk the Earth is probably in the form of a walking fish which still
lived in water.

Eventually, the primitive animals that have four limbs and spinal columns like
vertebrates, called tetrapods, walked on land 400 years ago based on the oldest
known fossil evidence. Tetrapods were aquatic creatures that lived in swamps and
ventured to land occasionally. The tetrapods migrated to land and survived by
feeding on small insects and plants from the green algae family. The development
of the vertebrate structure led to more advanced animals like humans.

One of the earliest known tetrapods is the Acanthostega. It is an extinct group of

tetrapods which is considered as one of the oldest organisms with distinct
recognizable limbs. This emerged during the late Devonian period which is 365
million years ago. Scientists are telling that the Acanthostega is the missing link
between the lobe-finned fishes and tetrapods.

Fig. 18. Acanthostega, one of the early tetrapods on Earth.

37
 Key Points

● The Earth was formed about 4.5 billion years ago while the first life form
emerged 3.7 billion years ago.
● The Cambrian explosion is an event that happened at around 541 million
years ago in the Cambrian period and was responsible for the emergence of
most major animal phyla. This event resulted in the divergence of most
modern animal and plant organisms.
● Cyanobacteria or blue green algae are forms of microorganisms that
obtain their energy from sunlight through photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria are
prokaryotic organisms that lack nuclei in their cells and are mostly
unicellular in nature.
● The first multicellular organisms are thought to be red algae that appeared
between 1.4 and 1.2 billion years ago.
● Trilobites were the dominant species during the Cambrian period. Trilobites
are an extinct form of arthropods, animals having hard shells and jointed
legs.
● The most dominant animal of the Cambrian Period is the giant Anomalocaris,
that traps prey with two claw-tipped appendages lined with hooks in front of
its mouth and eyes.
● About 450 million years ago, plants began to transition to land.
● The tetrapods have four limbs and spinal columns like vertebrates. They
walked on land about 400 years ago.

Web Links

To learn more about the early forms of life, you can check the following web links:

38
 ● Where can we find the oldest evidence of life form on Earth?
Gohse, Thia. 2017. ‘Oldest Evidence of Life on Earth Possibly Found in Australian
Rocks.’
https://www.livescience.com/59025-oldest-evidence-for-life-found-in-australia.html

● Here is a video that illustrates earliest life-forms on Earth!

Ted-ED. 2017. ‘The mysterious origins of life on Earth?- Lucas Seamus Wright’
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=de1hiS_XjWg

● Know more about the first tetrapod which walked the Earth!
This website features Acanthostega, the first primordial animal:
Devonian Times. 2016. ‘Acanthostega gunneri.’
http://www.devoniantimes.org/Order/re-acanthostega.html

Check Your Understanding

A. Complete the table by identifying the most unique characteristic of each

given primitive organism.

Organism Characteristic

Cyanobacteria

red algae

trilobites

Anomalocaris

fern

gymnosperms

Acanthostega

B. Write the word true if the given statement is correct and false if otherwise.
1. Red algae is the multicellular living organism on Earth.

39
 2. Cyanobacteria are photosynthetic organisms.
3. Trilobites are primitive arthropods.
4. Tetrapods are similar to most reptiles that we have in the current time.
5. Cyanobacteria has the tendency to overgrow and create algal blooms.

Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the following questions.

1. How did aquatic organisms transition to the land ecosystems?
2. How do you think the oxygen-rich atmosphere contributed to the increase in
forms of living organisms on Earth?
3. What do you think happened during the Cambrian explosion that led to the
increase in species of organisms on Earth?
4. What are the distinct characteristics of tetrapods that made them survive on
Earth for a long time?
5. If given the chance to live during the primitive form of the Earth, what do you
think are the characteristics that you should have to survive?

40
 Lesson 15.4: Connections and Interactions
Among Living Things

Objectives
In this lesson, you should be able to:
● describe how living organisms are connected in an ecosystem;
and
● enumerate different kinds of interactions between these
organisms.

An ecosystem is a biological community that consists of living organisms and

nonliving components. This also includes interactions among organisms, and
between organisms and their environment. How are organisms connected in an
ecosystem? What kind of interactions do they exhibit to survive?

Warm-Up

Ecological Interactions
Organisms in the ecosystem are well connected to one another. These interactions
are necessary to control population and maintain balance in the ecosystem. This
activity provides simulation of the selected interactions happening in the
ecosystem.

Materials:
● a bowl of coated chocolates
● three note cards
● three plastic spoons
● three empty cups

Procedure:
1. Group yourself into three. Each student is assigned to a different species,
labelled species A, B, and C.

41
2. Secure a bowl of coated chocolates for your group.
3. Each student gets a spoon, a cup, and a set of note cards. Each note card
contains instructions indicated in the table below.
4. Put the bowl of coated chocolates in the center of the group.
5. Each member must use the spoon to collect coated chocolates one at a time
and transfer to its own cup left on the table and not on hand.
6. For each round that takes a minute, each member should follow their given
instruction provided below on how they can survive during winter.

Note card instructions for each species

Species A Species B Species C

Round 1 Gets green coated Gets green coated Gets yellow coated
chocolates only chocolates only chocolates only

Round 2 Gets green coated Gets yellow coated Gets green coated
chocolates only chocolates only chocolates from
Species A without
harming it

Round 3 Gets green and Gets green and Gets blue coated
yellow coated yellow coated chocolates only
chocolates and chocolates and
share it with share it with
species B species A

7. At the end of each round, count the coated chocolates collected and
complete the table below.

Number of coated chocolates

Round
Species A Species B Species C

Round 1

Round 2

Round 3

42
Guide Questions:
1. In round one, species A and B competes in getting green coated chocolates.
What do you think is the disadvantage of this interaction?
2. In reference to question 1, do you think species A and B can live in one place
together for a long period of time? If not, what could happen to either
species?
3. In round two, species C is highly dependent on the coated chocolates that
species A gather. What do you think will happen to species A?
4. In round three, species A and B share a common cup for collected coated
chocolates. Could they harm each other? What’s their effect on species C?

Learn about It

Ecosystem
An ecosystem consists of biotic or living components and abiotic or nonliving
components. Biotic components are made up of species that live in the same
habitat, while abiotic components include non-living environmental factors and
conditions. Ecosystems can be dissected into two parts: one, it has interdependent
collections of living organisms structured as communities governed by general
rules and two, it requires cycling of energy and matter.

The abiotic components include climatic conditions that refer to atmospheric

conditions persistent over a long period of time and edaphic factors that describe
terrestrial and aquatic conditions in the environment. Biotic factors include the
producers, consumers and decomposers that represent all forms of living
organisms on Earth. The ecosystems include the different interactions that happen
among organisms and the interaction between these two components.

Moreover, an ecosystem requires cycling of energy and matter. The energy from
the sun, water, and soil minerals are important abiotic components that must be
properly regulated to sustain life forms. Ecosystems are highly dynamic, where they
are often subjected to periodic changes due to disturbances but must maintain
equilibrium to sustain the needs of all of its components.

43
 Fig. 19. Structure of an ecosystem.

Connections Between Living Things in an Ecosystem

Living organisms in an ecosystem are connected through the food chain. It is the
feeding relationship between organisms in an ecosystem. A food chain represents
how energy is being transferred across a series of organisms in the form of food.
Basically, higher forms of organisms eat lower forms until, including the level of
plants that have the capability of producing their own food.

Fig. 20. An example of a food chain.

In the food chain, producers or autotrophs that are mostly represented by plants,
which can produce their own food through the process of photosynthesis.
Organisms that are on trophic levels higher than producers called consumers (or
heterotrophs), which depend directly or indirectly on producers as their source of

44
energy. Heterotrophs are classified as primary, secondary, and tertiary
consumers. This classification refers to the level of hierarchy in terms of their
position in the food chain. Primary consumers directly feed on producers and
include herbivores (e.g., caterpillar, cow, goat) or omnivores (e.g., humans).
Secondary consumers feed on the primary consumers and includes both carnivores
(e.g., snake, lion, shark) and omnivores. Even secondary consumers can be eaten,
and these organisms are classified as tertiary consumers.

Fig. 21. Each stage of a food chain corresponds to a trophic level.

In an ecosystem, a simple and linear form of food chain rarely exists. A food web is
an interlinked multiple food chain that happens in different types of ecosystems.
Through a food web, food chains happening in terrestrial ecosystems can be
connected to processes of energy transfer in marine ecosystems. Food webs exist
because most consumers feed on different types of organisms, which may belong
to different trophic levels. It basically represents feeding relationships in the whole
community, and just like the food chain, it shows the movement of energy from
food from the source to the next consumer. Food webs consist of a number of food
chains interconnected to one another. Involved food chains include a series of
arrows that point from one species to another, representing the movement of food
energy from one feeding group to another.

45
 Fig. 22. An example of a food web in terrestrial habitat.

Interactions Between Living Organisms

Each of the organisms interacts with one another to survive in an ecosystem. This
kind of interaction is called symbiosis. There are different types of symbiotic
relationships. A symbiotic relationship usually involves organisms from two or more
different species.

Commensalism is a form of symbiotic relationship wherein an organism of a

species benefits without affecting the other organism of a different species. A good
example of a commensal relationship is an orchid attached to a tree trunk. The
bark of the tree serves as the source of nutrients for the orchids and it does not
compete for the nutrients that is supposed to be for the tree.

Fig. 23. Aerial wild orchids that attach to tree barks.

46
Mutualism is a symbiosis where two organisms from different species benefit from
each other. It is characterized as a positive form of symbiosis. Both organisms in
this relationship help each other to grow and survive in their environment. This
symbiotic relationship is exhibited by the relationship between the flower and bees
that pollinate it. As bees feed on flowers by gathering nectar and making food out
of it, some pollen gets attached to their bodies that help flowers pollinate and
reproduce.

Fig. 24. A bee collecting nectar from the flower.

Competition is an important interaction which is commonly observed in an

ecosystem. Some organisms emerge on top of the competition while those who
lose are left to die. Interspecific competition happens among organisms of
different species while intraspecific competition happens within the same
species. In a forest, plants compete for sunlight and water, in order to survive.
Some plants tend to be shorter compared to others that limit their competency to
gather sunlight.

Fig. 25. Limited penetration of sunlight in the forest floor due to tree canopies.

47
Predation exhibits an eat-and-be-eaten relationship. The animals which eat or hunt
for another animal are called the predators. The animal which is eaten is called the
prey. Animals can both be a prey and a predator depending on the situation. As the
snake eats a rat, it is a predator. But as the snake is eaten by an eagle or a hawk, it
is considered a prey.

Fig. 26. A flying eagle trying to look for prey.

Parasitism is an interaction where one organism of a certain species harms an

organism of another species to benefit from the relationship. The organism that
harms and benefits from parasitism is called a parasite. On the other hand, host is
the term used to describe the organism which is harmed. This kind of interaction is
often observed in the parasitic worms inside the digestive tract of mammals. The
parasite competes with the nutrients from the food of the host and even creates
complications. Parasitism is different from predation as it is an interaction that
slowly harms the host and does not immediately require killing.

Fig. 27. A liver fluke which is a common parasitic worm in mammals.

48
 Key Points

● An ecosystem can be defined as a system that consists of biotic or living

components and abiotic or nonliving components.
● Living organisms in an ecosystem are connected through the food chain. It is
a series of feeding relationships between organisms in an ecosystem.
● A food web is an interlinkage of multiple food chains that happens in
different types of ecosystems.
● Each organism requires interaction with one another to survive in an
ecosystem. This kind of interaction is a relationship called symbiosis.
● There are different types of symbiotic relationships. A symbiotic relationship
usually involves organisms from two or more different species. Common
examples are:
○ commensalism, when one species benefits while the other species is
unaffected;
○ parasitism, when one species benefits while the other species is
harmed;
○ mutualism, when both species benefit;
○ predation, when one species eat the other species; and
○ competition, when two species compete for the same resources.

Web Links

To learn more about connections and interactions among living things, you can
check the following web links:

49
 ● Want to know more about the organisms that live inside you?
Know more about parasitism in humans by checking this link:
ParasitesinHumans. 2016. ‘Parasites in Humans.’
http://www.parasitesinhumans.org/

● Is it always good being at the top of the food chain? Read this
website and know that some harmful chemicals may
accumulate when you are at the top:.
Flanders. 2001. ‘Accumulation of chemicals in the food chain bioaccumulation and
biomagnification.’
http://www.flandershealth.us/toxic-effects

● Watch some amazing ecological interactions in the planet by

visiting this site:
Chris Pautler. 2012. ‘Ecological Interactions.’’ Video.
https://youtu.be/chHj2OhUa6A

Check Your Understanding

A. Using the given figure, draw an arrow to arrange each organism in its proper
place in the food chain.

B. Complete the sentence by providing the missing terms.

An (1) _______________ can be defined as a system that is consist of (2)

_______________ or living components and (3) _______________ or nonliving
components that includes environmental conditions that govern the
existence of organisms. Living organisms in an ecosystem are connected
through (4) _______________. It is the feeding relationships between organisms

50
 in an ecosystem. A (5) _______________ is an interlinkage of multiple (6)
_______________ that happens in different types of ecosystems. Each organism
requires interaction with one another to survive in an ecosystem. This kind of
interaction is a relationship called (7) _______________. There are different types
of symbiotic relationships. A symbiotic relationship usually involves
organisms from two or more different species.

Challenge Yourself

Briefly answer the following questions.

1. What will happen to organisms if they fail to interact with one another?
2. How do you think the process of coevolution is related to symbiosis?
3. Why is it important for organisms to compete for resources in an ecosystem?
4. In predation, what will happen to the predator if the supply of the prey
becomes depleted?
5. What is the importance of abiotic factors in an ecosystem?

51
 Laboratory Activity

Activity 15.1
Predator-Prey Simulation

Objectives
At the end of this laboratory activity, the students should be able to:
● understand how predation works in an ecosystem;
● determine the importance of both predator and prey in an ecosystem; and
● identify complications of predation in populations of organisms in the
community.

Materials and Equipment

● masking tape
● ruler
● rabbit squares
● lynx squares

The hare and the lynx icon.

Procedure
1. Plot a 12 inch x 12 inch square with the use of a masking tape.

52
 2. Begin the simulation with three hare icons spread out within the square plot.
3. Toss one lynx icon into the square habitat to capture the hare (i.e., land on
any portion of the hare icon) as many hares as possible.
4. The following are the rules of this activity.
○ For the lynx to survive and reproduce, it should be able to capture at
least three hares.
○ If successful, the lynx survives and produces offspring. One offspring is
produced for every three hares captured. Some examples are shown
below.
■ If a lynx catches 0-2 hares, then it produces no offspring.
■ If a lynx catches 3-5 hares, then it produces 1 offspring.
■ If a lynx catches 6-8 hares, then it produces 2 offspring.
○ For every toss of the lynx, the captured hares must be removed before
tossing the next lynx icon.
○ The remaining hare can reproduce one offspring every one round of
tossing. The offspring hares must be placed in the habitat square with
the parent before the next toss.
5. Record the number of lynx and hare for every toss generation.
6. Repeat steps 2-4 for 20 generations.
7. Complete the table below and graph the population of the starting number
of lynx and hare for each generation.

Data and Results

Table 1. Summary of lynx and hare population in the predation simulation.

Generation Starting No. of No. of No. of Starting no. of No. of No. of lynx
no. of hares hares hare no. of lynx lynx offsprings
hares eaten survived offsprings lynx died survived

1 3 1

53
7

10

11

12

13

14

15

16

17

18

19

20

54
 Graph of the population dynamics of the lynx and hare.

Guide Questions
1. What type of interaction does the lynx and the hare exhibit?
2. What characteristics were exhibited in this kind of relationship in the
ecosystem?
3. Describe your graph. What patterns did you notice?
4. How does the size of the hare population affect the lynx population?
5. How does the size of the lynx population affect the hare population?

Performance Task

Interactions in my Community

Goal
● Your goal is too create an illustration diagram connecting the early theories
on the emergence of first living cell, namely: electrical discharge, thermal
synthesis, and protocell experiment.

Role
● You are a student taking Earth and Life Sciences and you are responsible for
creating an illustration diagram to connect the ideas of the three
experiments on the emergence of the first living cell on Earth.

Audience
● The output will be presented to the entire class and will be evaluated by your
teacher.

Situation
● The video clip will be presented in class and shall be graded by the teacher.

Product, Performance, and Purpose

● You are expected to provide an illustration diagram showcasing the three
experiments on the emergence of the first living cell on Earth.

Standards and Criteria

55
Your performance will be graded by the following rubric.

Needs Successful Exemplary

Below Expectations,
Criteria 0% to 49%
Improvement Performance Performance
50% to 74% 75% to 99% 100%

Content. Details not Details are Details are Details are

presented. presented but not presented in an presented in an
Detailed facts are
Content is not organized. There organized organized matter
presented well.
related to the task. are some contents manner.Content that can be easily
Content related to the
that are not are related to the understood.
task.
related to the task. task. Contents are
related to the task.
Additional
supporting details
are presented.

Communication Presentation was Presentation was Presentation was Presentation was

not done. done but in a done smoothly but done clearly.
Skills.
disorganized and the concepts are Concepts were
Presentation was illogical manner. presented in such presented in a
done in a clear and a way that should logical manner
logical manner. be rearranged for and easily
better understandable by
understanding. the audience.

Self Check

This unit aims to discuss different theories regarding the origin of life on Earth. You
are expected to have a better understanding of the process of evolution from single
cell living organisms to more complex ones. Put a check on the space provided
below if you agree on the given statements.

Check I can…

explain how primitive organisms emerged on Earth.

enumerate the classic experiments that model conditions which may

have enabled the first forms of organisms to evolve.

56
 discuss the unifying themes in the study of life that show the
connections and interactions among living things and their
environment.

Key Words

Abiogenesis The process by which life emerges naturally from

inanimate or nonliving materials.
Cambrian explosion It is an event that happened at around 541 million years
ago in the Cambrian period and was responsible for the
emergence of most major animal phyla. This event
resulted in the divergence of most modern animal and
plant organisms.
Cyanobacteria It is a form of organism that obtains their energy from
sunlight through photosynthesis. Cyanobacteria are
prokaryotic organisms or those organisms that lack the
presence of nucleus in their cells and are mostly
unicellular in nature.
Development This is the process of differentiation of cells to form
highly specialized structures in your body.
Electrical discharge It is an experiment that recreated the primitive earth as
experiment described in Oparin-Haldane theory by simulating the
formation of organic molecules in early Earth.

Ecosystem It is defined as a system that consists of biotic or the

living components and the abiotic or the nonliving
components that includes environmental conditions
that govern the existence of organisms.

Food chain These are feeding relationships between organisms in

an ecosystem.
Food web These are interlinked multiple food chains that happen
in different types of ecosystems on Earth.
Homeostasis This refers to the equilibrium state in an organism’s

57
 body.
Growth This refers to the ability of organisms to increase in size,
weight, and height.
Life science This is a collection of disciplines that is made up of
theories and principles that tackles the structure and
function of living things starting from the molecular
level up to entire ecosystems.
Metabolism This refers to the total chemical reactions in an
organism that allow it to function properly.

Primordial soup It is the most predominant theory about the origin of

theory life.
Protocell experiment It is an experiment that explains that the simplest
possible living cells or protocells just required two
components to be formed: a nucleic acid genome to
transmit the genetic information and a lipid sac which
encapsulated the genome and let itself grow and divide.
Theory of It is a theory explaining that life comes from lifeless or
spontaneous nonliving material through a mysterious process.
generation
Theory of panspermia It is a theory suggesting that the building blocks of life
came from another planet.

Thermal synthesis It is an experiment that demonstrated the origin of life

experiment using a specific mixture of pure, dry amino acids. After
heating the mixture, he observed that an aqueous
solution was formed and cooled into microscopic
globules called proteinoid microspheres.
Trilobites It is the dominant species during the Cambrian period.
Trilobites are an extinct form of arthropods, an animal
having a hard skin shell and jointed legs.

58
 Wrap Up

Introduction to Life Sciences

Photo Credits

Fig 3. Esperimento abiogenesiby Aushulz is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via

Wikimedia Commons.

Jack Szostak. Nobel Laureate Jack W. Szostak (Medicine) by US Embassy Sweden is

licensed under CC BY 2.0 via Wikimedia Commons.

Fig. 17. Ginkgo biloba MN 2007 by SEWilco is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0 via
Wikimedia Commons.

Fig. 18. Acanthostega model by Dr. Günter Bechly is licensed under CC BY-SA 3.0
via Wikimedia Commons.

59
Fig 27. Clonorchis sinensis 2 by Banchob Sripa, Sasithorn Kaewkes, Paiboon
Sithithaworn, Eimorn Mairiang, Thewarach Laha, Michael Smout, Chawalit
Pairojkul, Vajaraphongsa Bhudhisawasdi, Smarn Tesana, Bandit Thinkamrop,
Jeffrey M. Bethony, Alex Loukas & Paul J. Brindley is licensed under CC BY 2.5
via Wikimedia Commons.

References

Aleksandr Ivanovich Oparin. 2003.The Origin of Life. Massachusetts: Courier

Corporation.

Matthew S. Dodd, Dominic Papineau, Tor Grenne, John F. Slack, Martin Rittner,
Franco Pirajno, Jonathan O’Neil & Crispin T. S. Little. 2017. Evidence for early
life in Earth’s oldest hydrothermal vent precipitates. Nature: 543, pages
60–64.

Larry L. Hench. 2001. Science, Faith, and Ethics.Singapore: World Scientific.

Lisa A. Shiel. 2009. The Evolution Conspiracy, Vol 1: Exposing Life’s Inexplicable
Origins and the Cult of Darwin.Texas: Jacobsville Books.

Sandra Alters. 2000.Biology: Understanding Life. Massachusetts: Jones & Bartlett

Learning.

Shri Hemant Roy. 2005.Comprehensive MCQs in Biology.New Delhi: Golden Bells.

Rakesh Kumar Rastogi. 2007. Concepts of Biology XII. New Delhi: Rastogi
Publications.

Peter J. Russell, Paul E Hertz, and Beverly McMillan. 2016. Biology: The Dynamic
Science, Boston: Cengage Learning.

Jason P. Schrum, Ting F. Zhu, and Jack W. Szostak. 2010. The Origins of Cellular Life.
Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives Biology.

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