Unit II

Theodoliteand Tacheometric Surveying

 Theodolite
A theodolite is a precise instrument for measurement of horizontal
and vertical angles
It may be classified into two types
◦ Transit theodolite
◦ Non-transit theodolite
A transit theodolite is one in which the line of sight can be reversed
by revolving the telescope by 180o in the vertical plane
Non-transit theodolite or y-theodolites cannot be reversed and are
obsolete
 Continued
…

Transit Theodolite
 Continued
…

Parts of a Theodolite
 Definitions and Terms
Vertical Axis
◦ The axis about which the instrument can be rotated about the horizontal
plane
Horizontal Axis
◦ Horizontal or trunnion axis is the axis about which the telescope and vertical
circle rotate in the vertical plane
Line of Collimation
◦ It is the line passing through intersection of the cross hairs and the optical
centre of the object lens and its continuation
 Continued
Axis of level tube …
◦ The axis of the level tube or the bubble line is the line tangential to the
longitudinal curvature of the bubble tube at its centre
Centring
◦ The process of setting the theodolite exactly over the station mark on the
ground
Transiting
◦ It is the process of turning the telescope in the vertical plane by 180o about
the trunnion axis, also called as plunging or reversing
 Continued
Swinging …
◦ It is the process of turning the telescope in the horizontal plane, clockwise
rotation is called as right swing and anticlockwise rotation is called as left
swing
Face left observation
◦ If the vertical circle is to the left of the observer, the observation is called as
face left observation
Face right observation
◦ If the vertical circle is to the right of the observer, the observation is called as
face right observation
 Continued
Telescope normal …
◦ A telescope is said to be normal when the vertical circle is to the left
Telescope inverted
◦ A telescope is said to be inverted when the vertical circle is to the right
Changing face
◦ It is the operation of bringing the vertical circle from left to right and vice-
versa
 Adjustments of a Theodolite
Temporary Adjustments of a theodolite
◦ Setting up
◦ Levelling up
◦ Elimination of Parallax
◦ Focussing the eye-piece
◦ Focussing the objective
Permanent Adjustments of a theodolite
◦ Adjustment of plate levels
◦ Adjustment of line of sight
◦ Adjustment of horizontal axis
◦ Adjustment of altitude bubble and vertical index frame
 Continued
Adjustment of plate level…
◦ Relation : The axis of the plate bubble should be perpendicular to the
vertical axis when the bubble is centred
◦ Object : To make the vertical axis truly vertical and to ensure that the
bubble remains central for all directions when the instrument is levelled
Adjustment of line of sight
◦ Relation : The line of sight should coincide with the optical axis of the
telescope
◦ Object : To place the intersection of the cross hairs in the optical axis
 Continued
Adjustment of horizontal…
axis
◦ Relation : The horizontal axis should be perpendicular to the vertical axis
◦ Object : To make the horizontal axis perfectly horizontal when the
instrument is levelled
Adjustment of altitude level and vertical index frame
◦ Object : to make the line of sight horizontal when the bubble is central
and the vertical circle reading is zero
 Measurement of Angles
Measurement of horizontal angles by repetition
 Continued
…angles by reiteration or direction
Measurement of horizontal
 Continued
Measurement of Vertical…
Angles
 Continued
Miscellaneous operations…
using a theodolite
◦ Measure a magnetic bearing (requires a theodolite fitted with compass)
◦ Measure direct angles
◦ Measure deflection angles
◦ Prolong a straight line
◦ Run a straight line between two points
◦ Locate point of intersection of two lines
◦ Lay off a horizontal angle
 Continued
… surveying
Sources of errors in theodolite
◦ Instrumental errors
◦ Imperfect adjustment of plate levels
◦ Line of collimation not perpendicular to horizontal axis
◦ Horizontal axis not perpendicular to vertical axis
◦ Axis of telescope level not parallel to line of collimation
◦ Imperfect adjustment of vertical circle vernier
◦ Eccentricity of inner and outer axes
◦ Imperfect graduations
◦ Eccentricity of verniers
 Continued
◦ Personal errors
◦ Inaccurate centring
…
◦ Inaccurate levelling
◦ Slip
◦ Manipulating wrong tangent screw
◦ Inaccurate bisection of points
◦ Parallax
◦ Mistakes in reading and booking
◦ Natural errors
◦ Uneven natural refraction
◦ Uneven thermal expansion of parts
◦ Uneven settlement of tripod
◦ Wind producing vibrations
 Tacheometry
Tacheometry or tachemetry or telemetry is a branch of angular
surveying in which the horizontal and vertical distances of points are
obtained by optical means as opposed to the conventional means of
measuring with a chain or tape
The primary objective of tacheometry is to prepare contoured map
or plan requiring both horizontal as well as vertical control
An ordinary transit theodolite fitted with a stadia diaphragm is
generally used for tacheometry, essentially consisting of one stadia
hair above and the other below at equal distance from the central
cross hair in the same vertical plane
Continued
…
 Continued
Systems of tacheometric…
measurement
◦ Stadia System
◦ Stadia or fixed hair method
◦ Subtense or movable hair method
◦ Tangential system
 Stadia Method
In stadia method, the
tacheometric angle is constant
for a given telescope and only
the staff intercept varies with the
position of the staff
 Continued
The distance formula (for…
horizontal sights)
D = k.s + C
where
D = Distance
k = Multiplicative constant
s = Staff intercept
C = Additive constant
 Continued
… vertical
Case (i) Elevated sight – Staff
D = k.s.cos2θ + C.cos θ
sin 2θ
V = k.s. + C sin θ
2
R.L. of staff station
= HI + V - r
 Continued
Case (ii) Depressed sight …
– Staff vertical
R.L. of staff station
= HI - V - r
 Continued
Case (iii) Elevated sight –…
Staff normal
D = (k.s + C)cos θ + r sin θ
V = (k.s + C)sin θ
R.L. of staff station
= HI + V – r cos θ
 Continued
Case (iv) Depressed sight…
– Staff normal
R.L. of staff station
= HI – V – r cos θ
 Anallactic Lens
The anallactic lens is an additional convex lens placed between the
diaphragm and the objective at a fixed distance from the latter
It enables the formation of the vertex on the vertical axis irrespective
of the distance of the distance of the staff
Advantages
◦ It reduces the additive constant to zero and quickens computations
◦ The sealing of the anallactic lens protects the telescope from dust and
moisture
 Continued
Disadvantages …
◦ It absorbs much of the incident light and cannot be cleaned easily
◦ If its adjustable, it is a potential source of error
 Subtense Method
In subtense method, the converse happens wherein the staff
intercept is kept constant by means of targets on the staff and the
tacheometric angle is varied by adjusting the interval between the
cross hairs until the line of sights corresponding to the wires bisect
the targets
If the base is vertical, it is called as vertical subtense method and if
the base is horizontal, it is called as horizontal subtense method
= Ks + C
D
m–e
 Continued
Where …
K = Instrument constant
s = Staff intercept
m = No. of revolutions of micrometer screw
C = Additive constant
 Continued
…

Vertical Subtense
Diapragm and Target
Staff
 Continued
…

Horizontal Subtense Bar

 Tangential Method
In tangential method, the horizontal and vertical distances are
computed by observing vertical angles to vanes fixed at constant
distance apart on the staff
The stadia hairs are not used and the vane is bisected every time
with the axial hair for observing the vertical angles
Thus, this method can also be used when there is no provision of the
stadia hair in the instrument
 Continued
…
Case (i) Both sights are elevated
= s
D
tan α1 – tan α2

s tan α2
V =
tan α1 – tan α2
R.L. of Q
= HI + V - r
 Continued
…
Case (ii) Both sights are depressed
= s
D
tan α2 – tan α1

s tan α2
V =
tan α2 – tan α1
R.L. of Q
= HI – V - r
 Continued
…depressed sights
Case (iii) Both elevated and
= s
D
tan α1 + tan α2

s tan α2
V =
tan α1 + tan α2
R.L. of Q
= HI – V - r
 Contouring
A contour is an imaginary line on the ground joining points of equal
elevation; it is a line in which the surface of the ground is intersected
by a level surface
 Continued
as contour interval
…
The vertical distance between any two consecutive contours is called

The horizontal distance between two points on two consecutive

contours is known as horizontal equivalent
 Continued
… interval depends on the following
The choice of proper contour
◦ Nature of ground
◦ Smaller interval for flat terrain and greater interval for more broken terrain
◦ Scale of the map
◦ Inversely proportional to scale
◦ Purpose and extent of survey
◦ Smaller contour interval for detailed survey over small extent and greater interval for
location surveys over greater extent
◦ Time and expense of field and office work
◦ Greater contour interval is adopted when time available is less
 Continued
…
Characteristics of contours
◦ Two contours lines of different elevations cannot cross each other except in
the case of an overhanging cliff
 Continued
… can unite only in the case of a vertical cliff
◦ Contour lines of different elevations
 Continued
apart
…
◦ Contour lines close together indicate steep slope and gentle slope when far
 Continued
…
◦ Equally spaced contours indicate uniform slope whereas straight, parallel and
equally spaced contours indicate a plane surface
 Continued
◦ A contour passing through…
any point is perpendicular to the line of steepest
slope at that point
◦ A closed contour line with one or more
higher ones inside represents a hill
 Continued
…
◦ A closed contour line with
depression without an outlet
one or more lower ones inside represents a
 Continued
◦ Two contour lines having … same elevation cannot unite and continue as one
and neither can a single contour split into two lines but two different contours
of same elevation may approach close to each other
◦ A contour line must close upon itself but not necessarily within the limits of
the map
◦ Contour lines cross a ridge line at right angles forming U-shape around it with
the concave side facing towards higher ground
◦ Contour lines cross a valley line at right angles forming sharp V-shape around
it with the convex side facing towards higher ground
Continued
…
 Continued
…
Methods of locating contours
◦ Direct method
◦ Indirect method
Direct Method
◦ The contour to be plotted is actually traced on the ground
◦ Only those points are surveyed which are to be plotted
◦ Each contour is located by determining the positions of the points through
which the contour passes
◦ The field work consists of two stages: Vertical control and horizontal control
 Continued
…
◦ Vertical control is the location of points on the
contour i.e., locating points having the same
reduced level
◦ Horizontal control is the surveying of the points
by locating them from a base line by using a
suitable survey method
◦ Chain surveying is adopted for small works
while theodolite or compass traverse may be
used for larger survey
 Continued
Indirect method …
◦ In this method some guide points are selected along a system of straight lines
and their elevations are found
◦ The points are plotted and contours are drawn by interpolation
◦ The various indirect methods are
◦ By Squares
◦ By Cross sectioning
◦ By Tacheometric method
 Continued
Indirect methods …
◦ By squares or spot levelling
◦ Adopted when survey area is small and
terrain is more or less flat
◦ The area is split into a number of squares
ranging from 5 to 20m in size
◦ The reduced levels of the corners of the
squares is determined
◦ The contours are then plotted by
interpolation
 Continued
Indirect methods …
◦ By cross sectioning
◦ Cross sections are run transverse to the centre line of the
survey, the method being most suitable for railway route
surveys
◦ The spacing of the cross section depends upon
◦ Terrain
◦ Contour interval
◦ Purpose of survey
◦ The cross sections are plotted and the contours are drawn
by interpolation
 Continued
Indirect methods …
◦ Tacheometric method
◦ Tacheometer is centrally placed and staff
readings are taken along radial lines at regular
intervals
◦ The tacheometer enables measurement of
horizontal distance as well as the elevation of
the point, thus, providing both vertical and
horizontal control
◦ Adopted in hilly terrain wherein the line of sight
needs frequent adjustment by elevation or
depression of the telescope
 Continued
Interpolation of contours…
◦ By estimation
◦ Crude method in which the location of contour point between guide points is done by
estimation or judgement
◦ By arithmetic calculations
◦ The position of the contour point between two guide points is mathematically calculated
assuming an uniform variation in elevation between the two guide points
◦ By graphical method
◦ Interpolation of intermediate contour points is done graphically by means of tracing paper
or cloth
 Continued
Contour gradient …
◦ It is a line lying throughout on the surface of the ground and preserving a
constant inclination to the horizontal
◦ The inclination is usually given as a rise or a fall
◦ To locate a contour gradient in the field, a clinometer, theodolite or level may
be used
◦ In simple terms, gradient expresses how quickly the elevation changes in a
given distance (steepness or flatness of terrain)
 Continued
…
Applications of contour maps
◦ Drawing of sections
◦ Can be used to draw the section of the land along any
direction from a given contour plan to know the
general shape of the ground
 Continued
◦ Inter-visibility between points …
◦ Intervisibility between two points can
be checked from a contour map
 Continued
◦ Tracing of contour gradient…
and
location of route
◦ Tracing of gradient lines as per requirement
can be done from contour maps and route
can be made to follow the gradient as
closely as possible
 Continued
◦ Measurement of drainage …
area
 Continued
…
◦ Calculation of reservoir capacity
 Continued
…
◦ Measurement of earthwork volume
 Continued
…
Errors in tacheometric surveying
◦ Instrumental errors
◦ Imperfect adjustment of tacheometer
◦ Erroneous divisions on the stadia rod
◦ Errors due to incorrect multiplicative and additive constants
◦ Personal errors
◦ Inaccurate centring and bisection
◦ Inaccurate levelling
◦ Incorrect position of staff
◦ Inaccurate reading of horizontal and vertical circles
◦ Inaccurate estimation of staff intercept
◦ Parallax
 Continued
◦ Natural errors
◦ Uneven natural refraction
…
◦ Uneven thermal expansion of parts
◦ Poor visibility
◦ Wind producing vibrations