ANJUMAN

Institute of Technology
and Management
Bhatkal, Karnataka, India

INTRODUCTION TO
ELECTRONICS
ENGINEERING
(BESCK104C/BESCK204C)

Mr. Shrishail Bhat

Assistant Professor
Department of Electronics and Communication Engineering
Hardware + Firmware
Specific Task

03
04
Definition, Embedded systems vs general computing systems, Classification of Embedded Systems,
Major application areas of Embedded Systems, Elements of an Embedded System, Core of the
Embedded System, Microprocessor vs Microcontroller, RISC vs CISC.

Instrumentation and control systems, Transducers, Sensors, Actuators, LED, 7-Segment LED Display.

05
Shibu K V Mike Tooley
Tata McGraw Hill Elsevier
Education Private Limited 4th Edition, 2015
2nd Edition, 2017

6
Introduction

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 7

What is an Embedded System?
• An embedded system is an electronic/electro-mechanical
system designed to perform a specific function and is a
combination of both hardware and firmware (software).
• Every embedded system is unique and the hardware as
well as the firmware is highly specialised to the application
domain.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 8

Embedded Systems vs. General
Computing Systems
• The computing revolution began with the general purpose
computing requirements. Later it was realised that the
general computing requirements are not sufficient for the
embedded computing requirements.
• The embedded computing requirements demand
‘something special’ in terms of response to stimuli,
meeting the computational deadlines, power efficiency,
limited memory capability, etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 9

General Purpose Computing System Embedded System
A system which is a combination of a generic hardware A system which is a combination of special purpose
and a General Purpose Operating System for executing a hardware and embedded OS for executing a specific set of
variety of applications applications
Contains a General Purpose Operating System (GPOS) May or may not contain an operating system for
functioning
Applications are alterable (programmable) by the user (It The firmware of the embedded system is pre-programmed
is possible for the end user to re-install the operating and it is non-alterable by the end-user (There may be
system, and also add or remove user applications) exceptions for system supporting OS kernel image flashing
through special hardware settings)
Performance is the key deciding factor in the selection of Application-specific requirements (like performance,
the system. Always, ‘Faster is Better’ power requirements, memory usage, etc.) are the key
deciding factors
Less/not at all tailored towards reduced operating power Highly tailored to take advantage of the power saving
requirements, options for different levels of power modes supported by the hardware and the operating
management system
Response requirements are not time-critical For certain category of embedded systems like mission
critical systems, the response time requirement is highly
critical
Need not be deterministic in execution behaviour Execution behaviour is deterministic for certain types of
embedded systems like ‘Hard Real Time’ systems

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 10

Classification of Embedded Systems
• Some of the criteria used in the classification of embedded
systems are:
1. Based on generation
2. Based on complexity and performance requirements
3. Based on deterministic behaviour
4. Based on triggering

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 11

Classification Based on Generation
• First Generation
• Second Generation
• Third Generation
• Fourth Generation
• Next Generation

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 12

Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• First Generation
• Early embedded systems were built around 8-bit microprocessors
like 8085 and Z80 and 4-bit microcontrollers.
• Simple in hardware circuits with firmware developed in assembly
code.
• E.g.: Digital telephone keypads, stepper motor control units, etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 13

Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Second Generation
• Embedded systems built around 16-bit microprocessors and 8-bit
or 16-bit microcontrollers.
• Instruction set were much more complex and powerful than the
first generation.
• Some of the second generation embedded systems contained
embedded operating systems for their operation.
• E.g.: Data acquisition systems, SCADA systems, etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 14

Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Third Generation
• Embedded systems built around 32-bit microprocessors and 16-bit
microcontrollers.
• Application and domain specific processors/controllers like Digital
Signal Processors (DSP) and Application Specific Integrated Circuits
(ASICs) came into picture.
• The instruction set of processors became more complex and powerful
and the concept of instruction pipelining also evolved.
• Dedicated embedded real time and general purpose operating systems
entered into the embedded market.
• Embedded systems spread its ground to areas like robotics, media,
industrial process control, networking, etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 15

Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Fourth Generation
• The advent of System on Chips (SoC), reconfigurable processors
and multicore processors are bringing high performance, tight
integration and miniaturisation into the embedded device
market.
• The SoC technique implements a total system on a chip by
implementing different functionalities with a processor core on
an integrated circuit.
• They make use of high performance real time embedded
operating systems for their functioning.
• E.g.: Smart phone devices, Mobile Internet Devices (MIDs), etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 16

Classification Based on Generation
(continued)
• Next Generation
• The processor and embedded market is highly dynamic and
demanding.
• The next generation embedded systems are expected to meet
growing demands in the market.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 17

Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance
• Small-Scale Embedded Systems
• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
• Large-Scale Embedded Systems/Complex Systems

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 18

Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance (continued)
• Small-Scale Embedded Systems
• Simple in application needs and the performance requirements
are not time critical.
• E.g.: An electronic toy
• Usually built around low performance and low cost 8-bit or 16-bit
microprocessors/microcontrollers.
• May or may not contain an operating system for its functioning.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 19

Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance (continued)
• Medium-Scale Embedded Systems
• Slightly complex in hardware and firmware (software)
requirements.
• Usually built around medium performance, low cost 16-bit or 32-
bit microprocessors/microcontrollers or digital signal processors.
• Usually contain an embedded operating system (either general
purpose or real time operating system) for functioning.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 20

Classification Based on Complexity and
Performance (continued)
• Large-Scale Embedded Systems/Complex Systems
• Highly complex in hardware and firmware (software) requirements.
• They are employed in mission critical applications demanding high
performance.
• Usually built around high performance 32-bit or 64-bit RISC
processors/controllers or Reconfigurable System on Chip (RSoC) or multi-
core processors and programmable logic devices.
• May contain multiple processors/controllers and co-units/hardware
accelerators for offloading the processing requirements from the main
processor of the system.
• Decoding/encoding of media, cryptographic function implementation, etc.
are examples of processing requirements which can be implemented using a
co-processor/hardware accelerator.
• Usually contain a high performance real time operating system (RTOS) for
task scheduling, prioritization and management.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 21
Classification Based on Deterministic
Behaviour
• Applicable for ‘Real Time’ systems.
• The application/task execution behaviour can be either
deterministic or non-deterministic.
• Based on the execution behaviour, real time embedded systems are
classified into Hard Real Time and Soft Real Time systems.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 22

Classification Based on Triggering
• Embedded systems which are ‘Reactive’ in nature (like process
control systems in industrial control applications) can be classified
based on the trigger.
• Reactive systems can be either event-triggered or time-triggered.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 23

Major Application Areas of Embedded
Systems
1. Consumer electronics: Camcorders, cameras, etc.
2. Household appliances: Television, DVD players, washing machine,
refrigerators, microwave oven, etc.
3. Home automation and security systems: Air conditioners,
sprinklers, intruder detection alarms, closed circuit television
(CCTV) cameras, fire alarms, etc.
4. Automotive industry: Anti-lock braking systems (ABS), engine
control, ignition systems, automatic navigation systems, etc.
5. Telecom: Cellular telephones, telephone switches, handset
multimedia applications, etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 24

Major Application Areas of Embedded
Systems (continued)
6. Computer peripherals: Printers, scanners, fax machines, etc.
7. Computer networking systems: Network routers, switches, hubs,
firewalls, etc.
8. Healthcare: Different kinds of scanners, EEG, ECG machines, etc.
9. Measurements & Instrumentation: Digital multimeters, digital
CROs, logic analyzers, PLC systems, etc.
10. Banking & Retail: Automated teller machines (ATM) and currency
counters, point of sales (POS), etc.
11. Card readers: Barcode, smart card readers, hand held devices, etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 25

Major Application Areas of Embedded
Systems (continued)
12. Wearable Devices: Health and fitness trackers, Smartphone
screen extension for notifications, etc.
13. Cloud Computing and Internet of Things (IoT)

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 26

The Typical Embedded
System
ELEMENTS OF AN EMBEDDED SYSTEM

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 27

The Typical Embedded System

Fig: Elements of an Embedded System

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 28

The Typical Embedded System
(continued)
• It contains a single chip controller, which acts as the master brain of
the system.
• The controller can be
✓ A microprocessor or
✓ A microcontroller or
✓ A Field Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) device or
✓ A Digital Signal Processor (DSP) or
✓ An Application Specific Integrated Circuit (ASIC)/Application Specific
Standard Product (ASSP)

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 29

The Typical Embedded System
(continued)
• An embedded system can be viewed as a reactive system.
• The control is achieved by processing the information coming from
the sensors and user interfaces, and controlling some actuators
that regulate the physical variable.
• Key boards, push button switches, etc. are examples for common
user interface input devices.
• LEDs, liquid crystal displays, piezoelectric buzzers, etc. are examples
for common user interface output devices for a typical embedded
system.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 30

The Typical Embedded System
(continued)
• The memory of the system is responsible for holding the control algorithm and other
important configuration details.
• For most of embedded systems, the memory for storing the algorithm or configuration data is
of fixed type, which is a kind of Read Only Memory (ROM).
• It is not available for the end user for modifications
• The memory is protected from unwanted user interaction by implementing some kind of
memory protection mechanism.
• The most common types of memories used in embedded systems for control algorithm
storage are OTP, PROM, UVEPROM, EEPROM and FLASH.
• Sometimes the system requires temporary memory for performing arithmetic operations or
control algorithm execution and this type of memory is known as "working memory".
• Random Access Memory (RAM) is used in most of the systems as the working memory.
• Various types of RAM like SRAM, DRAM and NVRAM are used for this purpose.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 31

The Typical Embedded System
(continued)
• Apart from these, communication interface is essential for
communicating with various subsystems of the embedded system
and with the external world.
• The communication interfaces may be used to achieve onboard
(I2C, SPI, UART, parallel bus interface, etc.) or external
communication (wireless interfaces like Infrared, Bluetooth, Wi-Fi,
etc.)

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 32

Core of the Embedded System
• Embedded systems are domain and application specific and are built around a
central core.
• The core of the embedded system falls into any one of the following
categories:
1. General Purpose and Domain Specific Processors
1.1 Microprocessors
1.2 Microcontrollers
1.3 Digital Signal Processors
2. Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs)
3. Programmable Logic Devices (PLDs)
4. Commercial off-the-shelf Components (COTS)
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 33
Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller
• A Microprocessor is a silicon chip representing a central processing
unit (CPU), which is capable of performing arithmetic as well as
logical operations according to a pre-defined set of instructions.
• A Microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU,
scratch pad RAM, special and general purpose register arrays, on
chip ROM/FLASH memory for program storage, timer and interrupt
control units and dedicated I/O ports.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 34

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller
(continued)
Microprocessor Microcontroller
A silicon chip representing a central processing unit (CPU), which is A microcontroller is a highly integrated chip that contains a CPU,
capable of performing arithmetic as well as logical operations scratchpad RAM, special and general purpose register arrays, on
according to a pre-defined set of instructions chip ROM/ FLASH memory for program storage, timer and
interrupt control units and dedicated I/O ports

It is a dependent unit. It requires the combination of other chips It is a self-contained unit and it doesn't require external interrupt
like timers, program and data memory chips, interrupt controllers, controller, timer, UART, etc. for its functioning
etc. for functioning

Most of the time, general purpose in design and operation Mostly application-oriented or domain-specific

Doesn't contain a built in I/O port. The I/O port functionality needs Most of the processors contain multiple built-in I/O ports which
to be implemented with the help of external programmable can be operated as a single 8 or 16 or 32 bit port or as individual
peripheral interface chips like 8255 port pins

Targeted for high end market where performance is important Targeted for embedded market where performance is not so
critical
Limited power saving options compared to microcontrollers Includes lot of power saving features

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 35

Microprocessor vs. Microcontroller
(continued)

Microprocessor-based system Microcontroller

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 36

RISC vs. CISC Processors/Controllers
• RISC stands for Reduced Instruction Set Computing.
• All RISC processors/controllers possess lesser number of instructions,
typically in the range of 30 to 40.
• E.g.: Atmel AVR microcontroller – its instruction set contains only 32
instructions.
• CISC stands for Complex Instruction Set Computing.
• The instruction set is complex and instructions are high in number.
• E.g.: 8051 microcontroller – its instruction set contains 255
instructions.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 37

RISC CISC

Lesser number of instructions Greater number of instructions

Instruction pipelining and increased execution speed Generally no instruction pipelining feature

Orthogonal instruction set (Allows each instruction to operate on Non-orthogonal instruction set (All instructions are not allowed to
any register and use any addressing mode) operate on any register and use any addressing mode. It is
instruction-specific)
Operations are performed on registers only, the only memory Operations are performed on registers or memory depending on the
operations are load and store instruction

A large number of registers are available Limited number of general purpose registers

Programmer needs to write more code to execute a task since the Instructions are like macros in C language. A programmer can
instructions are simpler ones achieve the desired functionality with a single instruction which in
turn provides the effect of using more simpler single instructions in
RISC
Single, fixed length instructions Variable length instructions

Less silicon usage and pin count More silicon usage since more additional decoder logic is required
to implement the complex instruction decoding

With Harvard Architecture Can be Harvard or Von-Neumann Architecture

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 38

Harvard vs. Von-Neumann
Processor/ControIIer Architecture
• Von-Neumann Architecture
• Microprocessors/controllers based on the Von-Neumann architecture
share a single common bus for fetching both instructions and data.
• Program instructions and data are stored in a common main memory.
• They first fetch an instruction and then fetch the data to support the
instruction from code memory.
• The two separate fetches slows down the controller's operation.
• Von-Neumann architecture is also referred as Princeton architecture,
since it was developed by the Princeton University.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 39

Harvard vs. Von-Neumann
Processor/ControIIer Architecture (continued)
• Harvard Architecture
• Microprocessors/controllers based on the Harvard architecture will
have separate data bus and instruction bus.
• This allows the data transfer and program fetching to occur simultaneously on
both buses.
• The data memory can be read and written while the program memory
is being accessed.
• These separated data memory and code memory buses allow one
instruction to execute while the next instruction is fetched ("pre-
fetching").
• The pre-fetch theoretically allows much faster execution than Von-Neumann
architecture.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 40
Harvard vs. Von-Neumann
Processor/ControIIer Architecture (continued)
Harvard Architecture Von-Neumann Architecture
Separate buses for instruction and data fetching Single shared bus for instruction and data fetching
Easier to pipeline, so high performance can be Low performance compared to Harvard
achieved architecture
Comparatively high cost Cheaper
No memory alignment problems Allows self modifying codes
Since data memory and program memory are Since data memory and program memory are
stored physically in different locations, no chances stored physically in the same chip, chances for
for accidental corruption of program memory accidental corruption of program memory

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 41

Sensors and Actuators

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 42

Sensors and Actuators
• An embedded system is in constant interaction with the real world
and the controlling/monitoring functions executed by the embedded
system is achieved in accordance with the changes happening to the
real world.
• The changes in system environment or variables are detected by the
sensors connected to the input port of the embedded system.
• If the embedded system is designed for any controlling purpose, the
system will produce some changes in the controlling variable to bring
the controlled variable to the desired value.
• It is achieved through an actuator connected to the output port of the
embedded system.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 43

Sensors and Actuators (continued)
• A sensor is a transducer device that converts energy from one form
to another for any measurement or control purpose.
• E.g.: Temperature sensor, magnetic hall effect sensor, humidity sensor,
etc.
• An actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical)
which converts signals to corresponding physical action (motion).
• Actuator acts as an output device.
• E.g.: Stepper motor

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 44

Sensors and Interfacing

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 45

Instrumentation and Control
Systems
• Fig. shows the arrangement of an instrumentation system.

Fig: An Instrumentation System

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 46

Instrumentation and Control
Systems (continued)
• The physical quantity to be measured (e.g. temperature) acts upon a
sensor that produces an electrical output signal.
• This signal is an electrical analogue of the physical input but there may
not be a linear relationship between the physical quantity and its
electrical equivalent.
• Because of this and since the output produced by the sensor may be
small or may suffer from the presence of noise (i.e. unwanted signals),
further signal conditioning will be required before the signal will be at an
acceptable level and in an acceptable form for signal processing, display
and recording.
• Furthermore, because the signal processing may use digital rather than
analogue signals an additional stage of analogue-to-digital conversion
may be required.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 47

Instrumentation and Control
Systems (continued)
• Fig. shows the arrangement of a control system.

Fig: A Control System

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 48

Instrumentation and Control
Systems (continued)
• The control system uses negative feedback in order to regulate and
stabilize the output.
• It thus becomes possible to set the input or demand (i.e. what we
desire the output to be) and leave the system to regulate itself by
comparing it with a signal derived from the output (via a sensor and
appropriate signal conditioning).
• A comparator is used to sense the difference in these two signals and
where any discrepancy is detected the input to the power amplifier is
adjusted accordingly.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 49

Instrumentation and Control
Systems (continued)
• This signal is referred to as an error signal (it should be zero when
the output exactly matches the demand).
• The input (demand) is often derived from a simple potentiometer
connected across a stable d.c. voltage source while the controlled
device can take many forms (e.g. a d.c. motor, linear actuator,
heater, etc.).

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 50

Transducers
• Transducers are devices that convert energy in the form of
sound, light, heat, etc., into an equivalent electrical signal,
or vice versa.
• For example, a loudspeaker is a transducer that converts low-
frequency electric current into audible sounds.
• A microphone, on the other hand, is a transducer that performs
the reverse function, i.e. that of converting sound pressure
variations into voltage or current.
• Loudspeakers and microphones can thus be considered as
complementary transducers.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 51
Transducers (continued)
• Transducers may be used both as inputs to electronic
circuits and outputs from them.
• For example, a loudspeaker is an output transducer designed
for use in conjunction with an audio system.
• A microphone is an input transducer designed for use with a
recording or sound reinforcing system.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 52

Transducers (continued)
• Some examples of input transducers
Physical Quantity Input Transducer Notes
Sound (pressure Dynamic microphone Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a magnetic field.
change) Movement of the diaphragm causes current to be induced in the coil.

Temperature Thermocouple Small e.m.f. generated at the junction between two dissimilar metals
(e.g. copper and constantan). Requires reference junction and
compensated cables for accurate measurement.
Angular position Rotary potentiometer Fine wire resistive element is wound around a circular former. Slider
attached to the control shaft makes contact with the resistive
element. A stable d.c. voltage source is connected across the ends of
the potentiometer. Voltage appearing at the slider will then be
proportional to angular position.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 53

Transducers (continued)

A selection of thermocouple probes A selection of audible transducers

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 54

Transducers (continued)
• Some examples of output transducers
Physical Quantity Output Transducer Notes
Sound (pressure Loudspeaker Diaphragm attached to a coil is suspended in a magnetic field.
change) Current in the coil causes movement of the diaphragm which
alternately compresses and rarefies the air mass in front of it.

Temperature Heating element (resistor) Metallic conductor is wound onto a ceramic or mica former. Current
flowing in the conductor produces heat.

Angular position Rotary potentiometer Multi-phase motor provides precise rotation in discrete steps of 15°
(24 steps per revolution), 7.5° (48 steps per revolution) and 1.8° (200
steps per revolution).

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 55

Sensors
• A sensor is a special kind of transducer that is used to generate
an input signal to a measurement, instrumentation or control
system.
• The signal produced by a sensor is an electrical analogy of a
physical quantity, such as distance, velocity, acceleration,
temperature, pressure, light level, etc.
• The signals returned from a sensor, together with control inputs
from the user or controller (as appropriate) will subsequently be
used to determine the output from the system.
• The choice of sensor is governed by a number of factors including
accuracy, resolution, cost and physical size.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 56
Sensors (continued)
• Sensors can be categorized as either active or passive.
• An active sensor generates a current or voltage output.
• A passive transducer requires a source of current or voltage
and it modifies this in some way (e.g. by virtue of a change in
the sensor’s resistance).
• The result may still be a voltage or current but it is not generated by
the sensor on its own.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 57

Sensors (continued)
• Sensors can also be classed as either digital or analogue.
• The output of a digital sensor can exist in only two discrete
states, either ‘on’ or ‘off’, ‘low’ or ‘high’, ‘logic 1’ or ‘logic 0’,
etc.
• The output of an analogue sensor can take any one of an
infinite number of voltage or current levels. It is thus said to
be continuously variable.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 58

Sensors (continued)
• Some examples of input transducers (sensors)
Physical Quantity Input Transducer (Sensor) Notes
Angular position Resistive rotary position Rotary track potentiometer with linear law produces analogue
sensor voltage proportional to angular position.

Optical shaft encoder Encoded disk interposed between optical transmitter and receiver
(infrared LED and photodiode or photo-transistor).

Angular velocity Tachogenerator Small d.c. generator with linear output characteristic. Analogue
output voltage proportional to shaft speed.

Toothed rotor tachometer Magnetic pick-up responds to the movement of a toothed ferrous
disk. The pulse repetition frequency of the output is proportional to
the angular velocity.
Flow Rotating vane flow sensor Turbine rotor driven by fluid. Turbine interrupts infra-red beam. Pulse
repetition frequency of output is proportional to flow rate.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 59

Sensors (continued)

Resistive linear position sensor Liquid flow sensor (digital output)

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 60

Sensors (continued)
Physical Quantity Input Transducer (Sensor) Notes
Linear position Resistive linear position Linear track potentiometer with linear law produces analogue
sensor voltage proportional to linear position. Limited linear range.

Linear variable differential Miniature transformer with split secondary windings and moving
transformer (LVDT) core attached to a plunger. Requires a.c. excitation and phase-
sensitive detector.
Magnetic linear position Magnetic pick-up responds to movement of a toothed ferrous track.
sensor Pulses are counted as the sensor moves along the track.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 61

Sensors (continued)
Physical Quantity Input Transducer (Sensor) Notes
Light level Photocell Voltage-generating device. The analogue output voltage produced is
proportional to light level.

Light-dependent resistor An analogue output voltage results from a change of resistance

(LDR) within a cadmium sulphide (CdS) sensing element. Usually connected
as part of a potential divider or bridge.
Photodiode Two-terminal device connected as a current source. An analogue
output voltage is developed across a series resistor of appropriate
value.
Phototransistor Three-terminal device connected as a current source. An analogue
output voltage is developed across a series resistor of appropriate
value.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 62

Sensors (continued)

Various optical and light sensors

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 63

Sensors (continued)
Physical Quantity Input Transducer (Sensor) Notes
Liquid level Float switch Simple switch element which operates when a particular level is
detected.

Capacitive proximity Switching device which operates when a particular level is detected.
switch Ineffective with some liquids.

Diffuse scan proximity Switching device which operates when a particular level is detected.
switch Ineffective with some liquids.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 64

Sensors (continued)

Liquid level float switch

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 65

Sensors (continued)
Physical Quantity Input Transducer (Sensor) Notes
Pressure Microswitch pressure Microswitch fitted with actuator mechanism and range-setting
sensor springs. Suitable for high-pressure applications.

Differential pressure Microswitch with actuator driven by a diaphragm. May be used to

vacuum switch sense differential pressure. Alternatively, one chamber may be
evacuated and the sensed pressure applied to a second input.
Piezo-resistive pressure Pressure exerted on diaphragm causes changes of resistance in
sensor attached piezo-resistive transducers. Transducers are usually
arranged in the form of a four active element bridge which produces
an analogue output voltage.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 66

Sensors (continued)

Various switch sensors

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 67

Sensors (continued)
Physical Quantity Input Transducer (Sensor) Notes
Proximity Reed switch Reed switch and permanent magnet actuator. Only effective over
short distances.

Inductive proximity switch Target object modifies magnetic field generated by the sensor. Only
suitable for metals (non-ferrous metals with reduced sensitivity).

Capacitive proximity Target object modifies electric field generated by the sensor. Suitable
switch for metals, plastics, wood and some liquids and powders.

Optical proximity switch Available in diffuse and through scan types. Diffuse scan types
require reflective targets. Both types employ optical transmitters and
receivers (usually infra-red emitting LEDs and photo-diodes or photo-
transistors). Digital input port required.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 68

Sensors (continued)
Physical Quantity Input Transducer (Sensor) Notes
Strain Resistive strain gauge Foil type resistive element with polyester backing for attachment to
body under stress. Normally connected in full bridge configuration
with temperature-compensating gauges to provide an analogue
output voltage.
Semiconductor strain Piezo-resistive elements provide greater outputs than comparable
gauge resistive foil types. More prone to temperature changes and also
inherently non-linear.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 69

Sensors (continued)
Physical Quantity Input Transducer (Sensor) Notes
Temperature Thermocouple Small e.m.f. generated by a junction between two dissimilar metals.
For accurate measurement, requires compensated connecting cables
and specialized interface.
Thermistor Usually connected as part of a potential divider or bridge. An
analogue output voltage results from resistance changes within the
sensing element.
Semiconductor Two-terminal device connected as a current source. An analogue
temperature sensor output voltage is developed across a series resistor of appropriate
value.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 70

Sensors (continued)

Various temperature and gas sensors

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 71

Sensors (continued)
Physical Quantity Input Transducer (Sensor) Notes
Weight Load cell Usually comprises four strain gauges attached to a metal frame. This
assembly is then loaded and the analogue output voltage produced
is proportional to the weight of the load.
Vibration Electromagnetic vibration Permanent magnet seismic mass suspended by springs within a
sensor cylindrical coil. The frequency and amplitude of the analogue output
voltage are respectively proportional to the frequency and amplitude
of vibration.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 72

Actuators
• An actuator is a form of transducer device (mechanical or electrical)
which converts signals to corresponding physical action (motion).

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 73

The I/O Subsystem
• The I/O subsystem of the embedded system facilitates the interaction
of the embedded system with the external world.
• The interaction happens through the sensors and actuators
connected to the input and output ports respectively of the
embedded system.
• The sensors may not be directly interfaced to the input ports, instead
they may be interfaced through signal conditioning and translating
systems like ADC, optocouplers, etc.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 74

Light Emitting Diode (LED)
• Light Emitting Diode (LED) is an important output device for visual
indication in any embedded system.
• LED can be used as an indicator for the status of various signals or
situations.
• E.g.: 'Device ON', 'Battery low' or 'Charging of battery’ conditions
• Light Emitting Diode is a p-n junction diode and it contains an
anode and a cathode.
Fig: LED interfacing
• For proper functioning of the LED, the anode is connected to +ve
terminal of the supply voltage and cathode to the -ve terminal of
supply voltage.
• The current flowing through the LED must be limited to a value
below the maximum current that it can conduct.
• A resister is used in series to limit the current through the LED.
• The ideal LED interfacing circuit is shown in the figure.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 75
Light Emitting Diode (LED) (continued)
• LEDs can be interfaced to the port pin of a processor/controller in
two ways:
• In the first method, the anode is directly connected to the port pin and
the port pin drives the LED.
• The port pin 'sources' current to the LED when the port pin is at logic High (Logic
‘1’).
• In the second method, the cathode of the LED is connected to the port
pin of the processor/controller and the anode to the supply voltage
through a current limiting resistor.
• The LED is turned on when the port pin is at logic Low (Logic '0’).
• Here the port pin 'sinks' current.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 76

7-Segment LED Display
• The 7-segment LED display is an output device
for displaying alpha numeric characters.
• It contains 7 LED segments arranged in a special
form used for displaying alpha numeric
characters and 1 LED used for representing
'decimal point' in decimal number display.
• The LED segments are named A to G and the
Fig: 7-Segment LED Display
decimal point LED segment is named as DP.
• The LED segments A to G and DP should be lit
accordingly to display numbers and characters.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 77
7-Segment LED Display (continued)
• The 7-segment LED displays are available in two different configurations,
namely; Common Anode and Common Cathode.
• In the common anode configuration, the anodes of the 8 segments are
connected commonly whereas in the common cathode configuration,
the cathodes of 8 LED segments are connected commonly.
• Figure illustrates the Common Anode and Cathode configurations.

Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 78

7-Segment LED Display (continued)
• Based on the configuration of the 7-segment LED unit, the LED segment's
anode or cathode is connected to the port of the processor/controller in
the order 'A' segment to the least significant port pin and DP segment to
the most significant port pin.
• The current flow through each of the LED segments should be limited to
the maximum value supported by the LED display unit.
• The typical value is 20mA.
• The current can be limited by connecting a current limiting resistor to the
anode or cathode of each segment.
• 7-segment LED display is used in low cost embedded applications like
Public telephone call monitoring devices, point of sale terminals, etc.
Shrishail Bhat, Dept. of ECE, AITM Bhatkal 79