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CHAPTER 15
Introduction
- conversion from screen-film radiography (analog)
to digital radiography (DR) continues
- Digital imaging began with computed tomography
(CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- Digital radiography was introduced in 1981 by Fuji
with the first commercial computed radiography Computed Radiography Image
Receptor
(CR) imaging system.
- CR became clinically acceptable and today enjoys
widespread use (most widely used DR modality) - SFR and CR imaging both use image receptor an x-
- CR imaging eliminates some steps/procedure and ray–sensitive plate that is encased in a protective
can produce better medical images at lower cassette
patient dose - Computed radiography is a form of digital
radiography
- SFR the radiographic intensifying screen is a
scintillator that emits light in response to an x-ray
interaction while CR response to x-ray interaction is
seen as trapped electrons in a higher energy
metastable state
Photostimulable Luminescence
- Barium fluorohalide with Europium (BaFBr:Eu or
BaFI:Eu)
- Europium (Eu) very small amounts; an activator and
is responsible for the storage property of the PSL
(same with sensitivity center because without it,
there would be no latent image)
- Barium fluorobromide
Barium56 (binding energy 37keV)
Flourine9 (binding energy 5keV)
Bromine35 (binding energy 12keV)
- Excited or metastable state
- term photostimulable luminescence from a
photostimulable phosphor (PSP)
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- Because the latent image occurs in the form of
Imaging Plate
metastable electrons, such screens are called
storage phosphor screens (SPSs)
- SPS appears white because the small PSP particles - PSP screen-film cassette
(3–10 µm) scatter light excessively - a principal advantage of CR
- Scatter light excessively; Such a scattering is called - not loaded and unloaded in a darkroom (With CR a
turbid. darkroom is unnecessary)
- Some SPSs incorporate phosphors grown as linear - has lead backing that reduces backscatter x-
filaments enhance absorption of x-rays/limit the rays. This improves the contrast resolution of
spread of stimulated emission that enhance the the image receptor
absorption of x-rays and limit the spread of
stimulated emission
Light Stimulation–Emission
- Thermoluminescent dosimetry (TLD) and
optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) are the
main radiation detectors used for occupational
radiation monitoring
- Light is emitted when a TLD crystal is heated
- Light is emitted when an OSL crystal is
illuminated. PSL is similar to OSL.
- sequence of events engaged in producing a PSL
signal:
1) EXPOSE
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- excitation of electrons into a metastable state. 2) collection efficiency of the photodetector
50% return to their ground state immediately,
resulting in prompt emission of light
- CR signal loss is objectionable after approximately
8 hours
- IP must be read soon after exposure
4) ERASE
2) STIMULATE
- focused beam of infrared light with a beam - Some excited electrons remain
diameter of 50 to 100 µm - residual latent image remained, ghosting
- laser beam intensity increases, so does the - residual latent image is removed by flooding the
intensity of the emitted signal phosphor with very intense white
- laser beam penetrates, it spreads. The amount of light/fluorescent lamps
spread increases with PSP thickness - Imaging plates should be used soon after the erase
3) READ cycle has been completed
diameter of the laser beam determines the spatial
resolution of the CR imaging system
Photodiodes (PDs) are the light detectors of choice
for CR
Solid-state lasers produce longer wavelength light
and therefore are less likely to interfere with emitted
light
- latent image is made visible
Computed Radiography Reader
- laser beam causes metastable electrons to return
to the ground state with the emission of a shorter
- represents the marriage of mechanical, optical, and
wavelength BLUE
computer modules
- signal is lost as the result of:
1) scattering of the emitted light
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Mechanical Features Computer Control
- drive mechanism moves the IP constantly yet slowly - provides signal amplification, signal compression,
(“slow scan”) along the long axis of the IP scanning control, analog-to-digital conversion, and
- Small fluctuations in velocity Banding Artifact image buffering
- deflection device: rotating polygon or oscillating - Then the analog signal is digitized, with attention paid
mirror deflects the laser beam back and forth across to proper sampling (time between samples) and
the IP “fast scan mode” quantization (the value of each sample)
- Image edges from a CR reader that is out of tolerance - Sampling and quantization are the two processes of
appear “wavy” analog-to-digital conversion (ADC)
- Another method reader placed vertically with the IP - image buffer is usually a hard disc. This is the place
withdrawn downward. As this occurs, the cassette is where a completed image can be stored temporarily
scanned by a horizontal lase until it is transferred to a workstation for interpretation
- scan is nearly always located at right angles to the or to an archival computer
direction of any grid lines; in this way, aliasing artifacts - The computer of the CR reader is in control of the slow
are reduced. scan and the fast scan; control works off the computer
clock in gigahertz (GHz).
Optical Features
- to interrogate each metastable electron of the latent
image in a precise fashion
- Components of the optical subsystem:
1) Laser
2) beam-shaping optics
3) light-collecting optics
4) optical filters
5) photodetector
- light beam is focused onto the reflector by a lens
system that keeps the beam diameter small (<100 µm)
- Small laser beam diameter is critical for ensuring high
spatial resolution
Imaging Characteristics
- Special beam-shaping optics keeps the beam size,
shape, speed, and intensity constant
- photodetector, PMT, PD, or charge-coupled device - four principal characteristics of any medical image:
(CCD) 1) spatial resolution
- emitted light is the signal and stimulating light is the 2) contrast resolution
noise; therefore, proper filtering improves the signal- 3) noise
to-noise ratio (SNR) 4) artifacts
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Image Receptor Response Function
- A 14-bit CR image has 16,384 gray levels
- Proper radiographic technique and exposure are
essential for screen-film radiography
- With CR, radiographic technique is not as critical
because contrast does not change over five decades of
radiation exposure
- in CR and DR, it is not really a characteristic curve but
rather an image receptor response function.
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Screen-film radiography (analog)
- Other term Conventional radiography
- uses film and intensifying screens in its image
formation process
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Computed Radiography - phosphor that produces light when stimulated by light
or x-ray photons
- 1981 by Fuji with the first commercial computed
- anatomy:
radiography (CR) imaging system
- Computed radiography is a form of digital radiography
- most widely used
- cassette-based, uses storage phosphor plates to
produce projection images
- darkroom is unnecessary
Digital Radiography
- cassette-less
- digital imaging is any imaging acquisition process that
Imaging plate
produces an electronic image that can be viewed and
manipulated on a computer - should be used soon after the erase cycle has been
- Albert Jutras in Canada during his experimentation completed
with teleradiology - thin sheet of plastic
- anatomy:
2 categories of DR:
1. protective layer – this is a very thin, tough, clear
1. Indirect capture – uses a detector that produces plastic that protects the phosphor layer
light when struck by x-rays, and then the light is 2. phosphor or active layer – this is a layer of
captured and converted to an electrical signal photostimulable phosphor that “traps” electrons
2. Direct capture – uses a detector that captures the during exposure. It is usually made of phosphors
x-ray energy and converts it directly to an from the barium fluorohalide family; may also
electrical signal contain a dye
3. reflective layer – this is a layer that sends light in
Photostimulable Luminescence
a forward direction when released in the cassette
- Not fully understood reader. This layer may be black to reduce the
- light produced by a phosphor when struck by light or spread of stimulating light and the escape of
x-ray photons emitted light
Europium (Eu) 4. conductive layer – this is a layer of material that
absorbs and reduces static electricity
- activator and is responsible for the storage property of
5. conductive layer – this is a layer of material that
the PSL
absorbs and reduces static electricity
- works together with Barium fluorobromide
6. support layer – this is a semirigid material that
gives the imaging sheet some strength
7. backing layer – this is a soft polymer that protects
Barium fluorobromide
the back of the cassette; reduces backscatter x-
- Barium56 (binding energy 37keV) rays. This improves the contrast resolution of the
- Flourine9 (binding energy 5keV) image receptor
- Bromine35 (binding energy 12keV) 8. barcode label or barcode sticker – allows the
technologist to match the image information with
Photostimulable phosphor
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the patient-identifying barcode on the
examination request
