Thermodynamics

M O D U L E 1 p a g e 1

branch of physical science which treats of the various phenomena of energy and its related properties of matter, specially those laws
on the transformation of heat into energy and vice versa.

ASPECTS OF THERYMODYNAMICS
Also from Newton's Law of Motion but without proportionality constant, k
A. Measurement of values of thermodynamic properties.
B. Concept of temperature and heat. English unit:
C. Transformation of energy.
D. Behavior of gases. From F = ma
E. Power production from heat. if mass, m has a unit of lbm and acceleration, a has a unit of ft/sec 2 then,
THERMODYNAMIC SUBSTANCE fluid that receives and transfer energy. force, F will have a unit of lb m ft/sec 2 and lbm ft/sec2 poundal, a unit of
ex: steam - steam turbine force in English likewise, m = F/a = lb f / ft/sec 2 or mass,
air - air compressor m = lb f sec 2 /lbm slug, a unit of mass in English.
mixture of air and fuel - internal combustion engine
water - hydraulic turbine SI Unit:
CHANGE OF PHASE From F = ma
solid liquid : MELTING OR LIQUEFACTION if mass, m has a unit of kgm and acceleration, a has a unit of m/s 2 then,
liquid solid : FREEZING OR SOLIDIFICATION force, F will have a unit of kg m m/s2 and kg m m/s 2 N or Newton or if
liquid gas : EVAPORATION
gas liquid : CONDENSATTION m is in gram and a is in cm/s 2 (c-g-s unit) then F = gm cm / s 2 dynes.
solid gas : SUBLIMATION
SYSTEM OF UNIT
DIMENSION - A form that describes certain quantities or characteristics
of an entity such as volume, mass, speed, etc.
UNIT - a definite standard of measurement of dimension.
ex: kilogram - mass, yard - length, meter per second - speed,
liter - volume

RECALL :
From Newton's Law of Motion F = force
m = mass
F=ma/k a = acceleration
k = proportionality constant
"A certain amount of force is necessary to accelerate certain
amount of mass"

For English unit: fps (foot-pound-second)

"1 pound force accelerates 1 pound mass at 32.2 feet per second per second"
from : F = ma/k
hence: F = 1 lbf (pound force)
m = 1 lbm (pound mass)
a = 32.2 ft/sec 2
so that:
k = ma / F
k = 1 lbm (32.2 ft.sec2) / 1 lbf
k = 32.2 lbm ft/lb f sec 2 standard acceleration due to gravity in
English unit

For S.I (Systeme Internationale or International System of Units,

unversally abbreviated as SI) or Metric units: mks (meter-kilogram-second)
cgs (centimeter-gram-second) THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES
"1 kilogram force is needed to accelerate 1 kilogram mass at 9.81 meter per CLASSIFICATION OF THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES :
second per second" INTENSIVE PROPERTIES - properties which are independent of the mass.
hence : F = 1 kg f (kilogram force) A. DENSITY (ρ) - mass per unit volume
m = 1 kgm (kilogram mass) - reciprocal of specific volume.
a = 9.81 m/s 2 m = mass
so that: ρ = m/V = 1/V wherein: V = volume
k = ma/F v = specific volume
k = 1 kgm (9.81 m/s2 ) / 1 kg f note: water at standard condition (STP) has a density of: ρ=62.4lb/ft³ = 1000 kg/m³.
for mass, lb or kg are assumed to be a unit of mass even without subscript "ₘ".
k = 9.81 kgm m/kgf s 2 standard acceleration due to gravity in
SI unit. B. SPECIFIC VOLUME (v) - volume per unit mass
- reciprocal of density.
note: 9.81 kgf = 1 Newton (N) v = V/m = 1/ρ
hence:
k = 9.81 kg m m/kg f (N/9.81 kg f ) s 2 C. SPECIFIC WEIGHT (γ) - weight per unit volume
so that k is also:
. W = weight
k = kg m m/N s2 standard acceleration due to gravity in SI unit. γ = W/V = ρg wherein: g = local acceleration
due to gravity
note: water at standard condition (STP) has a specific weight of:
γ = 62.4 lb f / ft³
γ = 9.81 KN/m³
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D. SPECIFIC GRAVITY (sp.gr) - is the ratio of the density or specific
weight of any substance to the density or specific weight of water at EXAMPLE 2: 100 grams of water is mixed with 150 grams of alcohol (ρa =
std. condition. 760 kg/m 3 ). What is the specific gravity of the mixture, assuming the
fluid mixed?
sp.gr. = ρ / ρwater @ std.cond. ρwater @ std.cond. = density of water at std. condition
sp.gr. = γ / γwater @ std.cond. wherein: γwater @ std.cond. = specific weight of water at std.
condition SOLUTION:
E. TEMPERATURE (T) - measure of the intensity of the stored molecular sp.gr. m = ρ m / ρwater @ std.cond. and ρ m= mm / V m
energy in the substance or degree of coldness and hotness of the where: ρm = density of the mixture
substance. mm = mass of the mixture
conversion of temperature unit: Vm = volume of the mixture
so that, ρm = (m w + m a )/(Vw + V a )
T°C = 5/9 (T°F - 32) where: m w and m a = mass of water and alcohol respectively
T°C = (9/5) T °C Vw and V a = volume of water and alcohol respectively
Thermodynamics require the use of absolute temperatures (thermodynamic Vw = m w / ρw = 0.10 kg/ 1 000 kg/m3 = 1.0 x 10-4 m 3
temperatures) which is measured from a point of absolute zero.
Absolute temperature: note: Density of water, is assumed to be at standard unless specified
English unit : Degree Rankine, °R = T °F + 46 otherwise.
SI unit : Degree Kelvin, °K = T°C + 273 likewise, Va = m a / ρa = 0.150 kg / 760 kg/m 3 = 1.97 x 10 -4 m 3
F. SPECIFIC INTERNAL ENERGY (u) - energy within the molecules of the ρ = (0.1+0.15) kg / (1.0 x 10-4 m3 + 1.97 x 10-4 m3) m
substance. This energy is in the form of vibrations and motions of the ρ = 841.75 kg/m 3
particles internal to the molecular structure as well as the motion of therefore, sp.gr. = 841.75 kg/m 3 / 1 000 kg/m 3
the molecules itself. The internal energy increases as the temperature
of the substance increases. = 0.841
G. PRESSURE (P) = force per unit area. EXAMPLE 3: In a simple mercury manometer connected into a flow line
gives a reading as shown in the figure. Local gravity is standard and the
wherein: F = force mercury specific gravity is 13.6.
P=F/A A = area a. Find the pressure at pts. x and y when the flow line and left leg
contains water at standard condition.
Different Types of Pressure: b. Find the pressure at pts. x and y when the flow line and left leg
Atmospheric pressure (Patm) - also called contains water and the local gravity is 9.65 m/s 2.
barometric pressure because it is
measured by barometer.
- force per unit area exerted by an
atmospheric column of air above specific area.
Patm at sea level = 101.325 KPa
= 14.7 psi
= 1.01325 bar
= 1 atm (atmosphere)
= 760 mm Hg
Absolute pressure (Pabs ) - pressure measured relative to zero
pressure.
Pabs = Pg + Patm
Gage pressure (P g ) - the difference in pressure of the region to SOLUTION: Considering atmospheric pressure
which the gage is attached and the pressure of the region in
which the gage is located. A. P y = Patm + γHg h Hg = 101.325 KN/m 2 + (13.6) (9.81 KN/m 3 ) (0.635 m)
Vacuum pressure (Pvac ) - pressure below that of the atmospheric Py = 186.044 KN/m 2 = 186.044 Kpa
pressure. Px = Py - γw h w = 186.044 - (9.81 KN/m 3 ) (1.016 m)
Absolute zero pressure (P0) - pressure when the molecular Px =176.077 KN/m 2 = 176.077 Kpa
momentum of the system becomes zero.
B. P y = Patm + γHg h Hg = 101.325 KN/m 2 + (13.6) (9.65 KN/m3 ) (0.635 m)
Fluid pressure (P) - pressure from gravity and it is weight of the Py = 184.662 KN/m 2 = 184.662 Kpa
fluid above divided by the area it is pu
Px = Py - γw h w = 184.662 - (9.65 KN/m 3 ) (1.016 m)
γ = specific weight Px =174.82 KN/m2 = 174.82 Kpa
P=γh wherein: of the fluid
h = elevation
EXAMPLE 4: What is the pressure 30 cm below the water surface, as
MANOMETER a tube usually bent in the form of U containing a liquid of shown in the figure, assuming standard condition where fluid A has a
known property (specific gravity, density, specific weight), the surface specific gravity of 15 and fluid B is mercury (sp.gr.=13.6). z = 45 cm. , y = 40
which moves in proportion to the change in pressure. cm.
TYPES OF MANOMETER
OPEN TYPE MANOMETER - with one leg exposed to atmospheric
surface and capable of measuring gage pressure.
DIFFERENTIAL TYPE MANOMETER - with no leg exposed to
atmospheric surface and capable of measuring differences in
pressure.

EXAMPLE 1: A cylindrical drum 0.915 m in diameter and 1.55 m in height is

filled with a fluid whose density is 800 kg/m 3 . Find a) total volume, b)
total mass, c) specific volume, d) specific weight.

SOLUTION:
a) total volume of fluid = π/4 D2 h c) specific volume, v = 1/ρ
= π/4 (0.915) 2 m 2 (1.55) m = 1/800 kg/m 3 Note: a. Unless specified otherwise, always consider the effect of atmosphere,
= 1.019 m3 = 0.00125 m 3 /kg hence the pressure is absolute. If gage pressure is being required, then the effect
of atmospheric pressure is neglected.
b. The effect of air in this particular problem is too small and can be neglected,
b) total mass, m = ρV d) specific weight, γ = ρg Hence the pressure at the surface bordering fluid A and air is the same at the
= 800 kg/m 3 (1.019 m3 ) = 800 kg/m3 (9.81 m/s2 ) surface bordering air and water.
= 815.2 kg = 7 848 kg m/m3 s 2
= 7 848 N/m3 3
= 7.848 KN/m
 so that: p a g e 3
Px = 101.325 KN/m 2 + (13.6) (9.81 KN/m 3 ) (0.45 m) - (15) (9.81 KN/m 3 ) (0.40 m) +
(9.81 KN/m 3 ) (0.30 m)
Px = 105.448 KN/m 2 = 105.448 KPa

EXAMPLE 5: Given

SOLUTION:
SOLUTION: Let F gS = gravitational pull of the sun to the body.
A. Px = 20 KN/m 2 + (9.81 KN/m3 ) (0.3 m) + (13.6) (9.81 KN/m 3 )(0.7 m) Let F gE = gravitational pull of the earth to the body.
(9.81 KN/m 3 ) (0.75 m) If the gravitational pull of the sun to the body is equal to the
Px = 108.99 KN/m 2 = 108.99 KPa gravitational pull of the earth to the body, then
another solution, in term of heads: F gS = FgE
G (m s ) (m B ) / (9.3 x 109 -s) 2 = G (m E ) (m B ) / s 2
From : P = γ h , m s / (9.3 x 10 9 - s) 2 = m E /s 2
so that, h = P / γ = elevation or head 3.24 x 10 5 m E / (9.3 x 109 - s) 2 = m E /s 2
Pressure at pt. y, Py = 20 Kn/m2 or 20 KPa can be converted into 3.24 x 10 5 / (9.3 x 10 9 - s) 2 = 1 / s 2
head of water, h = 20 KN/m 2 / 9.81 KN/m 3 = 2.04 meter of water or (9.3 x 10 9 - s) 2 / 3.24 x 10 5 = s 2
5 2 1/2
2.04 m of water. [(9.3 x 10 9 - s)2 ] 1/2 = [(3.24 x 10 ) (s )]
9.3 x 10 9 - s = 569.215 s
note: There is 0.7 m of Hg that should be converted first into head of
9.3 x 10 9 = 569.215 s + s
water.
Pw = P Hg 9.3 x 109= 570.215 s
γw hw = γHgh Hg s = 1.63 x 107 miles
γw h w = (sp.gr, Hg ) γw hHg
h w= (sp.gr, Hg ) h Hg CONCEPT OF ENERGY
so that, to convert 0.7 m of H into meter of water = (sp.gr, ) h = (13.6)(0.7) EINSTEIN THEORY OF RELATION:
= 9.52 meter of water E = energy
so, starting from pt.y pt.x, and in terms of head of water: E = mc 2 wherein: m = mass 2

2.04 m + 0.3 m + 9.52 m - 0.75 m = Px c = speed of light = 3.0x10 m/s

Px = 11.11 m of water Mass may be converted into energy and energy into mass.
and P = γ h = (9.81 KN/m ) (11.11 m) = 108.99 KN/m = 108.99 KPa
m = new mass
m = m 0 / [1 - (v/c) 2 ] 1/2 wherein: m = original mass, rest mass
EXTENSIVE PROPERTIES - properties which are dependent on the mass. v = velocity
c =speed of light
A. MASS (m) - absolute quantity of matter.
- this property has something to do with the Mass increases with speed.
Newton's Universal Gravitational Law.
Fg = force of attraction, force
of gravity EXAMPLE 6: An electron has rest mass of 9.11 x 10-28 gram. What is its
Fg = G (m1 )(m2) / s 2
wherein: m 1 and m 2 = masses mass when moving with speed of 95% of the speed of light?
s = distance between masses
G = gravitational constant
-8
G = 3.44 x 10 lbf ft2/slug SOLUTION:
-11
G = 6.67 x 10 Nm2/kg 2 m = m 0 / [1 - (v/c) 2 ] 1/2
m = (9.1 x 10-28 gram) / [1 - (0.95 / c) 2 ] 1/2
F = force m = 2.92 x 10-27 gram
a = acceleration
m = F/a = Fg /g = W/g wherein: Fg = force of gravity KINETIC ENERGY (E K ) energy possessed by a body resulting from the
g = local acceleration due to motion of that body.
gravity
W = weight m = mass
E K = 1/2 mv 2 wherein: v = velocity
B. WEIGHT (W) - the force required to retain anybody against free fall.
- pull of gravity. Work (W) = Change in kinetic energy
2
W = ΔEK = 1/2 m [(V2 ) - V 1 ) ]
2
W = Fg = mg
wherein : V1 and V2 are initial and final velocity respectively.
C. VOLUME (V) - amount of space within the identified boundary.
POTENTIAL ENERGY (E P ) is the energy stored in the body and
D. ENERGY (E) - capacity of a given body to do work.
because of the body’s elevation above the chosen datum, it possess this
ex: Kinetic energy (E K ) certain amount of energy that is potentially available for conversion into
Potential energy (E P ) work under idealized condition.
Internal energy (U)
m = mass
EP = mgz wherein: g = local acceleration due to
EXAMPLE 5: How far from the earth must a body be along the line gravity
z = elevation
toward the sun so that the gravitational pull of the sun balances that of
the earth? Earth to sun distance is 9.3x10 9 miles, mass of the sun is Work (W) = Change in potential energy
3.24 x 10 5 times of the earth. W = ΔE p = mg Δz = mg (z 2 -z 1 )
wherein : z1 and z2 are initial and final elevation respectively.
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EXAMPLE 7: If a 1,000 kg mass automobile is running with speed of

20 m/s, what is its kinetic energy in Joules?

SOLUTION:
E K = 1/2 mv 2
2 2 2
E K = 1/2 ( 1 000 kg) (20) m /s
E K = 200 000 kg m • m /s2
E K = 200 000 N • m = 200 000 Joules
E K = 200 000 J

EXAMPLE 8: Determine the potential energy of 5 kg of steam of an

elevation 5 m above the datum.

SOLUTION:
E P = mgz
E K = (5 kg) (9.1 m/s 2 ) (5 m)
E K = 245.25 N •m = 245.25 J

EXAMPLE 9: A 600 kg mass of a pile driver is lifted 2 m above the

piling head. What is the change of potential energy? If the hammer
is released, what will be its velocity at the instant it strikes the piling
head? Local gravity is 9.65 m / s 2

SOLUTION:
ΔE P = mgΔz = (600 kg) (9.65 m/s 2 ) (2-0) m
ΔE P = 11 580 N • m = 11 580 J
Note: The energy needed to lift the hammer is equal to the energy
possessed by the hammer jus before it strikes the piling head, hence
ΔEK = ΔE P
ΔE K = 1/2 m [(V 2 ) - V 1 ) ] , and V 1 = 0
2 2

ΔEK = 1/2 m (V 2 ) = 11 580 J = 11 580 N • m

2

ΔEK = 11 580 kg • m • m.s

V 2 = [11 580 kg m 2 / 600 kg • s 2 ] 1/2
V 2 = 6.21 m/s

EXAMPLE 10: The weight of bridge crane plus its load is 100 metric
tons (1 metric ton = 1,000 kg). It is driven by a motor and travels at
1.17 m/s along the crane rails. Determine the energy that must be
absorbed by the brakes in stopping the crane.

SOLUTION:
ΔE K = energy required to stop the crane
V 1 = 1.17 m/s , V 2 = 0
ΔE K = 1/2 m [(V 2 ) 2 - V 1 ) 2 ] and W = mg
W = 100 metric ton x 1 000 kg f / metric ton = 100 000 kg f
ΔE K = 1/2 [W/g] [(V 2 ) - V1 ) 2 ]
2

ΔE K = 1/2 [100 000 kg f / 9.81 m/s 2 ] [(0) - (1.17) ] m /s

2 2 2 2

ΔE K = - [ 5 096 kg f x 9.81 N/kg f ] • (1.3689) m

ΔE K = - 68 445 N • m = - 68 445 J
ΔE K = - 68.445 KJ