PRINCIPLES

OF COMMUNICATION
SYSTEMS
Second Edition

Herbert Taub

Donald L. Schilling
Professors of Electrical Engineering
The City College of New York

Jurgen - Know- Bibliothek

Spende der Siemens AG
an den FB Elefctrotechnik

McGraw-Hill Book Company

New York St. Louis San Francisco Auckland Bogota Hamburg
Johannesburg London Madrid Mexico Montreal New Delhi
Panama Paris Sao Paulo Singapore Sydney Tokyo Toronto
 CONTENTS
':? I

Preface xvii
Chapter 1 Spectral Analysis 1
Introduction 1
1.1 Fourier Series 2
1.2 Exponential Form of the Fourier Series 4
1.3 Examples of-Fourier Series 4
1.4 The Sampling Function 6
1.5 Response of a Linear System 8
1.6 Normalized Power 9
1.7 Normalized Power in a Fourier Expansion 11
7
1.8 Power Spectral Density 14
1.9 Effect of Transfer Function on Power Spectral Density 15
1.10 The Fourier Transform 16
1.11 Examples of Fourier Transforms 17
1.12 Convolution 21
1.13 Parseval's Theorem 23
1.14 Power and Energy Transfer through a Network " 24
1.15 Bandlimiting of Waveforms 25
1.16 Correlation between Waveforms 28
1.17 Power and Cross Correlation 29
1.18 Autocorrelation 30
1.19 Autocorrelation of a Periodic Waveform 31
1.20 Autocorrelation of Nonperiodic Waveform of Finite Energy 32
1.21 Autocorrelation of Other Waveforms 33
1.22 Expansions in Orthogonal Functions 34
1.23 Completeness of an Orthogonal Set: The Fourier Series 35
1.24 The Gram-Schmitt Procedure 37
1.25 Correspondence between Signals and Vectors 41
1.26 Distinguishability of Signals 46

ix
X CONTENTS

Chapter 2 Random Variables and Processes \ 56

2.1 Probability 57
2.2 Mutually Exclusive Events 57
2.3 Joint Probability of Related and Independent Events 58
2.4 Statistical Independence 59
2.5 Random Variables / 60
2.6 Cumulative Distribution Function , 60
2.7 Probability Density Function 62
2.8 Relation between Probability and Probability Density 64
. 2.9 Joint Cumulative Distribution and Probability Density 65
2.10 A Communications Example 68
2.11 Average Value of a Random Variable 72
2.12 Variance of a Random Variable 74
2.13 Tchebycheff's Inequality 75
2.14 The Gaussian Probability Density 76
2.15 The Error Function 77
2.16 The Rayleigh Probability Density 80
2.17 Mean and Variance of the Sum of Random Variables 82
2.18 Probability Density of Z = X + Y 83
2.19 Correlation between Random Variables 85
2.20 The Central-Limit Theorem 87
2.21 Error Probability as Measured by Finite Samples 89
2.22 Signal Determination with Noise Described by a
Distribution Function 91
2.23 Random Processes 95
2.24 Autocorrelation 97
2.25 Power Spectral Density of a Sequence of Random Pulses 99
1
2.26 Power Spectral Density of Digital Data 100
2.27 Effect of Rudimentary Filters on Digital Data 105
2.28 The Complementary Error Function 107
Chapter 3 Amplitude-Modulation Systems 113
3.1 Frequency Translation , 113
3.2 A Method of Frequency Translation 115
3.3 Recovery of the Baseband Signal 118
3.4 Amplitude Modulation 120
3.5 Maximum Allowable Modulation 122
3.6 The Square-law Demodulator 125
3.7 Spectrum of an Amplitude-modulated Signal 126
3.8 Modulators and Balanced Modulators 127
3.9 Single-sideband Modulation 128
3.10 Methods of Generating an SSB Signal 130
3.11 Vestigial-sideband Modulation 134
3.12 Compatible Single Sideband 137
3.13 Multiplexing 137

Chapter 4 Frequency-Modulation Systems 142

4.1 Angle Modulation 142
4.2 Phase and Frequency Modulation 143
 / CONTENTS Xi

4.3 Relationship between Phase and Frequency Modulation 145

4.4 Phase and Frequency Deviation 146
4.5 Spectrum of an FM Signal: Sinusoidal Modulation 147
4.6 Some Features of the Bessel Coefficients 148
4.7 Bandwidth of a Sinusoidally Modulated FM Signal 150
4.8 Effect of the Modulation Index p on Bandwidth 153
4.9 Spectrum of" Constant Bandwidth" FM 154
4.10 Phasor Diagram for FM Signals 155
4.11 Spectrum of Narrowband Angle Modulation: Arbitrary
Modulation 158
4.12 Spectrum of Wideband FM (WBFM): Arbitrary Modulation 159
4.13 Bandwidth Required for a Gaussian Modulated WBFM
Signal 161
4.14 Additional Comments Concerning Bandwith in WBFM 162
4.15 FM Generation: Parameter-variation Method 163
4.16 An Indirect Method of Frequency Modulation
(Armstrong System) 165
4.17 Frequency Multiplication 166
4.18 Frequency Multiplication Applied to FM Signals 167
4.19 An Example of an Armstrong FM System 167
4.20 FM Demodulators 169
4.21 Approximately Compatible SSB Systems 172
4.22 Stereophonic FM Broadcasting 173

Chapter 5 Analog-to-Digital Conversion 183

Pulse-Modulation Systems . 183
5.1 The Sampling Theorem: Low-pass Signals 185
Band-pass Signals .188
5.2 Pulse-Amplitude Modulation 193
5.3 Channel Bandwidth for a PAM Signal 195
5.4 Natural Sampling 197
5.5 Flat-top Sampling 199
5.6 Signal Recovery through Holding 202
5.7 Quantization of Signals - 204
5.8 Quantization Error 207
5.9 Pulse-code Modulation (PCM) 209
5.10 Electrical Representation of Binary Digits 211
5.11 The PCM System 212
5.12 Companding 213
5.13 Multiplexing PCM Signals 219
,5.14 Differential PCM 226
5.15 DeltaModulation 229
5.16 Adaptive Delta Modulation 232
5.17 Vocoders (Voice Cotters) 236
5.18 Channel Vocoder .. 237
5.19 Linear Predictive Coder 240
XII CONTENTS

Chapter 6 Digital Modulation Techniques 249

6.1 Introduction 249
6.2 Binary Phase-Shift Keying 250
6.3 Differential Phase-Shift Keying 255
6.4 Differentially-Encoded PSK (DEPSK) 258
6.5 Quadrature Phase-Shift Keying (QPSK) 259
6.6 M-ary PSK 267
6.7 Quadrature Amplitude Shift Keying (QASK) 271
6.8 Binary Frequency Shift-Keying 276
6.9 Similarity of BFSK and BPSK 282
6.10 M-ary FSK 282
6.11 Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) 286
6.12 Duobinary Encoding 298
6.13 A Comparison of Narrowband FM Systems 303
6.14 Partial Response Signaling 304
6.15 Amplitude Modulation of the Partial Response Signal 310

Chapter 7 Mathematical Representation of Noise 315

7.1 Some Sources of Noise 315
,7.2 A Frequency-Domain Representation of Noise 317
7.3 The Effect of Filtering on the Probability Density v
of Gaussian Noise 320
7.4 Spectral Components of Noise 321
7.5 Response of a Narrowband Filter to Noise 323
7.6 Effect of a Filter on the Power Spectral Density
of Noise 324
7.7 Superposition of Noises 325
7.8 Mixing Involving Noise 326
7.9 Linear Filtering 328
J
7.10 Noise Bandwidth 333
7.11 Quadrature Components of Noise 334
7.12 Power Spectral Density of nc(t) and njit) 336
7.13 Probability Density of nc(t), ns(t), and Their
Time Derivatives 339
7.14 Representation of Noise Using Orthonormal Coordinates 340
7.15 Irrelevant Noise Components 341

Chapter 8 Noise in Amplitude-Modulation Systems 346

8.1 Amplitude-Modulation Receiver 346
8.2 Advantage of the Superheterodyne Principle: Single Channel 348
8.3 Single-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (SSB-SC) 349
8.4 Double-Sideband Suppressed Carrier (DSB-SC) 353
8.5 Double Sideband with Carrier 357
8.6 Square-Law Demodulator 359
8.7 The Envelope Demodulator 365
 CONTENTS Xiii

Chapter 9 Noise in Frequency-Modulation Systems 371

9.K An FM Demodulator '' 371
9.2 Calculation of Output Signal and Noise Powers 374
9.3 Comparison of FM and AM 378
9.4 Preemphasis and Deemphasis, Single Channel 380
9.5 Preemphasis and Deemphasis in Commercial FM
Broadcasting 383
9.6 Phase Modulation in Multiplexing 386
9.7 Comparison between FM and PM in Multiplexing 388
9.8 Effect of Transmitter Noise 390

Chapter 10 Threshold in Frequency Modulation 394

10.1 Threshold in Frequency Modulation 394
. 10.2 Occurrence of Spikes 397
10.3 Spike Characteristics 400
10.4 Calculation of Threshold in an FM Discriminator 402
10.5 Calculation of Mean Time between Spikes 404
10.6 Effect of Modulation . 407
10.7 The Phase-Locked Loop 411
10.8 Analysis of the Phase-Locked Loop 415
10.9 Stable and Unstable Operating Points 418
10.10 Spike Suppression 419
10.11 Second-Order Phase-Locked Loop 422
10.12 Output SNR of a Phase-Locked Loop' 424
10.13 The FM Demodulator Using Feedback 427
10.14 Threshold Extension Using the FMFB > 429
10.15 Bit Synchronizer 431
10.16 Carrier Recovery 434

Chapter 11 Data Transmission 441

11.1 A Baseband Signal Receiver 441
11.2 Probability of Error 444
11.3 The Optimum Filter 446
11.4 White Noise: The Matched Filter 450
11.5 Probability of Error of the Matched Filter 452
11.6 Coherent Reception: Correlation 454
11.7 Phase-Shift Keying 455
11.8 Frequency-Shift Keying • 457
11.9 Noncoherent Detection of FSK 459
11.10 Differential PSK 459
11.11 Four Phase PSK (QPSK) 460
. 11.12 Use of Signal Space to Calculate Pe 463
11.13 Calculation of Error Probability for BPSK and BFSK 464
11.14 Error Probability for QPSK 468
11.15 The Union Bound Approximation 469
11.16 Bit-by-Bit Encoding versus Symbol-by-Symbol Encoding 474
11.17 Relationship between Bit Error Rate and Symbol Error Rate 475
XIV CONTENTS

11.18 Probability of Error in a Quadrature Partial

Response (QPR) System 477
11.19 Probability of Error of Minimum Shift Keying (MSK) 481
11.20 Comparison of Modulation Systems 481

Chapter 12 Noise in Pulse-Code and Delta-Modulation

Systems 487
12.1 PCM Transmission 487
/ 12.2 Calculation of Quantization Noise 489
12.3 The Output-Signal Power 490
12.4 The Effect of Thermal Noise 491
12.5 The Output Signal-to-Noise Ratio in PCM 493
12.6 Delta Modulation (DM) 495
12.7 Quantization Noise in Delta Modulation 496
12.8 The Output-Signal Power 498
12.9 Delta-Modulation Output-Signal-to-Quantization-Noise
Ratio 499
12.10 Delta Pulse-Code Modulation (DPCM) 501
12.11 The Effect of Thermal Noise in Delta Modulation 501
12.12 Output Signal-to-Noise Ratio in Delta Modulation 503
12.13 Comparison of PCM and DM 504
12.14 The Space Shuttle ADM 505

Chapter 13 Information Theory and Coding 511

13.1 Discrete Messages 511
13.2 The Concept of Amount of Information 512
13.3 Average Information, Entropy 514
13.4 Information Rate 516
13.5 Coding to Increase Average Information per Bit 517
13.6 Shannon's Theorem, Channel Capacity 518
13.7 Capacity of a Gaussian Channel 519
13.8 Bandwidth-S/N Tradeoff 522
13.9 Use of Orthogonal Signals to Attain Shannon's Limit 523
13.10 Efficiency of Orthogonal Signal Transmission 527
13.11 Coding: Introduction 529
13.12 Parity Check Bit Coding for Error Detection 532
13.13 Coding for Error Detection and Correction 533
13.14 Block Codes 533
13.15 Upper Bounds of the Probability of Error with Coding 535
13.16 Block Codes—Coding and Decoding 541
13.17 Examples of Algebraic Codes 549
13.18 Burst Error Correction 556
13.19 Convolutional Coding 562
13.20 Decoding a Convolutional Code 564
13.21 Probability of Error of Convolutional Codes 575
13.22 Comparison of Error Rates in Coded and
Uncoded Transmission . . 575
13.23 Automatic-Repeat-Request (ARQ) 578
 CONTENTS XV

13.24 Performance of ARQ Systems 580

13.25 N An Application of Information Theory: An Optimum
Modulation System 583
13.26 A Comparison of Amplitude-Modulation Systems with the
Optimum System 585
13.27 K Comparison of FM Systems 587
13.28 Comparison of PCM and FM Communication Systems 588
13.29 Feedback Communication 589
13.30 Trellis-Decoded Modulation 594

Chapter 14 Communication System and Noise

Calculations 610
14.1 Resistor Noise 610
14.2 Multiple-Resistor Noise Sources 612
14.3 Networks with Reactive Elements 612
14.4 An Example 614
14.5 Available Power 615
14.6 Noise Temperature 617
14.7 Two-Ports 618
14.8 Noise Bandwidth 620
14.9 Effective Input-Noise'Temperature 621
14.10 Noise Figure 622
14.11 Noise Figure and Equivalent Noise Temperature
of a Cascade 624
14.12 An Example of a Receiving System 625
14.13 Antennas 626
14.14 System Calculation 629

Chapter IS Telephone Switching 635

15.1 Elemental Phone System 635
15.2 Central Switching . 637
15.3 A Simple (Human) Exchange ^ 639
15.4 The Strowger Automatic Dialing System 641
15.5 Traffic Load and Service Grade 645
15.6 Hierarchy of Switching Offices 647
15.7 The Crossbar Switch 650
15.8 Common Control 651
15.9 Switching Matrices 653
15.10 Multiple Stage Switching 657
15.11 Two- and Four-Wire Connections 661
15.12 Time-Division Multiplexing 664
15.13 • Analog Time-Division Switching 665
15.14 Time Slot Interchanging (TSI) 668
15.15 Comparison of TSI with Space Switching 671
15.16 Space Array for Digital Signals 671
15.17 Combined Space and'Time Switching 672
15.18 Mobile Telephone Communication—The Cellular
Concept 677
XVI CONTENTS

Chapter 16 Computer Communication Systems 682

Introduction' 682
16.1 Types of Networks 683
16.2 Design Features of a Computer Communication Network 687
16.3 "'Examples of Computer Communications Networks 691
16.3-1 TYMNET 691
16.3-2 ARPANET 692
16.3-3 Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) 694
16.3-4 Local Area Networks (LAN) 695
16.4 Packet Radio and Satellites 696
16.4-1 Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 696
16.4-2 Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 697
16.4-3 ALOHA 698
16.4-4 Slotted ALOHA 703
16.4-5 Carrier Sense Multiple Access (CSMA) 704
16.5 The Poisson Distribution 710
16.5-1 The Interarrival Process 711
16.6 Protocols 712
16.6-1 The First Layer: The Physical Layer 712
16.2-2 The Second Layer: The Data-Link Layer 713
16.6-3 The Third Layer: Network Layer 715
16.6-4 The X.25 Protocol ' 715
16.6-5 The Forth or Transport Layer 716
16.6-6 The Fifth or Session Layer 716
16.6-7 The Sixth Layer: The Presentation Layer 716
16.6-8 The Final, Seventh Layer: The Application Layer 717

Chapter 17 Spread Spectrum Modulation 720

17.1 Introduction 720
17.2 Direct Sequence (DS) Spread Spectrum 721
17.3 Use of Spread Spectrum with Code Division
Multiple Access (CDMA) . 726
17.4 Ranging using DS Spread Spectrum 727
17.5 Frequency Hopping (FH) Spread Spectrum -729
17.6 Generation and Characteristics of PN Sequences 732
17.7 Acquisition (Coarse Synchronization) of a FH Signal 738
17.8 Tracking (Fine Synchronization) of a FH Signal 741
17.9 Acquisition (Coarse Synchronization) of a DS Signal 744
17.10 Tracking (Fine Synchronization) of a DS Signal 745

Index . 751