Thermofluids

Course : Diploma in Biomedical Engineering (EGDF09)

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Module Title : Thermofluids

Module Code : EGH176/EGF176/EGJ176/EGM176/EGR176/EGD176/EGC176

Topic 2 : Fluids in motion

2.1 Flow Characteristics & Important Properties

2.2 Conservation of Mass-Continuity of Flow

2.3 Conservation of energy

2.4 Flow measurement

2.5 Friction and Minor Losses in Pipe Flow

OBJECTIVES:

At the end of this lesson, the students should be able to:

• understand the various basic parameters that relate to properties of fluids
• explain the concept of continuity
• understand the concept of energy conservation and the Bernoulli’s equation
• understand different types of flow and the significance of the Reynolds number
• aware of the various instruments used for flow measurement
• Understand the Darcey’s equation and use of the Moody’s chart
• perform calculations on fluid flow in pipes

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2.1 Flow Characteristics and Important Properties

Fluids in motion are much more complex than fluids at rest. It involves the velocity, pressure
and density of moving fluid at all points.

Main types of fluid flow

(1) Laminar (Streamline) Flow
When the velocity of flow in a pipe is small, the fluid molecules move in an orderly fashion as
adjacent layers and there is no mixing. In flow through circular pipes the flow pattern
constitutes a series of thin shells that are sliding over one another. At the centre of the pipe the
fluid velocity is maximum and near the pipe wall the velocity is minimum.

Fig.2.1 – Concept of laminar flow

(2) Turbulent Flow
When the velocity is relatively high, eddies are formed and there is mixing of the fluid particles.
The fluid particles have a random motion that is transverse to the main flow direction.

Fig.2.2 – Concept of turbulent flow

Fig 2.3 – Laminar and Turbulent Flows

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(3) Transient Flow

Also known as Transition Flow. Exist between laminar and turbulent flow and as a transition
stage when the flow cannot be classified as a laminar flow nor a turbulent flow.

Viscosity – Resistance to Flow

The internal resistance or friction to flow is known as Viscosity of the fluid. This is an important
property in fluid dynamics. In liquids the viscosity is caused mainly by the cohesion (attractive
forces) between the molecules.
To understand the degree of viscosity of a fluid consider a layer of fluid such as oil separating
two plates of glass. With one plate fixed in position it is easy to slide the other plate over it.
However, if the liquid separating the plates is tar ( a thick dark liquid distilled from wood or
coal), the task of sliding one plate over the other becomes much more difficult. Thus we would
conclude that tar has a higher viscosity than oil.

(1) Viscosity, 
The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal resistance exhibited as one layer of fluid
moves relative to another layer, as shown in Fig2.4 below:

Fig.2.4 - One fluid layer moves relative to another

The upper layer of the fluid requires some force, F, to overcome the internal resistance.
The viscosity of a fluid is defined as the shear stress per unit velocity gradient.
Let the sliding area of the upper layer be equal to A.
F
Then the shear stress =
A

the velocity gradient =
y

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F 
the viscosity will then be = 
A y
Fy
or μ=
Aν

Fluid viscosity µ, is also known as coefficient of viscosity, dynamic viscosity or absolute

viscosity.

SI unit: kg/m.s , N.s/m2 or Pa.s

Another unit that can be used for viscosity is Poise (P)

1 P (Poise) = 0.1 Ns/m2
1 centipoise (cP) = 0.01 P

Typical values:
Water : 1.14 x 10-3 kg/ms or 1.14 x 10-2 P
Air : 1.78 x I 0-5 kg/ms or 1.78 x 10-4 P

(2) Kinematic viscosity, 

The Kinematic Viscosity , is defined as the ratio of dynamic viscosity to density:
μ
Kinematic viscosity,  =
ρ
SI unit is m2 / s.
However, the unit Stoke is sometimes used for kinematic viscosity, where,
1 Stoke (St) = 10-4 m2 /s
Typical values:
Water :1.14 x 10-6 m2 /s or 1.14 x 10-4 St
Air :1.46 x 10-5 m2/s or 1.46 x 10-3 St

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Reynolds Number, Re
Reynolds concluded through a series of experiments the following regarding fluid flow through
pipes :

The type of flow is dependent on 4 factors

1) Average velocity of the fluid (v)
2) Pipe diameter (d)
3) Dynamic viscosity of the fluid ()
4) Density of the fluid ()

A dimensionless parameter was formed known as the Reynolds number, Re. From the value of
this number we will know the type of flow in the pipe.

Reynolds Number, Re
vd
Re =

In pipe flow:
1) Laminar flow exists when Re is 2300 or less
2) Transient flow exists when Re is between 2300 and 4000
3) Turbulent flow exists when Re is more than 4000

In practice, pipe flow is generally turbulent.

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Example

In an oil refinery, diesel oil flows through a 30 cm diameter pipe at the rate of 700 m3/h. If the
kinematic viscosity of the oil is 2.4 x 10-5 m2/s, determine the nature of the flow.

Data:
d = 0. 3 m;
Q = 700/3600 = 0.1944 m3/ s
v = 2.4 x 10-5 m2/s

Solution:

Conclusion:
Since Re is greater than 4000, the flow is turbulent.

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2.2 Conservation of Mass - Continuity of Flow

Ideal & Real Fluids
To understand the many features of real fluids in motion, we shall consider the behaviour of an
ideal fluid . Ideal fluid has the following four characteristics:

(1) Non-viscous fluid

Viscosity or internal friction is always present in fluid motion. This internal friction is
associated with the resistance between two adjacent layers of fluid moving relative to each
other. This also causes the layers of fluid in the fluid flow to flow at different speeds.
In a non-viscous fluid, internal friction is neglected. An object/body moving through such a
fluid would not experience any retarding viscous force.

(2) Steady Flow

The velocity, pressure of the fluid at any specified point does not change with time {Fig
2.5 (a)}.

* va vb
Pa vb
vb

(a) (b)
Fig 2.5 – (a) Steady and (b) Uniform Flow

Unsteady flow – velocity at a point changes in time, e.g. when water starts to flow in a pipe just
as the tap is turned on.

(3) Uniform Flow

Velocity of Flow is the same at all points in that section { Fig 2.5 (b)}

(4) Incompressible
Although no material is truly incompressible, variations in density of many liquids are
negligible and can be ignored.

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Principle of Conservation of Mass

The principle of conservation is that the total of any quantity remains constant. The theory of
fluid flow rests on three main conservation principles, namely the conservation of mass, the
conservation of energy and the conservation of momentum. In this chapter we will analyze and
apply the conservation of mass and the conservation of energy to some fluid flow problems.

Conservation of Mass Flow - Mass Flow Rate, m (kg/s)

Consider a tank of water having an inlet mass flow rate min and an outlet of mass flow rate mout
as in Fig.2.6. The water level in the tank will depend on these two mass flow rates.

Fig.2.6 – Demonstration of conservation of mass flow

1) When min > mout : the water level will rise
If min = 60 kg/s and mout = 25 kg/s, then the rate of mass increase will be:
min - mout = 60 kg/s - 25 kg/s = 35 kg/s

2) When min < mout : the water level will fall

If min = 25 kg/s and mout = 50 kg/s, then the rate of mass increase will be
min - mout = 25 kg/s - 50 kg/s = -25 kg/s

3) When min = mout: the water level will remain the same
If min = 60 kg/s and mout = 60 kg/s, then the rate of mass increase will be:
min - mout = 60 kg/s - 60 kg/s = 0 kg/s
This is known as steady state.
Thus, under steady state :
Mass entering the tank per second = Mass leaving the tank per second

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Example
Find Velocity, V2?
Area, A1 = 0.5 m2
Velocity, V1 = 1.3 m/s

Pipe 1

Pipe 2

Area, A2 = 0.2 m2
Velocity, V2 =?

Example
Find Velocity, V1?

Diameter, d1 = 0.3m
Velocity, V1 =?

Diameter, d2 = 0.1m
Velocity,V2 = 5 m/s

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Example
Given gasoline fills the enclosed tank via 2 inputs with a mass flow rate of 20 kg/s and 70 kg/s
as shown in Fig.2.7. Calculate the rate of mass flow via the output pipe if steady state is obtained
in the tank.

Fig.2.7 – Mass flow rate

Solution
At steady state, mass flow in = mass flow out (no accumulation of mass)
Hence, m1 + m2 = m3
or 20 + 70 = m3
Hence, m3 = 70 kg/s

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Continuity Equation – Volume Flow Rate, Q (m3/s)

In a given period of time, under steady state conditions, the amount of fluid that enters the
section 1 of a pipe and the amount of fluid that flows out of section 2 of the same pipe is the
same. This follows the law of conservation of mass.

A1 A2

2v2m2
1v1m1

(1) (2)

Fig.2.8 – Concept of continuity

Under steady state,

Mass entering the pipe / second = Mass leaving the pipe / second
i.e., min = mout
m = Q ( Q = volume / second )
but, Q=Av ( A = area of cross section of pipe; v = velocity of flow)
therefore m=ρAv

Hence, min = m1 = 1 A1 v1 and mout = m2 = 2 A2 v2

Therefore, 1 A1 v1 = 2 A2 v2

For incompressible, the fluid density is constant, ie: 1 = 2

Hence, A1 v1 = A2 v2 = Q

where Q is known as the Volume Flow Rate (SI units : m3/s)

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Example:
Water flows through a piping system as shown in the diagram below. The flow
directions are indicated by the arrows. Determine V2?
Pipe 1
d1 = 0.3 m
v1 = 2 m/s

Pipe 2 Pipe 3
d2 = 0.1 m d3 = 0.2 m
v2 = ? v3 = 1 m/s

Example:
The flow of water in a pipe configuration is shown below. Calculate the outlet flow rates Q2 &
Q3 and the velocities v1, v2 & v3.

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Example:

A nozzle of internal diameter 98 mm is attached to the end of a 420 mm diameter pipe. If the average
velocity of flow in the pipe was 1.8 m/s, what would be the velocity of the liquid jet at the nozzle exit ?
(Ans : 33.061m/s)

d1=420mm d2=98mm
v1=1.8 m/s

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2.3 Conservation of Energy

Concept of conservation of Energy
The law of conservation of energy implies that energy can be manifested in many forms, which
are mutually convertible and can be measured in the same units. The following forms of energy
are important in the study of fluid dynamics;

1) Potential energy due to elevation / height

2) Potential energy due to fluid pressure
3) Kinetic energy

In principle, all forms of energy are mutually convertible. However, not all conversions are
practical.

(1) Potential energy due to elevation / height

Potential energy of a body is the energy possessed by the mass of a body due to the Earth's attraction
when the mass is located at some height (Z) above an arbitrary datum.

The force F due to a mass m (kg) is given by:

F=mg (where g is the acceleration due to gravity = 9.81 m/s2)

Thus the potential energy is given by

PE = F x Z
=mgZ {Units: Nm or Joule (J) }

Fig.2.10 – Potential energy due to height

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(2) Potential energy due to fluid pressure

This is the energy of the fluid under pressure, this pressure can be expressed as an equivalent vertical
column of the fluid (head). This pressure can be due to the fluid column or due to induced pressure such
as a compressor or a pump (pressurized fluid). This may also be treated as another form of potential
energy. Sometimes this is also known as potential energy in transition.

Fig.2.11 – Potential energy due to fluid pressure

The fluid pressure at the outlet , P =  g h

and the potential energy, PE, due to the fluid pressure is

Pm
PE = (SI units: Nm or J)
ρ
where, m is mass in kg
 is density in kg/m3
P is pressure in N/m2

(3) Kinetic energy

Kinetic energy, KE, is the energy possessed by a mass in motion. The kinetic energy, which is
stored in a body of mass m (kg) moving at a velocity of v (m/s), is thus

1
KE = mv 2 (SI units: Nm or J)
2

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Total Head
In general, a fluid in motion possesses the following three forms of energy:
Pm
1) Potential energy due to fluid pressure; PE =

2) Potential energy due to elevation/ height; PE = m g Z
1
3) Kinetic energy; KE = mv 2
2

Thus the total energy possess by a fluid in motion is:

Pm mv 2
Total Energy = + mgZ + (SI unit: J)
 2

For Unit Mass, dividing by m,

P v2
Total Energy = + gZ +
ρ 2

Dividing all by 'g', we have the Total Head:

P v2
Total Head = + Z +
ρg 2g

All three terms have the unit of m (metres),

P
1) Pressure head =
g
2) Potential head =Z
v2
3) Velocity head =
2g

These three terms form the Total Head of the fluid in motion. It represents the total energy of 1
kg of the fluid as an equivalent form of potential energy stored at an imaginary height (m) equal
to the total head.

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V
*A

Datum

Fig 2.12 – Total Head

The three (3) heads at A are;

P
1) Pressure head = m {remember P = h ρ g }
g
2) Potential head = Z m
v2
3) Velocity head = m
2g

The Total Head at A is;

P v2
Total Head = + Z +
ρg 2g

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Bernoulli Equation
In 1738 Daniel Bernoulli developed the following energy balance equation applicable to fluid
flow:
'During a steady flow of a frictionless incompressible fluid, the total energy remains constant
along the flow path.'
P v2
i.e. Total head = +Z+ = constant
g 2g

Consider two sections along a pipe from an outlet of a tank, as shown in Fig.2.13 below:

Fig.2.13 – Application of Bernoulli Equation

Assume that the fluid flow is steady, frictionless and incompressible.

Applying Bernoulli Equation to sections (1) & (2), we have:

Total energy at section (1) = Total energy at section (2)

or Total head at section (1) = Total head at section (2)

2 2
P1 v P v
Hence, + Z1 + 1 = 2 + Z 2 + 2
g 2g g 2g

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Example
Find P1
P2 = 200 kPa
v2 = 3 m/s
z2 = 1 m
Section 2

Pipe

Section 1
P1 = ?
v2 = 1 m/s
z2 = 0 m

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Example
Calculate the followings:
(a) Velocity at exit V2
(b) Pressure P2
(c) Mass flow rate
p2 = ?
d2 = 20 mm
Z2=2m

2m

p1 = 150 kPa
v1 = 1 m/s
d1 = 50 mm
Z1=0

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Example
Given that water flows through an inclined pipe with diameter of 100cm at the top A and
diameter 50cm at the base B as shown in Fig.2.14. The height difference between the top & base
is 3m. The velocity of the water V1, entering the pipe is at 15 m/s. Given that the density of
water is 1000 kg/m3. Calculate the following:

Fig.2.14 – Calculation of fluid flow in pipe

(a) Calculate the mass flow rate m , of water through the pipe.
(b) Calculate the average velocity of the water V2 , at the lower end B.
(c) Neglecting any energy losses during the flow, estimate the fluid pressure difference
between sections (1) and (2) , [ P1 – P2 ] of the pipe.

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General Energy Equation for Steady flow

The Bernoulli Equation as discussed earlier is given by the equation:
2 2
P1 v P v
+ Z1 + 1 = 2 + Z 2 + 2
g 2g g 2g

This equation is applicable only for an ideal fluid flow situation.

It assumes that there is no energy loss or gain as the fluid flows from section (1) to (2).
However, in practice, this is not the case. There is always some energy loss or gain.
Energy could have been supplied by introducing a pump; equally, energy could have been lost
by doing work against friction or in a machine such as a turbine (see Fig.2.15).

Bernoulli Equation can be expanded to include these conditions, giving:

Total energy Energy Energy Energy Total energy head

head at + head - head - head = at section 2
section 1 added losses output

P v 
2
P2 v
2

or  1 + Z 1 + 1  + h in −  hL − hout = [ + Z2 + 2 ]
 g 2g  g 2g

Fig.2.15 – Energy addition/loss

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Thus, for any mass system, the net energy supplied to the system equals to the increase of energy
of the system plus the energy leaving the system.
Energy and Mass Balance
The energy and mass balance concept can be used in high-velocity fluid jet. This is achieved by
means of a nozzle with varying cross-sectional area, which can convert the pressure head into
kinetic energy of the fluid.

Nozzles can be broadly classified into two types;

1) Convergent Nozzles
2) Convergent - Divergent Nozzles

Under steady state conditions, nozzles can be analyzed by applying the Continuity Equation and
Bernoulli Equation at different sections.

(1) Convergent Nozzles

1 2

2A2v2
1A1v1

inlet exit

Fig.2.16 - A Convergent Nozzle

A liquid at high pressure P1 can be accelerated by passing through a convergent nozzle. The
kinetic energy of the fluid is increased and its pressure head reduced by a corresponding amount.

Using continuity of flow:

A1v1 = A2v2 = Q

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Since A1 > A2 therefore v2 >v1

Using Bernoulli Equation:
2 2
P1 v P v
+ Z1 + 1 = 2 + Z 2 + 2
g 2g g 2g

Since the nozzles are usually short,

Z1 = Z2
2 2
P1 v 1 P v
+ = 2 + 2
g 2g g 2g

As v2 > v1 , P1 > P2

(2) Convergent - Divergent Nozzles

The velocity decreases and the pressure increases as the liquid flows through the diverging
portion of the nozzle. This is just the opposite of the 'nozzle effect' and is generally known as the
'diffuser effect'.
This effect is common for incompressible fluids flowing through and diverging duct.

1A1v1 2A2v2

Fig.2.17 - Convergent - Divergent Nozzles

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2.4 Flow measurements

It may be necessary to know the flow rate, Q m3/s, in a pipe carrying a fluid as in the design of
boilers and refrigerators, or it may be required to know the flow rate of a pump as in designing
of blood transfusion equipment or heart valves.

Concept of Stagnation, Static and Dynamic Pressure

An instrument that moves along with the fluid in principle measures the Static Pressure (Ps) of a
flowing fluid. This is, however, inconvenient, and the pressure is usually measured via a small
hole in a wall arranged so that it does not disturb the flow or by a static-pressure tube.

Fig.2.18 – Static Pressure / Pressure Head in fluid flow.

When a flowing fluid is brought to rest its kinetic energy is converted into an equivalent pressure
head. This additional pressure is known as the Dynamic Pressure Head.
v2
Dynamic Pressure Head (hDyn ) =
2g
The Stagnation Pressure of a fluid in horizontal flow is defined as the summation of the static
pressure and dynamic pressure. In other words, the stagnation pressure is the pressure obtained
when the flow velocity is reduced to zero. In pressure head terms we have

Stagnation Pressure Head ( hStag ) = Static Pressure Head ( hStat ) + Dynamic Pressure Head ( hDyn )

The Total Pressure Head is given by hTotal = hStag + hPot where hPot is pressure head due to
geo-potential height difference from a chosen zero potential height.

Once hStag and hStat are known for a horizontal flow, the value of hDyn can be determined and
therefore the velocity v of the fluid flow can be obtained from v2 = 2ghDyn . The volume flow
rate , Q can also be determined by Q = Av where A is the cross-sectional area of the pipe.

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Volume Flow Rate (Q m3/s) measurement

Three methods of measuring the Volume Flow Rate of a fluid are as follows:
(1) Pitot Tube
(2) Venturi meter
(3) Turbine meter

(1) Pitot Tube

The first method of measuring the volume flow rate is by using a Pitot Tube. Fig.2.19 shows the
method of measuring the total pressure, P1 using a Pitot Tube.

Fig.2.19 – Pitot tube

The dynamic pressure is equal to the difference between the total pressure and the static
pressure. One way of determining the dynamic pressure is to measure the total pressure P 1, and
the static pressure PS, using an arrangement shown below and then find the difference. Once the
dynamic pressure is known, the velocity of the fluid can be found and hence volume flow rate, Q.

Fig.2.20 – Total Pressure (P1) and Static Pressure (PS)

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(2) Venturi Meter

The venturi meter is a short length of pipe consisting of a converging and a diverging section as
shown in Fig 2.21. The narrow section of the venturi meter is also referred to as the Throat.

Fig.2.21 – The Venturi Meter

Applying continuity equation for sections (1) and (2);

A1v1 = A2v2 = Q ……….(a)
Assuming ideal conditions (steady, frictionless and incompressible flow) and applying Bernoulli
Equation for sections (1) and (2);
2 2
P1 v P v
+ Z1 + 1 = 2 + Z 2 + 2
g 2g g 2g

Since the Venturi meter is horizontal, Z1 = Z 2

Therefore,
2 2
P1 v 1 P v
+ = 2 + 2 ………(b)
g 2g g 2g

From equations (a) and (b) , it can be shown that;

2g(h1 − h 2 )
Q = A 2v 2 = A 2
1 − (A 2 / A1 )2
Where, h1 , h2 are the heights in m of liquid in the piezometer tubes at sections (1) and (2)
A1 , A2 are the areas of cross-section in m2 of the venturi meter at sections (1) and (2)
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The volume flow rate , Q can be found from,

2g(h1 − h 2 )
Q = A 2v 2 = A 2
1 − (A 2 / A1 )2

This equation however is applicable for ideal fluids. In the case of a real fluid there is always
some energy loss as it flows between sections (1) and (2). The actual flow rate will be less than
the ideal flow rate. This is normally compensated by the Coefficient of the Venturi Meter , C.

2 g (h1 − h2 )
Q = CA2
1 − ( A2 / A1 ) 2

The value of C is dependent on the flow and the actual geometry of the Venture Meter. For a
well designed Venturi Meter, C is approximately 0.98.

(3) Turbine meter

Also known as a propeller meter, the turbine meter consists of a freely rotating propeller that can
be installed in a pipeline. As the fluid passes through the rotor, it will cause the rotor to rotate.
Electrical or magnetic pickup pulses will measure the rotation of the rotor. These will
correspond to the volume flow in the pipe.

Fig.2.22 – A basic design of a turbine meter

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A major advantage of the meter is that each pulse corresponds to a finite incremental volume.
Thus it is easy to determine changes in the flow rate accurately. However, each turbine meter
must be calibrated to give accurate readings. Liquid-meter calibration curves are used.
Attempts to establish universal calibration curves have met with little success as a result of
manufacturing variabilities.

Fig.2.23 – Typical calibration curves for a range of crude oils

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2.5 Friction and Minor Losses in Pipe Flow

Friction loss in pipe flow -- Darcy's Equation
When a fluid flows through a pipe the fluid particles near the pipe wall have relatively low
velocity and the ones near the center move with relatively high velocity. Because of this relative
motion and the viscosity of the fluid, shear stresses are produced. This viscous action causes
dissipation, which is usually referred to as friction loss in pipe.

This friction losses in pipes can be calculated by using Darcy's Equation

L v2
hf = f
d 2g
where,
hf friction loss (m)
f friction factor
L length of straight pipe (m)
d diameter of pipe (m)
v average velocity (m/s)
g gravitational force (m/s2)

In 1944, L.F. Moody developed a chart (Moody’s Chart) that gives a value of the friction factor,
f, when the Reynolds number (Re) and relative roughness of the pipe is known.

Relative roughness is given by the ratio,

 surface imperfecti on
relative roughness = =
d inner diameter of pipe

For fully developed turbulent flows in circular pipes, the friction factor f may be either read off
from the Moody’s Chart or calculated using the S.E. Haaland approximation:

This approximation is within 2% error of a more rigorous but iterative numerical method
provided by C.F. Colebrook.

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Example 1:
Water flows in a 30 cm diameter cast iron pipe of relative roughness 0.0008. If the water flow
rate is 200 l/s, rind the head loss per 100 m of pipe. Take the dynamic viscosity of water as 1.49
x 10-3 Ns/m2.

Data:
d = 0.3 m
Q= 200 l/s = 0.2 m3/s
L = 100 m
 =1.49 x 10-3 Ns/m2
Density of water,  = 1000 kg/m3
Solution:

Reynolds Number, Re:

From Moody's chart , for:

and relative roughness =

the friction factor, f =

By Darcy's equation,
L v2
hf = f
d 2g
or

Note: The smaller the diameter of the pipe the greater the friction loss.
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Example 2:
A certain liquid flows through a 20 mm pipe a flow rate of 50 kg/s. Given that its density is 800
kg/m3, dynamic viscosity is 0. 085 kg/ms and the relative roughness is 0.008. Determine the
type of flow and its corresponding friction factor.

Solution:
First, check the type of flow by calculating the Reynolds number, Re.
To find Re, the velocity of flow, v, must be known first.

Cross sectional area of pipe, A = (0.02)2/4 = 3.142 x 10-4 m2

Since m = A v
Hence 50 = (800) (3.142 x 10-4) v
or v = 198.94 m/s

vd
Re = 

(198.94)(0.02)
Re = 800
0.085
Re = 37448

Since Re >>4000, that implies a turbulent flow

From Moody's Chart, with a friction factor of 0.008 and Re 3.7 x 104,
Friction factor = 0.036 approx.

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Minor losses in pipes

Apart from the friction losses in pipes there will be other minor losses when the fluid flows from
the entrance to the exit points through the pipe and pipe fittings along the pipe.

The various losses are;

1. Losses due to sudden enlargement
2. Exit losses
3. Losses due to sudden contraction
4. Entrance losses
5. Losses due to pipe fittings

(1) Losses due to sudden enlargement

Fig.2.24 – Sudden enlargement of a pipe section

The losses hm (m) due to sudden enlargement is given by:

2
v
hm = K 1
2g
where K = [1 – A1 / A2 ]2

v1 average velocity in smaller pipe

A1 Area of the smaller pipe
A2 Area of the bigger pipe

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(2) Exit losses

When a pipe discharges fluid into a large reservoir or tank, some energy is loss. Using the
equation for losses due to sudden enlargement A2 >> A1
A1 2 V 2
h m = (1 − )
A 2 2g

V2
or h m = (1 − 0) 2

2g

V2
or hm =
2g

Fig.2.25 – Exit of a pipe flow

This energy loss is caused by loss of the kinetic energy due to mixing and turbulence.

(3) Losses due to sudden contraction

Fig.2.26 - sudden contraction of a pipe

The losses hm (m) due to sudden contraction is given by:
2
v
hm = K 2
2g
1
where K = ( − 1) 2
Cc

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v2 = average velocity in smaller pipe

Cc = coefficient of contraction

The value of Cc is a function of A1 and A2

A2 2
C c = 0.62 + 0.38 ( )
A1

This is only valid for A2 / A1 between 0.1 and 1. As an approximate value, Cc may be taken as
0.62.

(4) Entrance Loss

Losses due to a poorly designed inlet of a reservoir or a tank can be quite large. For various inlet
conditions, corresponding values of K are as shown.

Fig.2.27 – Entrance to a pipe

v2
The losses is given as: hm = K
2g

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(5) Losses in pipe fittings

Pipe fittings such as valves and elbows which constricts the flow passages or change the
direction of flow cause losses in a pumping system. These losses can be approximated as the
friction loss in an equivalent length of a straight pipe of the same diameter. This approximation
is valid for pipe diameters 10 mm to 250 mm. The table below shows some typical equivalent
length for some selected fittings

Fittings Equivalent length ratio, L/d

Globe valve (fully open) 200
Gate valve (fully open / quarter open) 10
Check valve (fully open) 1000
Standard elbow (90 degrees) 30
Standard T – joint 20

Example 1:
For a fully open gate valve, L/d ratio is 10, given that the diameter of the pipe is 30 mm.
The equivalent straight pipe length = 10d
=10 x 0.033
= 0.33 m

This length will then be added to the original length of the pipe and the friction losses for the
whole length calculated.

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Example
Find the total losses in the pipe system given the flow rate is 50 L/min and size of surface
imperfections is 0.2mm.

d1=50mm

10m

30m

d2=100mm

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Example
Find the water flow rate in the wider pipe. Given the flow rate in pipe 1 is 40L/s and friction
factor is 0.05, friction factor in pipe 2 is 0.03.

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Example:
The discharge pipe from a centrifugal pump is 3.5 cm in diameter and 20 m long. A fully open
gate valve and a standard 90 degrees elbow are connected as shown in Fig.2.25. Olive oil of
specific gravity 0.92 has to be pumped at the rate of 4 L/s. Take f=0.032. Find the total losses on
the delivery side of the pump, given that d = 0.035 m; L = 20 m; Q = 4 l/s

Fig.2.28 – Example of pipe flow

Solution:
Flow rate, Q = 4 l/s = 0.004 m3/s

0.004
Velocity in the delivery pipe, v = = 4.16 m/s
0.035 2
4
The equivalent length of a straight pipe;
(a) for a fully open gate valve, {take, L/d =10}
Lgv = 10d = 10 x 0.035 = 0.35 m

and (b) for a 90 standard elbow, {take, L/d = 30}

Lse = 30d = 30 x 0.035 = 1.05 m
The length of the straight pipe , Lsp = 20 m
Therefore the total equivalent length of straight pipe, L = Lsp + Lse + Lgv
= 20 + 1.05 + 0.35 = 21.4 m

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Total friction loss due to pipe and fittings is:

L v2 (21.4)(4.16) 2
hf = f = 0.032 = 17.25 m of liquid column
d 2g (0.035)( 2)(9.81)

Loss at pipe exit (see notes under minor losses),

v2 4.16 2
he = = = 0.88 m of liquid column
2g (2)(9.81)

Total losses on delivery side,

h L = hf + he = 17.25 + 0.88 = 18.13 m of liquid column

Note: The pump has to produce enough energy (pressure) to overcome this loss in addition to
the delivery head (vertical lift).

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Pipes in Series
When two or two pipes of different diameters are connected in a series, the total head loss in the
pipeline is the sum of the frictional loss in each pipe plus local shock losses. In steady flow the
discharge through the pipes is the same. For the series connection shown in the figure below the
total head loss is

h L = Friction loss in pipe 1 + Friction loss in pipe 2 + Shock loss at juction

2 2 2
f 1 L1 v 1 f L v v
or hL = d 1 2g
+ 2 2 2 + K 21
d 2 2g 2g
where v1 = Q / A1 and v2 = Q/ A2

Fig.2.29 – Pipes in series

Pipes in parallel
When two or more pipes are connected such that they branch out from a single point and after
equal or unequal lengths join at another point, then the pipes are said to be in parallel.
The losses in the two parallel pipes are the same,
i.e., hf1 = hf2
2 2
fL v fL 2 v 2
or h f1 = 1 1 =
d 1 2g d 2 2g

Fig.2.30 – Pipes in parallel

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Example

Water flows through a piping system to an elevated large tank, as show in the below diagram.
Along the pipe length, there are two (2) 90-degree elbows and a gate valve attached to it. All
pipes have an internal diameter of 30mm. The internal pipe surface roughness is 0.12mm. The
flowrate through the pipes is 0.002 m3/s. The dynamic viscosity of water is 0.0015 Pa•s.

(a) Calculate the water flow velocity through the piping system.
(b) Determine the type of flow.
(c) Determine the friction factor.
(d) Calculate the total head loss along the pipe between point A and after the pipe exit at B,
taking into consideration all losses.

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Solution

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