Organization of

the neural tissue

Lecture 1A
Learning outcomes
• Describe the general organization of the
nervous system.
• Describe the Anatomical and Functional
Divisions of the Nervous System
Introduction
• Nervous system is the main control center
• Together with endocrine system
• Aim
• To maintain homeostasis
• Provides quick and brief responses
Functions of nervous system
• Monitors the body’s internal and external
environments
• Integrates sensory information
• Coordinates voluntary and involuntary
responses of many other organ systems
1
2
Anatomical Divisions of the
Nervous System
• Central nervous system (CNS)
• Consists of the brain & the spinal cord
• Integrates, processes, and coordinates
sensory input and motor commands
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
• Includes all the neural tissue outside the CNS
• Carries the information between the CNS and
rest of the body
Functional Divisions of the
Peripheral Nervous System
• Afferent division
• Carries sensory information from sensory
receptors to CNS
• Receptors are sensory structures that either
detect changes in the environment ( internal or
external) of respond to a specific stimuli.

• Efferent division
• Carries motor commands from CNS to effectors
e.g. muscles, glands
• These target organs and tissues respond by
doing something hence called effectors.
Functional Divisions of the
Peripheral Nervous System
• Efferent division Is divided into
• Somatic Nervous System (SNS)
• Controls skeletal muscle contractions
• Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
Autonomic nervous system
(details in lecture later)
• Provides involuntary regulation of smooth
muscles, cardiac muscles and glandular
secretions
• Is further classified into
• Sympathetic division
• Parasympathetic division
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Aims and functions of • Details of each division.
nervous system • Diagram 1 & 2
• Anatomical division of
nervous system
• Functional division of
nervous system.
Neurons
Lecture 1B
Learning outcomes
• Describe the structure of multipolar neurons.
• Describe the structural classification of
neurons.
• Describe the functional classification of neurons
Nervous system cells
• Neural tissue contains 2 kinds of cells
1) Neurons
• Basic functional units of NS
• Send and receive signals
2) Neuroglia (glial cells)
• Support and protect neurons
3
Structure of a multipolar
neuron
Cell body (soma)
• Large round nucleus
• Prominent nucleolus
• No centrioles
• Cannot divide
• Cannot regenerate
• Cannot be replaced if lost to injury or disease
• Numerous mitochondria
• Produce energy
Structure of a multipolar
neuron
Cell body ( continued)
• Clusters of rough endoplasmic reticulum (RER)
and ribosomes
• Produce neurotransmitters
• Form Nissl bodies
• Make neural tissue appear gray (Gray
matter)
• Axon hillock
• Thickened region near axon
• Starting point for generation of action
potential
Structure of a multipolar
neuron
• Dendrites
• Many, short, branched
• Sensitive to stimulation
• Axon
• Single & long
• Transmits electrical signal
• Has branches (collaterals) which end in axon
terminals
• Communicate with other cells via synapses
Structural Classification of
Neurons
Based on relationship of the dendrites to the cell
body and axon
• Multipolar neurons
• Unipolar neurons
• Bipolar neurons
4
Multipolar Neurons
• Most common neurons in CNS
• E.g. all motor neurons to skeletal muscles
• Multiple dendrites
• 1 long axon
Unipolar Neurons
• Found in sensory neurons of PNS
• Dendrites and axons are continuous
• Cell body is pushed to 1 side
Bipolar Neurons
• Small and rare
• Found in special sensory organs (sight, smell,
hearing)
• 1 dendrite, 1 axon
Functional Classification of
Neurons
• Sensory neurons
• Motor neurons
• Interneurons
Sensory Neurons
• Also known as afferent neurons
• Carry information from sensory receptors to
CNS
• 2 types
• Somatic sensory neurons
• Monitor external environment
• Visceral sensory neurons
• Monitor internal environment
Motor Neurons
• Also known as efferent neurons
• Carry instructions from CNS to effectors
• 2 types
• Somatic motor neurons
• Innervate skeletal muscles
• Visceral motor neurons
• Innervate cardiac muscle, smooth muscles
& glands
Interneurons
• Located in the brain, and spinal cord
• Connect sensory and motor neurons
• Responsible for
• distribution of sensory information
• coordination of motor activity
• Also involved in higher functions
• memory, planning, learning
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Structure of multipolar • Detailed organelles with
neuron in brief functions
• Structural and functional • How structural and
classification of neurons functional classification
• Diagram 3 &4 relates to each other.
Neuroglia
Lecture 2
Learning outcomes
• Describe the types of neuroglia of the nervous
system.
Neuroglia
• Supporting cells of NS
Types in CNS Types in PNS

Astrocytes Satellite cells

Oligodendrocytes Schwann cells

Microglia

Ependymal cells
5
Astrocytes
• Largest and most
numerous neuroglia
• Functions
• Form structural
framework for CNS
• Secrete chemicals
that maintain blood-
brain barrier
• Repair damaged
neurons
Oligodendrocytes
• Have cytoplasmic
extensions
• Wrap around axons to
form myelin sheaths
Myelination
• increase speed of nerve transmission
• Makes nerves appear white
• White matter of CNS contains myelinated
nerves
• Nodes of Ranvier
• Gaps between adjacent myelin sheaths
Microglia
• Smallest and rarest
• Phagocytic cells
derived from WBCs
• Clean up cellular
debris, waste products,
pathogens
Ependymal Cells
• Line central canal of
spinal cord, and the
ventricles (cavities) of
brain
• In some regions of the
brain, they secrete the
cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF) and other
locations they help
circulate CSF.
Satellite Cells
• Surround and support neuron cell bodies of
PNS
• Similar to astrocytes of CNS
Schwann Cells
• Form myelin sheath around peripheral axons
• Similar to oligodendrocytes of CNS
6
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Neuroglia in CNS • Myelination
• Neuroglia in PNS • Diagram 6
• Functions of each
neuroglia
• Diagram no 5
Nerve conduction
Lecture 3
Learning outcomes
• Describe the events that generate action
potential in neurons.
• Explain how the action potential is conducted
along the nerve fibres.
Two major functional
properties of neurons
1. Irritability
• The ability to respond to a stimulus and
converts it into a nerve impulse
2. Conductivity
• The ability to transmit the impulse to other
neurons, muscles, or glands
Resting membrane potential
• Positive and negative charges separated by the
plasma membrane.
• Also known as transmembrane potential
Resting membrane potential
• Membrane potential of an undisturbed cell is
called as resting membrane potential.
• The RMP for a neuron is -70mV.
• Negative voltage indicates the inside of the
plasma membrane contains more negative
charge compared to outside.
7
The generation of a nerve
impulse or action potential
1. Resting membrane potential is polarized
2. Stimulus initiates local depolarization
3. Depolarization and generation of an action
potential
4. Propagation of the action potential
5. Repolarization
6. Restore the initial concentration of ions
1.Resting membrane potential
• In the resting state,
• the external face of the neuron’s plasma membrane is
slightly positive
• The internal face is slightly negative
• The chief extracellular ion is Na+
• The chief intracellular ion is K+
2)Stimulus initiates local
depolarization
• A stimuli (e.g. light excites the receptors in the
eye) changes the permeability of a local “patch”
of the membrane
• Na+ ions diffuse rapidly into the cell because
Na+ ion is much higher concentration outside
the cell
• It changes the polarity of the membrane i.e. the
inside becomes more positive and the outside
become more negative ( a graded potential)
8
Depolarization
• When the gated sodium channels are opened,
they speed up the entry of Na+ into the cell.
This causes increase in the positive charge on
the inner surface of the membrane shifting the
membrane potential to 0mV.
Depolarization and generation
of an action potential
• If the stimulus is strong enough,
• depolarization causes membrane polarity to
be completely reversed, and
• an action potential or a nerve impulse is
initiated
• The nerve impulse is an all-or-none response
• Either propagated (conducted or sent) over
the entire axon or it does not happen at all
Information transfer between
neurons & other cells
• Graded potentials
• are changes in the membrane potential that
cannot spread far from the site of stimulation.
• occur in plasma membrane of all the cells in
response to environmental stimuli.
• They trigger cell specific function.
• Action potentials
• is a propagated change in the membrane
potential of entire plasma membrane.
• Only axon of neuron & skeletal muscle fibres
have excitable membranes that conduct action
potential.
Action potential
• Action potential in an axon, begins near axon
hillock and travels through the length of axon,
to reach axon terminal.
• At axon terminal it activates the synapse.
• Action potential in neuron is known as nerve
impulse.
• Action potentials are generated by opening and
closing of gated sodium and potassium
channels in response to graded potential.
• Action potential will not appear unless the
membrane reaches a level called as “threshold”
All or none principle
• For any stimulus, which brings the membrane
to threshold, will generate action potential.
• So the stimulus either generates action
potential or does not produce any response.
4. Propagation of the action
potential
• Depolarization of the first membrane patch
causes permeability changes in the adjacent
membrane
• The events described in step 2 are repeated
• The action potential propagates rapidly along
the entire length of the membrane
9
5.Repolarization
• Almost immediately after the Na+ ions rush into
the cell,
• the membrane permeability changes again
• K+ ions diffuse out of the cell into the
interstitial fluid
• Restore the negative charge on the inside of
the membrane and positive charge on the
outside surface
6.Restores the initial
concentrations of ions
• The ionic conditions of the resting state are
restored by the sodium-potassium pump.
• 3 Na+ ions are pumped out for every 2 K+ ions
pumped back into the cell
Propagation of an action
potential
• Continuous propagation
• Occurs in unmyelinated axons
• Relatively slow
• Saltatory propagation
• Occurs in myelinated axons
• Much faster
10
11
12
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Generation & conduction • Details of 6 steps of nerve
of nerve impulse ( steps conduction
in brief) • Graph of nerve
• All or none principle conduction.
• Continuous & saltatory • Diagram 7, 10, 11 and 12.
propagation
• Diagram 8 and 9
Synapse
Lecture 4
Learning outcomes
• Describe the mechanism of nerve impulse
transmission at the synapse.
Transmission of an action
potential
• In the nervous system,
• Information moves from one location to
another in the form of action potentials (nerve
impulses) along axons
• At the end of an axon,
• The information is transferred to another
neuron or to an effector cell
• This information transfer takes place
through the releases of chemicals called
neurotransmitters
The Synapse
• Site where neuron communicates with another
cell
• Synapse between a neuron and another cell
type is a neuroeffector junction
• Neuromuscular junction between neuron and
muscle cell
• Neuroglandular junction between neuron and
secretory cells
13
14
Structure of a Synapse
• Presynaptic neuron
• Neuron on sending side of synapse
• Axon terminal holds vesicles containing
neurotransmitters
• Neurotransmitters are released and diffuse
across synaptic cleft
• Postsynaptic neuron
• Neuron on receiving side of synapse
• Has receptors for neurotransmitters
The events occurring at the
synapse
1.An action potential arrives and depolarizes the
axon terminal
2.Extracellular Ca++ enters the axon terminals
and triggers the exocytosis of acetylcholine
(ACh)
3.ACh diffuses across synaptic cleft
4.ACh binds to receptors and triggers
depolarization of the postsynaptic membrane
5.ACh is removed by AChE
(acetylcholinesterase)
15
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Structure of synapse • .diagram 13,14 and 15
• Steps of synaptic • Details of synaptic
transmission. transmission
Cerebrum
Lecture 5-part 1
Learning outcomes
• Identify and name the regions of the brain and
describe their functions.
Major Regions of the Brain
1.Cerebrum
2.Diencephalon
3.Midbrain
4.Pons Brainstem

5.Medulla oblongata
6.Cerebellum
The Cerebrum
• The largest component of brain
• It controls higher mental functions
• Conscious thought & intellectual functions
• Divided into 2 hemispheres
• By longitudinal fissure
• Connected by corpus callosum
16
17
Sagittal section of the
brain
Cross-Section of the
cerebrum
• Gray matter
• Thin outer layer
• Known as cerebral cortex
• Contains neuron cell bodies
• White matter
• Inner layer
• Contains nerve fibers
• Cerebral nuclei (Basal nuclei)
• Areas of gray matter in central white matter
18
Basal nuclei

Gray matter

White matter
Structure of the Cerebral
Hemisphere
• 4 lobes in each cerebral hemisphere
• Frontal lobe
• Parietal lobe
• Temporal lobe
• Occipital lobe
19
Structure of the Cerebral
Hemisphere
• Contains numerous folds and depressions
• Gyri
• Elevated ridges that increase surface area of
cortex
• Sulci
• Shallow depressions
• Fissures • Gyrus (singular), Gyri (plural)
• Deep grooves • Sulcus (singular), Sulci (plural)
20
Sulci, Gyri and Lobes of the
Cerebrum
• Central sulcus
• Separates frontal lobe and parietal lobe
• Precentral and postcentral gyrus
• Lateral sulcus
• Separates frontal lobe and temporal lobe
• Parieto-occipital sulcus
• Separates parietal lobe and occipital lobe
21
22
Functional Areas of the
Cerebrum
• Each hemisphere
• Receives sensory info from opposite side of
body
• Sends motor commands to opposite side of
body
• Has specific areas with specific functions
Functional Areas of the
Cerebrum
1.Motor and sensory cortices
2.Association areas
3.Higher order centres
4.Hemispheric lateralization
Primary Motor Cortex
• Located in precentral
gyrus of frontal lobe
• Directs voluntary
movements
Primary Sensory Cortex
• Located in postcentral
gyrus of parietal lobe
• Receives somatic
sensory information
• E.g. touch, pressure,
pain, temperature
Special Sensory Cortices
• Visual cortex (occipital lobe)
• Receives visual information
• Auditory cortex (temporal lobe)
• Receives information about hearing
• Olfactory cortex (temporal lobe)
• Receives information about smell
• Gustatory cortex (frontal lobe)
• Receives information about taste
Special Sensory Cortices
• Visual cortex (occipital lobe)
• Receives visual information
Special Sensory Cortices
• Auditory cortex (temporal lobe)
• Receives information about hearing
Special Sensory Cortices
• Olfactory cortex (temporal lobe)
• Receives information about smell
Special Sensory Cortices
• Gustatory cortex (frontal lobe)
• Receives information about taste
Association Areas
• Located adjacent to sensory, motor areas
• Consist of
• Somatic motor association area (premotor
cortex)
• Coordinates learned movements
• Somatic sensory association area
• Interprets sensory information
• Association areas for vision, hearing
23
Higher Order Centers
• Integrative centers that receive information
from many association areas
• Direct complex motor or analytical activities
• Consist of
• General interpretative area
• Speech center
• Prefrontal cortex
24
General Interpretive Area
(GIA)
• Also called Wernicke’s area
• Present in only 1 hemisphere (usually Left)
• Receives information from all sensory
association areas
• Coordinates access to complex visual and
auditory memories
• Damage results in inability to interpret what is
read or heard
Speech Center (Broca’s area)
• Connected to GIA in same hemisphere
• Coordinates all vocalization functions
• E.g. breathing pattern for speech
• Damage results in difficulty with speech
Prefrontal Cortex
• Coordinates information from sensory
association areas of entire cortex
• Performs abstract intellectual activities
• E.g. predicting consequences of actions,
feelings of frustration, anxiety
25
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Fissures, sulci and • Gray matter, white matter
corpus callosum. • Association areas
• Lobes of the cerebral • Prefrontal cortex
hemisphere
• Diagram- 23, 25
• Primary motor & sensory
cortex.
• Special sensory cortices
• GIA, speech centre
• Diagrams-16, 17, 19 20,
21, 22, 24
Basal Nuclei, Limbic System,
Diencephalon,
Lecture 5 – part 2
Basal Nuclei
(Cerebral Nuclei)
• Masses of gray matter
• Embedded in white
matter of cerebrum
• Functions
• Involved in
subconscious control
of skeletal muscle
tone and coordination
of learned movement
patterns
26

Basal Nuclei
Limbic System
• Functional group that includes
• Olfactory cortex
• Basal nuclei
• Tracts between cerebrum and diencephalon
• Functions
• Establishes emotional states
• Facilitates memory storage and retrieval
• It makes you want to do things (drive)
Diencephalon
• Integrates sensory information and motor
commands
• Components
• Epithalamus
• Thalamus
• Hypothalamus
27

Diencephalon
Epithalamus
• Forms roof of the diencephalon
• Anterior part
• Contains choroid plexus
• Posterior part
• Contains the pineal gland that secretes
melatonin
• Hormone that regulates day-night cycles
Thalamus
• Round mass of thalamic nuclei
• Functions
• Final relay point for all ascending sensory
information (except smell)
• Coordination of voluntary and autonomic
functions
28

Thalamus
Hypothalamus
• Located below thalamus, above the pituitary
gland
• Contains important control and integrative
centres
Functions of Hypothalamus
• Subconscious control of skeletal muscles
• During rage, pain, sexual arousal
• Adjusting of activities of autonomic centres in
pons, medulla
• E.g. HR, BP, breathing, digestion
• Coordination of activities of nervous system
and endocrine system
Functions of Hypothalamus
• Secretion of hormones
• Behavioral drives associated with
• Thirst centre, hunger centre
• Regulation of body temperature
• Coordination of day-night cycles of activity
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Parts of diencephalon • Diagram-
• Functions of • Basal nuclei- components
hypothalamus, thalamus • Limbic system
• Diagram 27 • Diagram 26, 28
Brainstem and
Cerebellum
Brain stem
Lecture 6
The Brain Stem
• Three major regions
• The midbrain
• Pons
• Medulla oblongata
The midbrain
• Superior colliculus
• Inferior colliculus
• Cerebral aqueduct
• Cerebral peduncles
• Reticular activating system (RAS)
• Midbrain nuclei (e.g. substantia nigra, red
nucleus)
• Nuclei for cranial nerves III, IV
The midbrain
• 2 pairs of colliculi on
posterior surface
• Contain sensory
nuclei associated
with
• Visual reflexes –
superior colliculus
• Auditory reflexes
– inferior
colliculus
The midbrain
• Cerebral
aqueduct
• Passageway
for CSF in
central cavity
The midbrain
• Cerebral peduncles
on ventrolateral
surfaces
• Contain bundles
of descending
motor fibers from
cerebrum to
other parts of
brain
The midbrain
• Reticular activating system (RAS)
• Required for attentiveness and wakefulness
• Midbrain nuclei (e.g. substantia nigra, red
nucleus)
• For involuntary movements
• Nuclei for cranial nerves III, IV
29
Pons
• Links the cerebellum with the brain stem and
the spinal cord
• Contains
• Respiratory centers
• Nuclei for Cranial nerves V to VIII
Medulla Oblongata
• Connects the brain to the spinal cord
• Functions
• Relays information between the spinal cord
and the brain
• Contains
• Autonomic centers
• Vasomotor center, respiratory centers
• Reflex centers
• Coughing, vomiting, sneezing, swallowing
• Nuclei for cranial nerves IX to XII
30

Cerebellum
Cerebellum
• 2nd largest part of the brain
• 2 hemispheres
• Connected by the vermis
• Cerebellar peduncles
• Contain tracts that link the cerebellum with
other parts of CNS
31

Cerebellum
Cerebellum
• 2 important functions
• Adjusting postural muscles to maintain
balance
• Programs, fine-tunes and smoothens
voluntary and involuntary movements
• DOES NOT initiate movement
• Damage causes ataxia
• Disturbance in balance, gait
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Midbrain structures & • Diagram 30, 31
functions
• Functions of pons &
medulla
• Cerebellum – structure &
functions
• Diagram 29
Meninges, ventricles &
CSF
Lecture 7
Learning Outcomes
• Describe the three meningeal layers that
surround the central nervous system.
• List the four ventricles of the brain.
• Describe the production, circulation,
reabsorption, and functions of the cerebrospinal
fluid.
32
The Meninges
• 3 layers of protective membranes
• Cover brain & spinal cord completely
• Arrangement
• Dura mater - outermost covering
• Arachnoid mater - middle layer
• Pia mater - innermost
Dura Mater
• Tough fibrous membrane covering the brain &
the spinal cord
• Structure is slightly different in cranial cavity
and vertebral canal
Dura Mater in cranial cavity
• Consists of 2 layers
• Outer layer fused to the periosteum of skull
• Inner layer extends into cranial cavity to form
dural folds
• Support and stabilize brain
• Contain dural sinuses (venous blood)
Dura Mater in vertebral column
• 1 layer
• Epidural space
• Between the vertebra & the dura
• Contains loose connective, blood vessels, fats
• Used for epidural block
33
Arachnoid mater
• Middle layer
• Thin, delicate network of fibers
• Like spider-webs
• Separated from the dura by the subdural space
• Contains lymph
• Separated from the pia by the subarachnoid
space
• Contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
34
Pia mater
• Innermost layer
• Thinnest membrane
• Closely applied onto brain surface
• Contains cerebral vessels
Clinical Note
• Meningitis
• Inflammation of the meninges
• Caused by the bacteria & viruses
Ventricles of Brain
• 4 internal cavities
• Contain the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
• Connected by openings, channels
Ventricles of Brain
• 2 lateral ventricles
• 1 in each cerebral hemisphere
• Connect through interventricular foramen
• 3rd ventricle of diencephalon
• Connects via cerebral aqueduct to
• 4th ventricle posterior to pons
• Continues as central canal in spinal cord
35
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Clear watery fluid that surrounds CNS (150 ml)
• Circulates through cavities of CNS and
subarachnoid space
• Production- At choroid plexuses (network of
ependymal cells & capillaries) of the ventricles
36
CSF-Circulation
• circulates from the lateral ventricles to the 3rd
ventricle via the interventricular foramen, and
from the 3rd ventricle to 4th ventricle via the
cerebral aqueduct
• exits the ventricles via the median & lateral
apertures to flow around the brain & spinal cord
in the subarachnoid space
• also goes down central canal of spinal cord
37
CSF- Reabsorption
• At arachnoid granulations
• Extensions of arachnoid mater from
subarachnoid space to dura sinuses
• Flows into dura sinuses and into venous
circulation
38
Cerebrospinal Fluid-Functions
• Supports brain
• Cushions the brain & delicate neural structures
• Maintains chemical stability & removes
metabolic waste from CNS through the blood
brain barrier
Clinical Notes
• Lumbar puncture or spinal tap
• puncture made at the subarachnoid space
between L3-L4
• sampling of CSF for clinical info about CNS
injuries, infections or diseases
• Hydrocephalus
• Rate of CSF reabsorption < rate of
production of CSF
• Obstruction of CSF flow
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Meninges- dura, • Clinical notes
arachnoid, pia • Diagram- 33, 36, 37, 38
• Subdural space,
subarachnoid space,
epidural space.
• Ventricles & connections
• CSF- production,
circulation, reabsorption
& functions
• Diagram-32, 34,35
Blood supply of the brain
Lecture 8
Learning outcomes
• Describe the blood supply & venous drainage
of the central nervous system.
Introduction
• Brain is highly active organ
• Supplied by 2 pairs of arteries
• Internal carotid arteries
• Vertebral arteries
39
Internal Carotid System
• Internal carotid arteries enter skull through
carotid canal
• Main branches
• Anterior cerebral artery
• Middle cerebral artery
Anterior Cerebral Artery
• Supplies
• Frontal poles of cerebrum
• Medial, superior surfaces of cerebral
hemisphere (except occipital lobe)
• Functional areas
• Gustatory cortex
• Motor, sensory cortices of Lower Limbs
Middle Cerebral Artery
• Supplies
• Lateral surface of cerebral hemisphere
• Cerebral nuclei
• Internal capsule
• Functional areas
• Motor, sensory cortices
• Auditory & olfactory cortices
• Language areas (Wernicke’s and Broca’s
areas) if dominant hemisphere
Vertebrobasilar System
• Vertebral arteries enter skull through foramen
magnum
• Supplies
• Spinal cord (cervical)
• Brain stem
• Cerebellum
• Occipital lobe
• Main branches
• Spinal arteries
• Basilar artery
• Cerebellar arteries
• Posterior cerebral artery
Posterior Cerebral Artery
• Branch of basilar artery
• Supplies
• Occipital lobe
• Diencephalon, midbrain
40
Circle of Willis
• Arterial ring on ventral surface of brain
• Connects internal carotid and vertebrobasilar
systems
• Significance
• Provides alternate route in the event of
occlusion of any of these arteries
Formation of Circle of Willis
• Internal carotid artery
• Anterior cerebral artery
• Anterior communicating artery
• Posterior communicating artery
• Posterior cerebral artery
41
Venous Drainage
• Veins of the brain
• Do not accompany arteries
• Do not have valves
• Drain into dural venous sinuses (in dura layers)
• E.g. superior sagittal sinus
• Drain into internal jugular vein in neck to the
superior vena cava
42
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Internal carotid artery • Venous drainage
• Vertebro basilar artery • Diagram- 39, 40, 42
• Area of the brain supplied
by each artery
• Circle of willis
• Diagram-41
Spinal cord
Lecture 9
Learning outcomes
• Describe the gross, cross-sectional anatomy
and functions of the spinal cord.
43
Gross anatomy of the Spinal
Cord
• 45 cm long cylindrical tube & tapers caudally
• Ends at level of 2nd lumbar vertebra (L2) in
adult
• Enlarged at 2 regions -> concerned with the
sensory and motor control of the limbs
• Cervical enlargement -> nerves to the
shoulder girdle & upper limbs
• Lumbar enlargement -> nerves to the pelvis
& lower limbs
Gross anatomy of the Spinal
Cord
• Conus medullaris
• Conical part below lumbar enlargement
• Cauda equina
• Nerve roots extending from conus medullaris
• Consists of 31 segments
• 8 cervical
• 12 thoracic
• 5 lumbar
• 5 sacral
• 1 coccygeal
• Each segment has similar structural features
Sectional Anatomy of Spinal
Cord
• Posterior median sulcus
• On dorsal surface
• Anterior median fissure
• Deeper groove on anterior surface
• Central canal
• Filled with CSF
Sectional Anatomy of Spinal
Cord
Each spinal segment has a pair of
• Dorsal roots
• Contain axons of sensory neurons
• Dorsal root ganglia
• Contain cell bodies of sensory neurons
• Ventral roots
• Contain axons of CNS motor neurons
• Dorsal and ventral roots join distally to form spinal
nerves
• Spinal nerves are mixed nerves
• Have both sensory and motor fibers
44
Sectional Anatomy of Spinal
Cord
• Gray matter
• Forms “H” around central canal
• Contains neuron cell bodies
• Has projections (gray horns)
• Posterior gray horn
• Contains sensory nuclei
• Anterior gray horn
• Contains somatic motor nuclei
• Lateral gray horn
• Found only in thoracic and lumbar segments
• Contains visceral (autonomic) motor nuclei
Sectional Anatomy of Spinal
Cord
• Gray Commissures
• Contain axons that cross from 1 side of the
spinal cord to the other
• Connect the horns on either side of the spinal
cord
• White matter
• More superficial
• Divided into 3 columns containing bundles of
sensory (ascending) & motor (descending) nerve
fibres tracts
• Posterior white columns
• Anterior white columns
• Lateral white columns
45
Functions
• Passageway for information travelling between
the brain and the body
• Controls spinal reflexes
Clinical Note- Spinal Cord
Injuries
• Causes
• Physical trauma to the spinal cord
• Spinal meningitis
• Herniated intervertebral discs
• Clinical symptoms
• Loss of sensation (anaesthesia) & voluntary
movement (flaccid paralysis) below the level of
injury
• Damage at C4 or C5 vertebra-> Loss of
sensation & motor control of the upper & lower
limbs (quadriplegia)
• Damage to the thoracic vertebrae -> Loss of
motor control of the lower limbs (paraplegia)
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Gross anatomy , • Clinical notes
segments of spinal cord • Diagram- 43
• Cross section of spinal
cord
• Diagram-44, 45
 Cranial Nerves-
Peripheral nervous
system
Lecture 10
Learning outcomes
• List the cranial nerves by number and by name.
• List the major functions of each cranial nerve.
Peripheral Nervous System
• Links the CNS to the rest of the body through
peripheral nerves
• Cranial nerves originate from the brain
• Spinal nerves connect to the spinal cord
Cranial Nerves
• Twelve pairs
• Designated with Roman numerals I through XII
• Classified as:
• Primarily sensory
• Primarily motor
• Mixed (both sensory and motor)
Cranial Nerves
• Four cranial nerves also contain additional
parasympathetic autonomic fibres
• CN III, CN VII, CN IX, CN X
• CN X is the most important, with extensive
parasympathetic fibres to many int. organs
• Damage to CN X can cause death
Often names remembered with a mnemonic
“Oh, Once One Takes The Anatomy Final, Very
Good Vacations Are Heavenly”
Cranial Nerves Table
Cranial nerves Function Innervation
Olfactory nerve (N I) Special Olfactory epithelium (smell)
sensory

Optic nerve (N II) Special Retina of the eye (vision)

sensory
46

Olfactory nerve ( CN I) Optic nerve ( CN II)

Cranial Nerves Table
Cranial nerves Function Innervation
Oculomotor nerve Motor Inferior, medial, superior rectus,
(N III) inferior oblique muscles of the eye
for the movement of the eye,
Intrinsic muscles of the eye to
control the amount of light entering
the eye and the shape of the lens

Trochlear nerve (N IV) Motor Superior oblique muscle of the eye

for the movement of the eye

Abducens nerve (N VI) Motor Lateral rectus muscle of the eye for
the movement of the eye
47

Cranial Nerves Controlling the Extra-Ocular Muscles

(CN III, IV & VI)
Cranial Nerves Table
Cranial nerves Function Innervation
Trigeminal nerve (N V) Mixed Sensory: orbital structures, nasal
cavity, skin of the forehead, eyelids,
eyebrows, nose, lips, gums and
teeth, cheek, palate, pharynx, and
tongue
Motor: chewing muscles
(temporalis, masseter, pterygoids)
Facial nerve (N VII Mixed Sensory: taste receptors on anterior
2/3 of tongue
Motor: muscles of facial expression,
lacrimal gland, and submandibular
and sublingual salivary glands
48

Trigeminal nerve Facial nerve

( CN V) ( CN VII )
Cranial Nerves Table

Cranial nerves Function Innervation

Vestibulocochlear Special Cochlear branch (receptors for
nerve (N VIII) Sensory hearing)
Vestibular branch (receptors for
motion and balance)
Glossopharyngeal Mixed Sensory: taste receptors on
nerve (N IX) posterior 1/3 of tongue; pharynx and
palate; receptors for blood pressure,
pH, oxygen, and carbon dioxide
Motor: pharyngeal muscles, parotid
salivary glands
49

Vestibulocochlear nerve Glossopharyngeal

( CN VIII) nerve ( CN IX)
Cranial Nerves Table
Cranial nerves Function Innervation
Vagus nerve (N X) Mixed Sensory: pharynx, auricle and
external acoustic meatus,
diaphragm, visceral organs in
thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities
Motor: palatal and pharyngeal
muscles and visceral organs in
thoracic and abdominopelvic
cavities
Accessory nerve (N Motor Sternocleidomastoid and trapezius
XI) muscles; voluntary muscles of
palate, pharynx and larynx (with
vagus nerve)
Hypoglossal nerve (N Motor Tongue muscles
XII)
50 Vagus nerve
(CN X)
51

Accessory nerve Hypoglossal nerve

( CN XI ) ( CN XII)
52
53
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Diagram-52, 53 • Diagram-46, 47, 48, 49,
• Names of all cranial 50, 51
nerves.
• Functions.
Spinal nerves
Lecture 11
Learning outcomes
• Describe spinal nerves organization and nerve
reflexes.
The Spinal Nerves
• Found in 31 pairs grouped according to the
region of the vertebral column
• 8 pairs of cervical nerves, C1–C8
• 12 pairs of thoracic nerves, T1–T12
• 5 pairs of lumbar nerves, L1–L5
• 5 pairs of sacral nerves, S1–S5
• 1 pair of coccygeal nerves, Co1
54
Nerve Plexuses
• Networks of major nerve trunks
• Cervical plexus
• Innervates the muscles of the neck and the
diaphragm
• Brachial plexus
• Innervates the pectoral girdles and upper
limbs
• Lumbar plexus and the sacral plexus
• Also called lumbosacral plexus
• Innervate the pelvic girdle and lower limbs
55
Peripheral Nerves
• Arise from the nerve plexuses
• Contain both sensory and motor nerve fibres
• E.g. sciatic nerve
• Peripheral neuropathies
• regional losses of sensory or motor function
as a result of nerve trauma or compression
56
Reflexes
• Rapid, automatic motor responses to specific
stimuli
• Always produce same response
• Preserve homeostasis through negative
feedback
• Reflex arc refers to the wiring of a single reflex
• Begins at a sensory receptor
• Ends at an effector
5 Steps in a Neural Reflex
• Step 1: Arrival of stimulus, activation of receptor
• Step 2: Activation of sensory neuron
• Step 3: Information processing in CNS
• Step 4: Activation of motor neuron
• Step 5: Response of peripheral effector
57
Spinal Reflexes
• Coordinated within spinal cord
• Involve synapses
• Monosynaptic reflexes
• Simple reflexes with 1 synapse
• Polysynaptic reflexes
• Complex reflexes with interneurons
Monosynaptic Reflexes
• Most rapid motor response of NS
• Sensory neuron synapses directly with motor
neuron
• E.g. Stretch reflex
58
Polysynaptic Reflexes
• More complicated
• Longer delay between stimulus and response
• Involve at least 1 interneuron between sensory
neuron and motor neuron
• > 1 muscle group involved
• E.g.Withdrawal reflexes
59
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Diagram 54, 57 • Diagram 55, 56, 58, 59
• Spinal segments • Monosynaptic reflex
• Steps of reflex arc • Polysynaptic reflex
Autonomic nervous
system
Lecture 12
Learning outcomes
• Describe the organization, functions of
sympathetic, and parasympathetic nervous
system and discuss their differences.
• Describe different neurotransmitters at the pre-
& post-ganglionic neurons.
The Autonomic Nervous
System
• Involved in autonomic regulation of body
functions
• Uses two motor neurons from CNS to effector
(cardiac and smooth muscle, glands, and fat
cells)
• Preganglionic neurons communicate with
ganglionic neurons whose axons are called
postganglionic fibers
60
Two Divisions of the ANS
• Sympathetic division
• Preganglionic fibers leave thoracic and lumbar
spinal segments
• Ganglia located near spinal cord
• Short preganglionic fibers
• Long postganglionic fibers
• Parasympathetic division
• Preganglionic fibers originate in brain stem and
sacral spinal region
• Ganglia located near or within target organs
• Long preganglionic fibers
• Short postganglionic fibers
Neurotransmitters at Specific
Synapses
• All preganglionic fibers
• Are cholinergic and they release acetylcholine
(ACh)
• Are excitatory
• Postganglionic parasympathetic fibers
• Are cholinergic
• Effects are excitatory or inhibitory, depending on
the target cell receptor
• Most postganglionic sympathetic fibers
• Are adrenergic and they release norepinephrine
(NE)
• Are usually excitatory
Sympathetic Division
Components
• Sympathetic chain
• Arises from spinal segments T1–L2
• Preganglionic fibers enter the sympathetic
chain ganglia just outside the spinal column
61
Sympathetic Division
Components cont.
• The adrenal medullae
• Center of the adrenal glands
• Innervated by preganglionic fibers
• Modified sympathetic ganglia (neurons)
• Secrete norepinephrine (NE) and epinephrine
(E) into capillaries, functioning like an
endocrine gland
• Effect is nearly identical to that of the
sympathetic postganglionic stimulation of
adrenergic synapses
Sympathetic Division
Functions
• Called the “fight-or-flight” division
• Effects
• Increase in alertness, metabolic rate,
sweating, heart rate, blood flow to skeletal
muscle
• Dilates the respiratory bronchioles and the
pupils
• Blood flow to the digestive organs is
decreased
• E and NE from the adrenal medullae support
and prolong the effect
The Parasympathetic Division
• Preganglionic neurons arise from the brain
stem and sacral spinal cord
• Fibers travel within cranial nerves III, VII, IX,
and X
• The vagus nerve (N X) provides about 75
percent of all parasympathetic outflow
• Ganglia very close to or within the target organ
• Preganglionic fibers of the sacral areas form
the pelvic nerves
62
The Parasympathetic Division
• Called the “rest-and-digest” division
• Less divergence than in the sympathetic
division, so effects are more localized
• Effects
• Constricts pupils, increases digestive
secretions, increases digestive tract smooth
muscle activity
• Stimulates urination and defecation
• Constricts bronchioles, decreases heart rate
63
Dual Innervation
• Refers to both divisions affecting the same
organs
• Mostly have antagonistic effects
• Some organs are innervated by only one
division
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Effect of sympathetic & • Diagram- 60, 61, 62
parasympathic systems • Details of sympathetic
• Neurotransmitters at pre- ganglia, adrenal
ganglionic, postganglionic medullae.
neuron.
• Diagrams- 63
Pathways- sensory & motor
Lecture 13
Learning Outcomes
• List principal sensory and motor pathways.
• Describe the pathways of general senses.
• Describe the somatic motor pathways.
Sensory Pathway
(Ascending pathways)
• Usually involves 3 sensory neurons
• 1st order neuron
• Cell body at the dorsal root ganglion of the
spinal cord
• Axon projects to 2nd order neuron
• 2nd order neuron
• Cell body at the brainstem or the spinal cord
• 3rd order neuron
• Cell body at the thalamus
• Projects to the sensory cortex
64
Sensory Pathway
(Ascending pathways)
• Posterior columns
• Carries fine touch, pressure, vibration,
proprioception to primary sensory cortex.
• Spinothalamic pathways
• Carries crude touch, pressure, pain, temperature
to primary sensory cortex.
• Spinocerebellar pathways
• Carries proprioceptive information about position
of skeletal muscles, tendons, joints
• Involves only 2 sensory neurons, 2nd neuron
goes to cerebellum instead of thalamus
65
Motor Pathways
(Descending pathways)
• Convey motor commands from CNS to
peripheral effectors
• Distributed by
• Somatic Nervous System
• To skeletal muscles
• Autonomic Nervous System
• To cardiac muscle, smooth muscles, glands
Somatic Nervous System
• Involves 2 neurons
• Upper Motor Neuron (UMN)
• Located entirely in the CNS
• Synapses with LMN
• Lower Motor Neuron (LMN)
• Cell body is in CNS; axon is in PNS
• Controls skeletal muscles
66
Motor Pathways
(Descending pathways)
• Pyramidal (Corticospinal) pathways
• Provide conscious, voluntary control of
skeletal muscles
• responsible for initiating voluntary
movements
• Upper Motor Neuron originates at the motor
cortex, axons descend down to the brainstem
& the spinal cord, synapse on lower motor
neuron nuclei at anterior gray horn
Crossing Over (decussate)
• Lower Motor Neuron
• exits from the spinal cord to reach skeletal
muscle
• NOTE
• All axons of corticospinal tract cross over to
opposite side of spinal cord
• As a result, left side is controlled by right
cerebral hemisphere, and vice versa
Motor Pathways
(Descending pathways)
• Extrapyramidal (Medial and Lateral) pathways
• Provide subconscious involuntary control of
posture, balance, muscle tone
• Coordinate learned movement patterns
• Consists of several tracts
• UMN originate in several parts of brain e.g.
basal nuclei, midbrain, cerebellum
67
68
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Three sensory pathways • Details of sensory
• Two motor pathways pathway
• Details of motor pathways
• Diagram 64, 65, 66, 67,
68
Special senses- Eye
Lecture 14
Learning Outcomes
• Identify the accessory structures of the eye.
• List the three layers of eyeball and explain the
functions of the structures of each layer.
Introduction
• Special sense
• Receptors located only in specialized organs
such as eyes, ears, nose
• 5 types
• Olfaction (smell)
• Gustation (taste)
• Vision
• Hearing
• Equilibrium (balance)
69
Accessory Structures of
Eye
• Eyelids
• Conjunctiva
• Lacrimal apparatus
• Extrinsic eye muscles
70
Eyeball
• Hollow spherical sphere
• 2 cm diameter
• 3 layers
• Fibrous layer
• Vascular layer
• Neural layer
Fibrous layer
• Outermost layer
• Consists of
• Sclera (white of eye)
• Layer of dense fibrous connective tissue
• Contains blood vessels, nerves
• Provides mechanical support, protection,
attachment of extrinsic eye muscles
Fibrous Layer
• Cornea
• Transparent
• Allows passage of light
• Continues from sclera
• Has no blood vessels
• Cells obtain oxygen, nutrients from tears
• Limited ability to repair itself
• Injury causes scarring; prevents light from
penetrating
Vascular layer
• Contains many blood vessels
• Components
• Iris
• Ciliary body
• Choroid
Iris
• Visible beneath transparent cornea
• Contains 2 layers of smooth muscles that
control pupil size
• Bright light → pupil constricts
(parasympathetic)
• Dim light → pupil dilates (sympathetic)
• Contains melanocytes that determine colour of
eyes
• ↑ numbers of melanocytes ↑ darker colour of
eyes
Ciliary Body Choroid
• Begins at junction of • Heavily pigmented
cornea and sclera, and vascularized
posterior to iris • Functions
• Contains • Delivers oxygen,
• Ciliary muscle nutrients to retina
• Alters shape of • Absorbs light
lens
• Ciliary processes
• Secrete
aqueous humor
Neural layer (Retina)
• Consists of
• Thin outer pigment layer-
absorbs light to prevent
reflection
• Thick inner neural layer
• Contains photoreceptors
that respond to light
• Bipolar cells, ganglion
cells
• Receives light and converts
it into nerve impulses
Photoreceptors
• 2 types
• Rods
• Highly sensitive to light
• Do not discriminate colors
• Cones
• Provide color vision
• Require more intense light for stimulation
Neural layer (Retina)
• Macula lutea
• The yellow spot in the retina where most of
the cones are concentrated
• Fovea centralis
• The centre of macula where the higher
concentration of cones is found
Optic Disc
• Circular region in
retina
• Site where axons
from ganglion cells
converge
• Origin of optic nerve
Interior of Eye
• Ciliary body, lens divide eye into
• Large posterior cavity (vitreous chamber)
• Contains gelatinous vitreous body
• Smaller anterior cavity
• Subdivided into
• Anterior chamber
• Posterior chamber contains aqueous
humor -> maintain intraocular pressure
and helps retain the eye shape
Lens
• Clear transparent
elastic biconvex
structure
• Functions
• Transmits and
refracts light
Visual Pathway
• Photoreceptors synapse with bipolar and
ganglion cells
• Converge on optic disc to form optic nerve
• Meet optic nerve of other eye at optic chiasm
• Split to go to the thalamus
• To visual cortex, superior colliculus of midbrain
71
Visual pathway
Clinical Note
• Cataract
• A condition where the lens loses its transparency
• Causes
• Senile cataracts (the most common)
• Drug reactions
• Injuries
• Radiation
• Clinical features
• Reduced visual acuity -> Functionally blind
• Lens becomes opaque or cloudy
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• Accessary structures of • Diagram 69, 70 & 71
eye • Visual pathway
• Extrinsic muscles of eye
• Three layers of eye ball
• Function of each layer
Special senses- Ear: hearing
& equilibrium
Lecture 15
Learning Outcomes
• Describe the structures of the external, middle,
and internal ears.
• Discuss the process involved in the equilibrium
and hearing.
Ear
• Divided into
• External ear
• Catches the waves
• Middle ear
• Good vibrations
• Internal ear
• Nerve signals start
here
External Ear
• Consists of
• Auricle (pinna)
• Collects, directs sound waves to ear canal
• External acoustic canal
• Contains ceruminous glands that secrete
waxy substance
• Tympanic membrane
• Thin, semitransparent sheet
• Converts sound waves into vibrations
72
Middle Ear (Tympanic Cavity)
• Air-filled chamber
• Communicates with throat via auditory tube
(Eustachian tube)
• Encloses and protects 3 auditory ossicles
• Malleus
• Incus
• Stapes
73
Internal Ear
• Contains receptors for equilibrium, hearing
• Consists of
• Vestibule
• Saccule Vestibular
complex for
• Utricle equilibrium

• Semicircular canals
• Cochlea – for hearing
74
Structures in Cochlea
• Cochlear duct
• Fluid-filled duct
• Organ of Corti
• In cochlear duct
• Contains hair cells
• Oval window
• Connects cochlea with
stapes
• Round window
• Connects cochlea with
middle ear
Hair Cells
• Specialized
receptors for
equilibrium and
hearing
• Located in
• Vestibule
• Semicircular
canals
• Cochlea
• Organ of Corti
Hearing Process
• Sound waves arrive at tympanic membrane
• Vibration of tympanic membrane causes
movement of auditory ossicles
• Movement of stapes at oval window causes
vibration of fluid in cochlea
• Vibration of fluid causes vibration of hair cells
and generation of action potential
• Information is relayed to auditory area by CN
VIII
Hearing Pathway
• CN VIII enters medulla
• Synapses at cochlea nuclei
• 2nd sensory neuron cross to opposite side
• Connects with inferior colliculus of midbrain
• Auditory reflexes
• Synapses at thalamus
• 3rd neuron deliver info to the auditory cortex
75
76
Pathway for Equilibrium
• Receptors activate vestibular branch of CN VIII
• CN VIII synapse at vestibular nuclei in
brainstem
• Information is then relayed to
• Cerebellum
• Cerebrum
• Motor neurons controlling control eye, head
and neck movements
Clinical Note-Hearing deficits
• Conductive deafness
• Due to blockage of normal transfer of vibration
from the tympanic membrane to the oval window
• Causes -> disorders in the external or middle ear
• Nerve deafness
• The vibrations are reaching the oval window ->
the receptors cannot respond or their responses
cannot reach its CNS destinations
• Causes -> disorders within the cochlea or along
the auditory pathway
Points to note

Must know Good to know

• External, middle & • Diagram 72, 73, 74, 75 &
internal ear 76
• Structures associated • Hearing pathway
with external, middle & • Equilibrium pathway
internal ear
• Functions of each of
these structures