Inheritance

Transmission of genetic information from generation to generation.

Chromosomes: Made of DNA carrying genetic information in the form of genes.

Seen inside nucleus and mitochondria.
• Seen by light microscope only in dividing cells (short and fat).
• All body cells have exact copy
• Each species has its own number of chromosomes.

Haploid nucleus (n): contain single set of chromosomes in gametes produced by meiosis.
Diploid nucleus (2n): contain two sets of chromosomes in body cells. Pair of each type of chromosome,
In human 23 pairs (46 chromosomes).

DNA
1. Store genetic information passed to next generation as eye color.
2. Controls cell function, by controlling production of proteins e.g. enzymes, membrane carriers
and receptors for neurotransmitters

1 Inheritance
Gene: Length of DNA that codes for a protein.
• Each chromosome has many genes
• All cells contain same genes.
• Many are not expressed in a particular cell as cell makes specific proteins it needs.

Allele: alternative form of a gene.

Any character is specified by 2 alleles on the same locus of chromosome, may be either
➢ Dominant allele: allele that is expressed if it is present in genotype . Given capital letter.
➢ Recessive allele:
Only expressed when there is no dominant allele of the gene present in genotype. Given small letter.
Individual may be:
✓ Homozygous: have two identical alleles of a particular gene BB or bb.
✓ Heterozygous have two different alleles of a particular gene e.g. Bb

Genotype: genetic makeup of an organism in terms of alleles present e.g. BB, Bb, and bb.
Phenotype: observable features of an organism.

2 Inheritance
Protein synthesis:
1. Gene coding for protein remains in the nucleus.
2. Messenger RNA (m RNA) is a copy of gene made in nucleus
3. mRNA moves to cytoplasm.
4. It passes through ribosome which read sequence of bases in triplets (genetic code).
5. Ribosome assembles amino acids into protein molecules.
6. Specific sequence of amino acids in protein is determined by
• Sequence of bases in the mRNA
• Sequence of bases in a gene.
7. Different sequences of amino acids give different shapes to protein molecules
N.B: DNA has 4 bases and amino acids are 20.

3 Inheritance
Sex determination in humans:
Cells contain 46 chromosomes arranged as 23 pairs.
Autosomes: 22 pairs, each pair is one from mother and one from father, of same size, shape, and same
genes in same positions ( Homologous chromosomes)
Sex chromosomes: one pair determines sex, X Y in males & X X in females (y is smaller)

Parent phenotype: Male Female

Parent genotype: 44 XY 44 XX
Gametes: Sperms (22X) or (22Y) Ova (22X)

22X
Egg

44 XX
Offspring Genotype & Phenotype: Sperms
Female
44 XY
Male

Probability: Random 50% female, 50% male. Letters describe the whole chromosome not alleles.

4 Inheritance
Simple monohybrid crosses : inheritance of one pair of contrasting criteria.
1) Pure breeding: two identical homozygous individuals breed together.
Grey color chinchilla (GG) with (GG): always has offspring with grey coats.

×
2) Breeding of two different homozygous individuals: Grey chinchilla (GG) mated with charcoal (gg).
All the offspring Grey as they has the dominant allele.

Gametes g g
G Gg Grey Gg Grey
G Gg Grey Gg Grey
F1: Their offspring always heterozygous and F2 is offspring produced by crossing of F1 parents

×
3) If both parents are heterozygous (3:1): not pure-breeding e.g. in chinchilla color
Genetic diagram
Parents phenotype: Grey Grey
Parent’s genotype: Gg Gg

Gametes: G or g G or g

Offspring genotypes & phenotypes:

Probability: Gametes G g
 3:1 ratio
G GG Grey Gg Grey
 Grey 75%, charcoal color 25%.
g Gg Grey gg Charcoal

 1 in 4 chance GG, 1 in 4 chance gg, 2 in 4 chance Gg (1 in 2).

Homozygous dominant has the same phenotype as heterozygous.
Heterozygous is a carrier of charcoal color it has allele but color is not charcoal.

5 Inheritance
4) Heterozygous with homozygous recessive: (1: 1 ratio)
Parent’s phenotype: Grey Charcoal
Parent’s genotype: Gg  gg

Gametes: G
 g g g

Offspring genotype and phenotype

Gametes g
Expected ratio 1:1
Half heterozygous with grey fur. G Gg Grey
Half homozygous with charcoal fur.
g gg charcoal

With very large numbers of offspring from one cross probability are more accurate.

Test cross:
 To discover genotype (e.g. TT or Tt) of individual with dominant phenotype (Tall pea plant).
 To produce a true breeding homozygous population.
1. The individual is crossed with homozygous recessive (tt dwarf).
2. If any offspring are dwarf then individual is heterozygous.
3. If all tall so parent is homozygous for allele of tallness.
Punnett squares
Dwarf Dwarf
t t t t
Tall Tall
T Tt Tt T Tt Tt
t tt tt T Tt Tt

1:1 parent heterozygous All tall, parent homozygous

6 Inheritance
Codominance

Both alleles of a gene produce their effect on the phenotype, neither is dominant.
Heterozygote has a different phenotype from homozygous.

Inheritance of blood groups: A, B, AB and O

 Three alleles IA, IB, IO .
 IA, IB is co dominant and both are dominant to IO
 Six genotypes. Phenotype (group) Genotype
 Four phenotypes.
A Homozygous IA IA AA
Heterozygous IA IO AO
B Homozygous IB IB BB
Heterozygous IB IO BO
O Homozygous IO IO OO
AB Heterozygous IA IB AB

Two heterozygous parents of group A and B have children:

Parental phenotype: Group A B
A
Parental genotype: I IO × I B
IO
Gametes :
IA IO × IB IO

Gametes IA IO

Offspring genotype: IB I A IB (AB) IB IO (B)

IO I A IO (A) IO IO (O)

Offspring phenotype A B , A , B , O

7 Inheritance
 ,..,
Sex linkage
Sex linked characteristic
Characteristic in which gene responsible is located on sex chromosome so more common in one sex .
X and Y chromosomes determine sex and have genes on them.
X chromosome is larger, has more genes and most of genes are not found on Y chromosome.
Y chromosome is small, and has fewer genes and man has one copy and women don’t have these genes.

Inheritance of sex-linked red green colour blindness (can’t tell difference between red & green)
➢ Gene is on x chromosome,
➢ B is dominant allele for normal color vision.
➢ b is recessive allele for color blindness, cause two types of cone cell to be made.
➢ Five possible genotypes and their phenotypes:
 XB XB women with normal vision.
 XB Xb women with normal vision but carrier.
 Xb Xb women with red green colour blindness (homozygous for this allele)
 XB Y man with normal vision.
 Xb y man with red green color blindness.
Parent phenotype: Normal man  Color blind women
B
Parent genotype: X Y  Xb Xb
Gametes: Sperms Ova

XB Y Xb Xb

Offspring genotype and

Ova
Phenotype:
Xb Xb

XB XB Xb XB Xb
Normal carrier female Normal carrier female
Sperms Y Xb Y Xb Y
Color blind male Color blind male
Evidence that shows that color blindness is a sex-linked characteristic
✓ More males affected than females.
✓ Carrier state in female only.

8 Inheritance
Stem cells:
Unspecialized cells.
Continually divide by mitosis.
Genes is switched on or expressed to produce cells specialized for specific functions
E.g. Hair express color gene found in all cells but not expressed.
Types:
 Embryonic stem cells differentiate into skin, muscle, WBC S and once differentiated can’t change.
 In adults unspecialized stem cells:
 Bone marrow cells divide to produce RBCs, WBCs, and Platelets.
 Under the skin replace dead skin cells.
 Used to cure diseases e.g. diabetes, replace pancreatic cells that secrete insulin.

Cell division

Mitosis Meiosis
Nuclear division gives rise to Reduction division gives rise to
genetically identical cells. genetically different cells.
Chromosome number stays same, diploid Number halved from diploid to haploid.

No variation Variation by new combinations of maternal

and paternal chromosomes.
Occur in growth, repair of damaged tissues In sex organs to produce gametes in
Replacement of cells. and asexual reproduction sexual reproduction.
Two identical cells produced, same alleles. Four gametes produced. Different alleles.
Rapid and simple Two divisions, slow, complex
Exact duplication of chromosomes before mitosis.
Copies separate maintaining chromosome number

Explain why meiosis is necessary

1. Produce, gametes for sexual reproduction to halve the number of chromosomes so when
fertilization occurs the number of chromosomes return to diploid, number 
2. Creates variation

9 Inheritance