ASSIGNMENT NO # 2

Program: B.ED (1.5 YEARS)

Course Name: Research Methods In Education

Course Code: 8604-2

Student Information

Student Name: Sidra Nawaz

Father Name: Allah Nawaz

Roll No: 0000059965

Semester: 1st

1
Question No.1:

Discuss different types of research tools. How questionnaires are useful and
what are the problems face using a questionnaire?

Types of Research Tools:-

Following four types of research tools most frequently used in behavioral research
have been discussed:

1. Interview
2. Observation
3. Tests and appraisal instruments
4. Questionnaire

1. Interviews:-

The interview is probably the man's oldest and most often used device for obtaining
information. It is a face-to-face interpersonal situation in which you, as an interviewer,
ask a person being interviewed, the respondent or interviewee, questions designed to
obtain answers pertinent to the purpose of the research problems.

In a face-to-face meeting, you, as an interviewer, can constantly encourage the

interviewees and help them probe more deeply into a problem. Through interviewee's
incidental comments, facial and bodily expressions, and tone of voice, you can acquire
information that would not be conveyed in written replies. The auditory and visual clues
also help you keep the tempo of the tone of the private conversation so as to elicit
personal and confidential information and to gain knowledge about motivations
feelings, attitudes and beliefs.

Types of Interviews:-

 Structured
 Semi-structured
 Unstructured

2
Structured Interviews:-

Simply put, it is a verbally administered questionnaire. In terms of depth, it is surface

level and is usually completed within a short period. For speed and efficiency it is
highly recommendable but it lacks depth.

Semi-structured Interviews:-

In this method, there subsist several key questions which cover the scope of the areas
to be explored. It allows a little more leeway for the researcher to explore the subject
matter.

Unstructured Interviews:-

It is an in-depth interview that allows the researcher to collect a wide range of

information with a purpose. An advantage of this method is the freedom it gives a
researcher to combine structure with flexibility even though it is more time-consuming.

2. Observation:-

This is a data collection method by which information on a phenomenon is gathered

through observation. The nature of the observation could be accomplished either as a
complete observer, an observer as a participant, a participant as an observer, or as a
complete participant. This method is a key base for formulating a hypothesis.

Methods of Recording Observations:-

 Check-list
 Rating scale
 Score card
 Scaled specimen

Check-list:-

The check-list is the simplest of the devices, consisting of a prepared list of items. The
presence or absence of the items may be indicated by checking Yes or No type and
number of items may be indicated by inserting the appropriate word or number. This
simple laundry list type of device systematizes and facilitates the recording of
observations, and helps to assure the consideration of important aspects of the object
or act observed.

3
Rating Scale:-

A rating scale is used for qualitative description of a limited number of aspects of a

thing or of traits of a person. In this device the aspects of the thing or the traits of a
person are rated on a five or a seven point scale from the highest to the lowest. In
describing the quality of construction of a building.

Score Card:-

The score card similar in some respects to both the cheek-list and the rating scale,
usually provides for the appraisal of a relatively large number of aspects. In addition,
the presence of each characteristic or aspect, or the rating assigned to each, has a
predetermined point value. Thus the score card rating may yield a total weighted score
that can be used in the evaluation of the object observed. Score rates are frequently
used in evaluating communities, building sites, schools or textbooks. It is sometimes
used in arriving at an overall evaluation of a school.

Scaled Specimen:-

The scaled specimen, although not frequently encountered, provides an effective

method for evaluating certain standards of performance. Throndike's handwriting
scales provide a number of graded samples to which one may compare the
handwriting to be evaluated. Various intelligence-test scoring manuals provide scaled
specimens for determining the mental age of children as revealed by their drawings.

3. Tests and Appraisal Instruments:-

A large variety of research-based appraisal instruments such as tests, inventories,

scales etc. have been developed in recent years and are being used extensively in
research particularly in experimental and descriptive researches in behavioral fields.
These instruments have been designed to describe and measure a sample of certain
aspects of human behavior. These measuring devices claim to assess a variety of
human abilities, potentials, achievements and behavior tendencies. These appraisal
instruments have different degrees of validity, reliability and applicability.

4. Questionnaire:-

4
Questionnaire is a commonly used and frequently abused tool for gathering a variety
of data. A questionnaire may include of a series of questions pertaining to
psychological, social, educational, or any such issues which are sent to an individual
or a group, with the aim of obtaining relevant data on the topic of research.

Types of Questionnaires:-

Questionnaires can be classified in various ways. Here we confine ourselves to

structured and unstructured questionnaires.

Structured Questionnaires:-

Structured questionnaires are those which pose definite and concrete questions. They
are prepared well in advance and not on the spot. Additional questions may be used
only when there is a need to clarify vague or inadequate replies by respondents or
when further details are needed. The form of questions may require responses which
ate either closed or open. Closed form of questionnaires are used when categorized
data are required. They include a set of questions to which a respondent can reply in
a limited number of ways yes no' or an answer from a short list of possible responses.
Unstructured Questionnaires:-

Unstructured questionnaires are frequently referred to as interview guides. They also

aim at precision and contain definite issues that are covered while conducting an
interview. Flexibility is the chief advantage of the unstructured questionnaire. .It is
designed to obtain viewpoints, opinions, and attitudes to show relationships between
various types of information which might escape notice under more mechanical types
of interrogation. No predetermined responses are prided instead free responses are
solicited.

The Best Data Collection Tools for Questionnaire:-

Formplus Online Questionnaire:-

Formplus lets you create powerful forms to help you collect the information you need.
Formplus helps you create the online forms that you like. The Formplus online
questionnaire form template to get actionable trends and measurable responses.
Conduct research, optimize knowledge of your brand or just get to know an audience
with this form template. The form template is fast, free and fully customizable.

5
Paper Questionnaire:-

A paper questionnaire is a data collection tool consisting of a series of questions and/or

prompts for the purpose of gathering information from respondents. Mostly designed
for statistical analysis of the responses, they can also be used as a form of data
collection.

Advantages of Questionnaires:-

 Can be administered in large numbers and is cost-effective.

 It can be used to compare and contrast previous research to measure change.
 Easy to visualize and analyze.
 Questionnaires offer actionable data.
 Respondent identity is protected.
 Questionnaires can cover all areas of a topic.
 Relatively inexpensive.

Problems Face Using a Questionnaire:-

Dishonest Answers:-

While there are many positives to questionnaires, dishonesty can be an issue.

Respondents may not be 100% truthful with their answers.

This can happen for a variety of reasons, including social desirability bias and
attempting to protect privacy. Stop dishonesty in its tracks by assuring respondents
that their privacy is valued and that the process prevents personal identification.

Unanswered Questions:-

When using questionnaires, there is a chance that some questions will be ignored or
left unanswered.

Differences in Understanding and Interpretation:-

The trouble with not presenting questions to users face-to-face is that each may
have different interpretations of your questions. Without someone to explain the
questionnaire fully and ensure each individual has the same understanding, results

6
can be subjective. Respondents may have trouble grasping the meaning of some
questions that may seem clear to the creator.

Hard to Convey Feelings and Emotions:-

A survey or questionnaire cannot fully capture emotional responses or feelings of

respondents. Without administering the questionnaire face-to-face, there is no way to
observe facial expression, reactions or body language.

Some Questions are Difficult to Analyze:-

Questionnaires produce a lot of data. Multiple choice questions can be tabulated and
graphed, but open-ended questions are different.

Open-ended questions allow for individualized answers which cannot be quantified

and must be reviewed by a human. Too many open-ended questions can produce a
flood of data that can take forever to analyze. Fix this pitfall but choosing your question
types carefully. If you have ten questions, you probably don’t want more than one to
be open-ended since these have no way to be quantified.

Respondents May Have a Hidden Agenda:-

As with any sort of research, respondent bias can be an issue. Participants in your
survey may have an interest in your product, idea or service. Others may be influenced
to participate based on the subject of your questionnaire. These proclivities can lead
to inaccuracies in your data, generated from an imbalance of respondents who see
your topic in an overly positive or negative light.

Lack of Personalization:-

Any piece of marketing material is at risk of seeming impersonal unless time and care
are taken to personalize it. If you’re unable to add touches of personalization, some
potential respondents may be put off and ignore it.

Unconscientious Responses:-

Every administrator hopes for conscientious responses, but there’s no way to know if
the respondent has really understood the question or read it thoroughly before
answering.

7
At times, answers will be chosen before fully reading the question or the potential
answers. Sometimes respondents will skip through questions, or split-second choices
may be made, affecting the validity of your data. This drawback is tough to defeat, but
if you make your survey short and your questions simple you’re likely to get the most
accurate responses.

Accessibility Issues:-

No matter what form of delivery is used, lack of accessibility is a threat. Surveys may
be unsuitable for users with a visual or hearing impairment, or other impediments such
as illiteracy. This should be considered when choosing to do research in this manner.

Questionnaire or Survey Fatigue:-

Survey Response Fatigue: This occurs before the survey begins. Overwhelmed by
the growing number of surveys, respondents will be less inclined to take part in your
survey. As a result, you’ll suffer from a low response rate.

Survey Taking Fatigue: This type of respondent fatigue happens during the survey.
It’s the result of surveys that are perceived as too long and include questions irrelevant
to the respondent. An indicator of survey taking fatigue can be found in a low
completion rate.

Question No.2:

When you can use interview as a research tool and what are the merits and
demerits of interview as research tool?

Interview as a Research Tool:-

Data collection or research tools are any tool used to measure a variable, or to collect
the information needed to answer a research question. Careful selection of data
collection tools can help the researcher achieve goals and save time.

Any research is only as good as the data that drives it, so choosing the right technique
of data collection can make all the difference.

Interviews are designed to collect a richer source of information from a small number
of people about their attributes, behavior, preferences, feelings, attitudes, opinions,
and knowledge.

8
Merits of Interview:-

The major merits of interview technique can be summarized as:

 A structured interview method is possible to reach a large number of people at

the same time.
 A representative sample is possible and questions and answers can be
modelled on such samples and models.
 Questions can be structured and answered in a way that is easy for the
candidates to answer. Hence, a clear perspective and opinion can be received.
 Less dependency on electronic recording devices. For example: face to face
interviews.
 Moreover, it creates a very little room for any form of confusion or
misinterpretation of the questions asked.
 Interview methods are more personal in nature.
 The candidates feel more confident in answering through such processes.
 These types of interviews always use a closed set of questions, hence they are
limited in number. This can create a definite impression about the candidate
and hence can be used as a reliable method for choosing the right candidate.
 Interview methods are great for creating quantitative data. Hence, they can be
more flexible and can be applied to various other processes.
 Structured interviews are comparatively easier to conduct and analyse and
since they are limited to a group of the population, they act as a great tool for
conducting surveys and data collection.
 A large population base can be reached within a short period of time through
various interview methods.
 Unstructured interview questions can be made more flexible and adaptive
depending on the candidate’s answers.
 Unstructured interview questions can be used for creating qualitative data. This
gives a chance to the respondent to frame the answers in their own words. This

9
 shows the employer how much the respondent knows about the whole
situation.
 Interview methods also have a deeper validity and originality since the employer
tries to probe through the candidate to get some valued remarks and
information about what they think about the company and how a third person
sees the company as.
 Interview questions also give the employer to know what all expectations the
respondent has towards the company.
 The respondent steers the course of the interview in case of a structured and
unstructured interview.
 Try to ask for clarification and other aspects before and allow the interviewee
to steer the direction of the interview.
 Group interviews can make the candidate feel less awkward since they might
feel more comfortable talking in groups rather than conversing with a single
person.

Demerits of Interview:-

Interview techniques have many merits but it have also many demerits. The main
demerits of this techniques are given below:

 Structured interviews are usually non-flexible, and thus new questions are not
usually asked since such interview patterns have a strict time to follow and have
a certain time limit.
 Structured interviews create quantitative data and hence a lack of detail can be
formed. This means the interviewer won’t know why a candidate behaves this
way.
 For unstructured or unplanned interviews, it is difficult to collect all the
necessary data and analysis of such data will take time since they are less
specific and cover more areas and aspects of the subject.
 Employing interviewers and trainers can be expensive. This can lead to more
capital spent by the company during the recruitment process. A great way to
tackle this is by conducting surveys or sending out questionnaires to the target
audience and the people to be interviewed.

10
  Certain skills may be needed to be probed and verified. In this case, an
interview is indispensable. Interviewers have to cross-check the facts and try to
make sure that the candidate is truly interested and is fully adaptable and
talented enough to join the post.
 Another main disadvantage of interviews is the handling of the personal
information of the candidates. They have to make sure the personal information
of the candidates are kept safe and have to be ensured that they won’t be
misused that easily.
 Group interviewees have to be made sure that they won’t disclose the private
information of the candidate to others. Trust is the basic factor that needs to be
seen by the company and the organization should make sure that the recruiters
are following the rules of privacy set by the organization.
 Group interviews tend to use more open-minded questions that can deviate the
interview from its path and hence can lead to more loss in time. This also makes
it difficult to repeat the questions to the next candidate. Hence, the interview
process tends to be more biased.
 Group interviews may tend to lack validity as the candidates may lie to the panel
so as to impress them. This can be because of the peer pressure and the desire
to get the job position. Always try to cross check if all the answers are true and
try to point out if you feel unsure about the candidate’s response. This helps the
interview panel to select the right candidate.

Question No.3:

Develop a research proposal on “Analysis of Management Practices in

Secondary School in Lahore” mention all necessary steps properly.

1. Introduction:-

Education plays a role in the development of the country. It is a process of learning

which aimed to raises people's creativity morally, social, and culturally. Education is
very important and basic right of every human being. Only an educated person has
the ability to take right decisions at the right time. No one country can achieve its goals
without educated force. Education is essential component of the development and
growth of any country. Without education no any nation has any idea about the

11
utilization of the sources in better way. Education is considered as main pillars of a
society and the students are its main stakeholders.

There is no denying the fact that the present day examination system has become
merely an awarding mechanism without any regard to students' abilities. It is widely
felt that unless major efforts are made to overhaul the existing system of examinations,
it will not be possible to carry out any major reform or qualitative improvement. The
main drawback of the present system is that there is no flexibility, there are very limited
options, and a set pattern is imposed from the top. This is a strong reason behind the
low percentage of student transition to higher levels of education in India. The Central
Board of Secondary Education (CBSE) has taken appropriate steps by introducing the
system of Grades instead of marks. As is done in several other countries, the students
will be assessed on the basis of a scientific evaluation and ranked on one among the
five Grades ranging from outstanding to poor.

2. Review of Related Literature:-

Critical Study of Secondary Education Situation:-

Free and quality secondary education is the basic right of every citizen as cited in the
constitution of Islamic Republic of Pakistan. To ensure free and equal quality
education for all, secondary education level should be considered more important. But
here in Pakistan, situation is totally different because of old traditional education
system there is no specific measures for any level of education. So, in terms of literacy
rate outcomes in the region the country stands in the lowest rank. Pakistan shows less
than 50% literacy rate.

The education policy introduced in 1959 which is focused on character building

through curriculum reform, revision of curricula and secondary educational for all
within 15 years. The country continued to see a shift in the education policies in the
years to come. 1972 saw a dramatic shift in policy with the emphasis on
nationalization. Noted that in 1972, more than 3,000 schools were nationalized during
Bhutto’s regime which resulted in declined quality of education due to resource
scarcity and management issues.

National Education Policy (NEP):-

12
National Education Policy is standardized document issued by the Ministry of
Education (MoE) Pakistan. Lahore is administered by Pakistan so Lahore also follow
the Pakistan Education Policy which needs to be reform. NEP 2009 document is the
review of the previous education policies with recommended reforms and policy
actions at sub-sector level of education. The new policy was introduced due to the
failure and inability to achieve the desired outcomes. During this overall period the
policies have not been implemented properly. So, this poor policy implementation
cause many problems such as political manipulations, corruption, systemic issues and
poor management and supervision.

Role of Teachers:-

The teacher quality in Lahore is very poor which is the main reason for low level of
educational qualifications required to become a secondary school teacher that
includes ten years of schooling and an eleven- month certificate program. It has been
identified that student’s achievement is closely related to the number of years of formal
schooling of teachers. Thus, teachers with 12 years of education perform better than
students of matriculate (10 years education) teachers, who in turn perform better than
students of teachers with only grade eight qualifications.

The second factor involve to the quality of teacher certification programs, little
emphasis on teaching practice and non-existence of a proper support/monitoring
system for teachers, which suffers from the lack of adequately trained master trainers,.
In the absence of any accredited body to certify teachers, the mere acquisition of a
certificate/diploma is considered sufficient to apply for a teaching position

3. Statement of the Problem:-

The study under investigation specially designed to evaluate the management

problems in evaluation at secondary level and the problems faced by secondary
school students and teachers.

4. Objectives of the Study:-

The study's objective will be:

13
  To explore the management problems in evaluation at secondary level of
education in District Lahore.
 To analyze prevailing system of education that teachers use to take
examinations of students at secondary level in District Lahore.

5. Research Questions:-

The following research questions guides the study:

 How to evaluate the management problems of examination at secondary level

in District Lahore.
 Which methods of taking examination effect the student's learning at secondary
level in District Lahore?

6. Delimitation of the Study:-

This study was limited to district Lahore and secondary Level teachers and students.

7. Significance of the Study:-

A major concern of the schools is to increase the student's evaluation process. One
way to do this to focus on the environment of the student's evaluation and the teacher's
evaluating method that will influence the student’s achievement and performance to
create best evaluating environment to facilitate student's evaluation process. Its
significance is for the secondary level students to provide concrete and reasonable
evaluation methods in the examination. There is no denying the fact that the present
day examination system has become merely an awarding mechanism without any
regard to students' abilities. It is widely felt that unless major efforts are made to
overhaul the existing system of examinations, it will not be possible to carry out any
major reform or qualitative improvement. The main drawback of the present system is
that there is no flexibility, there are very limited options, and a set pattern is imposed
from the top.

8. Research Methodology:-

Random sampling has been utilized to draw the sample from the finite universe of the
secondary Schools. The primary data is collected through self-designed questionnaire
from the selected secondary schools. The data is analyzed through mean and

14
standard deviation with the help of SPSS version to establish the goodness of fit,
consistency of association and the pattern of responses.

Population of the Study:-

Thirty Government Secondary School present in district Lahore. Five hundred ten
teachers and students of secondary level present in thirty Government school. Four
hundred thirty secondary students and eighty teachers selected for population of this
study.

Sample of the Study:-

Random sampling technique will be used for the evaluation of sample. Therefore
sample of the study will be consisted of secondary level teachers and students.
Hundred secondary level students and twenty teachers were selected as a sample.

Instrument of the Study:-

A questionnaire will be used as a research instrument to collect data from teachers

and students. The questionnaire will be consisted of 15 items with five-point likert
scale.

Validity of the instrument: After the development of questionnaire it will be validated

from educational experts of department of Education University of Lahore.

Pilot Testing: The researcher will distributed the questionnaire among the 20
teachers and 100 students of secondary level. The researcher will incorporate all the
parts raised by the participation of the pilot testing.

Reliability of the instrument: The reliability of the instrument checked by the

cronbach's Alpha statistical technique.

Data Collection:-

The data will be collected through the questionnaire.

Data Analysis:-

The data collected through the questionnaire will tabulated, analyzed and interpreted.
The percentage, mean, standard deviation and differences of means were computed

15
for each variable. Significance of difference between the mean opinions of both
teachers and students.

9. References:-

Aftab, H., & Minhas, R. S. M. (2014). Still Image based foreign object debris (FOD)
detection system. Journal of Science Technology and Development, Pakistan, 33(1),
30-33.

Gibton, D. (2015). Researching education policy, public policy, and policymakers:

Qualitative methods and ethical issues.

Irvine, J. (2017). A Comparison of Revised Bloom and Marzano's New Taxonomy of

Learning. Research in Higher Education Journal, 33.

Koninis, H. (2012). Education for sustainable development (ESD): the turn away from
‘environment ‘in environmental education?. Environmental Education Research,
18(5), 699-717.

Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A revision of Bloom's taxonomy: An overview. Theory into

practice, 41(4), 212-218.

Mills, S. (2003). Gender and politeness (No. 17). Cambridge University Press.

Koh, K. H. (2011). Improving teachers’ assessment literacy through professional

development. Teaching Education, 22(3), 255-276.

Lingard, B., Hayes, D., & Mills, M. (2003). Leading learning: Making hope practical in
schools: Making hope practical in schools. McGraw-Hill Education (UK).

Question No.4:

What are the components a research report? Provide guidelines to write a good
research report.

Research Reports:-

Research reports are recorded data prepared by researchers or statisticians after

analyzing information gathered by conducting organized research, typically in the form
of surveys or qualitative methods.

16
Reports usually are spread across a vast horizon of topics but are focused on
communicating information about a particular topic and a very niche target market.
The primary motive of research reports is to convey integral details about a study for
marketers to consider while designing new strategies. Certain events, facts and other
information based on incidents need to be relayed on to the people in charge and
creating research reports is the most effective communication tool. Ideal research
reports are extremely accurate in the offered information with a clear objective and
conclusion. There should be a clean and structured format for these reports to be
effective in relaying information.

A research report is a reliable source to recount details about a conducted research

and is most often considered to be a true testimony of all the work done to garner
specificities of research.

Components of Research Reports:-

Research is imperative for launching a new product/service or a new feature. The

markets today are extremely volatile and competitive due to new entrants every day
who may or may not provide effective products. An organization needs to make the
right decisions at the right time to be relevant in such a market with updated products
that suffice customer demands.

The details of a research report may change with the purpose of research but the main
components of a report will remain constant. The research approach of the market
researcher also influences the style of writing reports. Here are six main components
of a productive research report:

 Research report summary

 Research introduction
 Research methodology
 Research results
 Research discussion
 Research references and conclusion

1. Research Report Summary:-

The entire objective along with the overview of research are to be included in a
summary which is a couple of paragraphs in length. All the multiple components of the

17
research are explained in brief under the report summary. It should be interesting
enough to capture all the key elements of the report.

2. Research Introduction:-

There always is a primary goal that the researcher is trying to achieve through a report.
In the introduction section, he/she can cover answers related to this goal and establish
a thesis which will be included to strive and answer it in detail. This section should
answer an integral question: “What is the current situation of the goal?” After the
research was conducted did the organization conclude the goal successfully or they
are still a work in progress provide such details in the introduction part of the research
report.

3. Research Methodology:-

This is the most important section of the report where all the important information lies.
The readers can gain data for the topic along with analyzing the quality of provided
content and the research can also be approved by other market researchers. Thus,
this section needs to be highly informative with each aspect of research discussed in
detail. Information needs to be expressed in chronological order according to its
priority and importance. Researchers should include references in case they gained
information from existing techniques.

4. Research Results:-

A short description of the results along with calculations conducted to achieve the goal
will form this section of results. Usually, the exposition after data analysis is carried
out in the discussion part of the report.

5. Research Discussion:-

The results are discussed in extreme detail in this section along with a comparative
analysis of reports that could probably exist in the same domain. Any abnormality
uncovered during research will be deliberated in the discussion section. While writing
research reports, the researcher will have to connect the dots on how the results will
be applicable in the real world.

6. Research References and Conclusion:-

18
Conclude all the research findings along with mentioning each and every author,
article or any content piece from where references were taken.

Guidelines for Writing a Research Report:-

Prepare a Detailed Outline:-

Before starting writing of the research report, prepare a detailed outline following the
general structural framework of the report presented in the previous section. Each
chapter should be divided into sections and sub- sections. The major points to be
made in each sub-section should be written out the outline should indicate the actual
organization of the material that would go into each section of the report.

Adopt a Simple Style:-

The beginner is tempted into using high sounding words and phrases and into building
up long sentences. Remember that you are trying to communicate your ideas to others
and not impress others with your vocabulary. Using an uncommon word when a
simple, commonly, used word is available, simply hinders proper communication.

Use Dictionary Frequently:-

Any mistake of grammar of spelling band in the research report would be attributed by
the reader to the report writer and not to the typist. It is unfortunate that those who
have weak spellings are often not conscious of their shortcoming. Get into the habit of
doubting your spellings and checking it up in the dictionary.

Build Strong Paragraphs:-

The opening paragraph of a chapter or a section is of special Significance. By reading

the first paragraph, the reader forms his opinion about the chapter/section. The guiding
principle is to go straight to the point in the opening paragraph. A good report writer
avoids vague introductory remarks. Another useful advice is to put a topic or sentence
at the beginning of each paragraph. By reading he opening sentence the writer should
know the subject dealt with in the paragraph.

Write Clear, Strong Sentences:-

19
Each sentence should express one distinct idea or fact. Overloading the sentence with
many ideas may lead to contusion. While constructing simple, straightforward
sentences their length and structure should be varied

Follow Accepted Practices:-

The research report is to be read mostly by professionals. It is advisable that the

practices adopted by the academic community are followed. Some of these are stated
below:

 The researcher should not refer to himself in first person

 While referring to other authorities their titles like "Sir, Dr." etc. are omitted.
 Never begin a sentence with a number written in Arabic numerals.
 Numbers containing fewer than three digits are ordinarily spelled out as words
no matter where they occur. (e.g., the test-consisted of fifty-four items). Large
numbers are written as numerals (e.g. 234, 1,056...)
 When stating percentages or decimals, use Arabic numerals irrespective of the
number of digits (e.g., in all 12 per cent ...The average was 34.7...) Do not use
the percentage sign (%).

Revision of the Draft:-

No investigator writes his research report in one go. After you have written one or two
sections of your report, put it aside and work on some other parts. After a lapse of a
few days, read your draft critically. Put yourself in the position of a reader and try to
identify parts which are not quite clear or parts which do not follow logically in their
positions. Try to see if the sentences contain unnecessary words or if the sentence
could be reworded to enhance its clarity.

Structure of a Research Report:-

Title:-

This is the title of your systematic investigation. Your title should be concise and point
to the aims, objectives, and findings of a research report.

Table of Contents:-

This is like a compass that makes it easier for readers to navigate the research report.

20
Abstract:-

An abstract is an overview that highlights all important aspects of the research

including the research method, data collection process, and research findings. Think
of an abstract as a summary of your research report that presents pertinent information
in a concise manner.

Introduction:-

Here, the researcher highlights the aims and objectives of the systematic investigation
as well as the problem which the systematic investigation sets out to solve. When
writing the report introduction, it is also essential to indicate whether the purposes of
the research were achieved or would require more work.

Literature Review:-

A literature review is a written survey of existing knowledge in the field of study. In

other words, it is the section where you provide an overview and analysis of different
research works that are relevant to your systematic investigation.

An Account of Investigation:-

This is a detailed account of the research process, including the methodology, sample,
and research subjects. Here, you are expected to provide in-depth information on the
research process including the data collection and analysis procedures.

Findings:-

In this section, you are expected to present the results of the systematic investigation.

Discussion:-

This section further explains the findings of the research, earlier outlined. Here, you
are expected to present a justification for each outcome and show whether the results
are in line with your hypotheses or if other research studies have come up with similar
results.

21
Conclusions:-

This is a summary of all the information in the report. It also outlines the significance
of the entire study.

References and Appendices:-

This section contains a list of all the primary and secondary research sources.

Question No.5:

What type of research tools are used in qualitative research? Mention the
characteristics of any three tools for qualitative research.

Qualitative Research:-

Qualitative research is defined as a market research method that focuses on obtaining

data through open-ended and conversational communication.

This method is not only about “what” people think but also “why” they think so. For
example, consider a convenience store looking to improve its patronage. A systematic
observation concludes that the number of men visiting this store are more. One good
method to determine why women were not visiting the store is to conduct an in-depth
interview of potential customers in the category.

Qualitative research is based on the disciplines of social sciences like psychology,

sociology, and anthropology. Therefore, the qualitative research methods allow for in-
depth and further probing and questioning of respondents based on their responses,
where the interviewer/researcher also tries to understand their motivation and feelings.
Understanding how your audience takes decisions can help derive conclusions in
market research.

Tools Used for Qualitative Data Collection:-

Qualitative research methods are designed in a manner that help reveal the behavior
and perception of a target audience with reference to a particular topic. There are
different types of qualitative research methods like an in-depth interview, focus groups,
ethnographic research, content analysis, case study research that are usually used.
The results of qualitative methods are more descriptive and the inferences can be
drawn quite easily from the data that is obtained.

22
Qualitative research methods originated in the social and behavioral sciences. Today
our world is more complicated and it is difficult to understand what people think and
perceive. Online qualitative research methods make it easier to understand that as it
is more communicative and descriptive.

The following are the qualitative research tools that are frequently used.

Individual Interview:-

It is one of the most trusted, widely used, and most familiar qualitative data collection
methods primarily because of its approach. An individual or a face-to-face interview is
a direct conversation between two people with a specific structure and purpose. The
interview questionnaire is designed in the manner to elicit the interviewee’s knowledge
or perspective related to a topic, program, or issue.

At times, depending on the interviewer’s approach, the conversation can be

unstructured or informal but focused on understanding the individual’s beliefs, values,
understandings, feelings, experiences, and perspectives of an issue. More often, the
interviewer chooses to ask open-ended questions in individual interviews. If the
interviewee selects answers from a set of given options, it becomes a structured, fixed
response, or a biased discussion.

The individual interview is an ideal qualitative data collection method, particularly when
the researchers want highly personalized information from the participants. The
individual interview is a notable method if the interviewer decides to probe further and
ask follow-up questions to gain more insights.

Qualitative Surveys:-

To develop an informed hypothesis, many researchers use qualitative surveys for data
collection or to collect a piece of detailed information about a product or an issue. If
you want to create questionnaires for collecting textual or qualitative data, then ask
more open-ended questions. To answer such questions, the respondent has to write
his/her opinion or perspective concerning a specific topic or issue. Unlike other

23
qualitative data collection methods, online surveys have a wider reach wherein many
people can provide you quality data that is highly credible and valuable.

Paper Surveys: The paper questionnaires are frequently used for qualitative data
collection from the participants. The survey consists of short text questions, which are
often open-ended. These questions’ motive is to collect as much detailed information
as possible in the respondents’ own words. More often, the survey questionnaires are
designed to collect standardized data hence used to collect responses from a larger
population or large sample size.

Online Surveys: An online survey or a web survey is prepared using a prominent

online survey software and either uploaded in a website or emailed to the selected
sample size with a motive to collect reliable online data. Instead of writing down
responses, the respondents use computers and keyboards to type their answers. With
an online survey questionnaire, it becomes easier and smoother to collect qualitative
data.

Characteristics of Survey:-

 High Representativeness:-

Surveys provide a high level of general capability in representing a large population.

Due to the usual huge number of people who answers survey, the data being gathered
possess a better description of the relative characteristics of the
general population involved in the study.

 Low Costs:-

When conducting surveys, you only need to pay for the production of survey
questionnaires. If you need a larger sample of the general population, you can allot an
incentive in cash or kind, which can be as low as $2 per person.

 Convenient Data Gathering:-

Surveys can be administered to the participants through a variety of ways. The

questionnaires can simply be sent via e-mail or fax, or can be administered through
the Internet. Nowadays, the online survey method has been the most popular way of
gathering data from target participants.

 Good Statistical Significance:-

24
Because of the high representativeness brought about by the survey method, it is often
easier to find statistically significant results than other data gathering methods.
Multiple variables can also be effectively analyzed using surveys.

 Little or No Observer Subjectivity:-

Surveys are ideal for scientific research studies because they provide all the
participants with a standardized stimulus. With such high reliability obtained, the
researcher’s own biases are eliminated.

 Precise Results:-

As questions in the survey should undergo careful scrutiny and standardization they
provide uniform definitions to all the subjects who are to answer the questionnaires.
Thus, there is a greater precision in terms of measuring the data gathered.

Focus Group Discussions:-

Focus group discussions can also be considered a type of interview, but it is conducted
in a group discussion setting. Usually, the focus group consists of 8 – 10 people (the
size may vary depending on the researcher’s requirement). The researchers ensure
appropriate space is given to the participants to discuss a topic or issue in a context.
The participants are allowed to either agree or disagree with each other’s comments.

With a focused group discussion, researchers know how a particular group of

participants perceives the topic. Researchers analyze what participants think of an
issue, the range of opinions expressed, and the ideas discussed. The data is collected
by noting down the variations or inconsistencies in the participants, especially in terms
of belief, experiences, and practice.

The participants of focused group discussions are selected based on the topic or
issues for which the researcher wants actionable insights. For example, is the
research is about the recovery of college students from drug addiction, the participants
have to be a college student, studying and recovering from the drug addiction.

Characteristics of Focus Group:-

 Takes advantage of the fact that people naturally interact and are influenced by
others (high face validity).

25
  May be one of the few research tools available for obtaining data from children
or from individuals who are not particularly literate
 Provide data more quickly and at lower cost than if individuals interviewed
separately; groups can be assembled on shorter notice than for a more
systematic survey.
 Generally requires less preparation and is comparatively easy to conduct.
 Researcher can interact directly with respondents (allows clarification, follow-
up questions, probing). Can gain information from non-verbal responses to
supplement (or even contradict) verbal responses.
 Data uses respondents' own words; can obtain deeper levels of meaning, make
important connections, identify subtle nuances
 Very flexible; can be used with wide range of topics, individuals, and settings
 Results are easy to understand and more accessible to lay audiences or
decision-makers than complex statistical analyses of survey data

Observations:-

Observation is one of the traditional qualitative data collection methods used by

researchers to gather descriptive text data by observing people and their behavior at
events or in their natural settings. In this method, the researcher is completely
immersed in watching or seeing people by taking a participatory stance to take down
notes. Aside from taking notes, different techniques such as videos, photographs and
audio recordings, tangible items like artifacts, and souvenirs are also be used. There
are two main types of observation:

Covert: In this method, the observer is concealed without letting anyone know that
they are being observed. For example, a researcher studying the rituals of a wedding
in nomadic tribes must join them as a guest and quietly see everything that goes
around him.

Overt: In this method, everyone is aware that they are being watched. For example,
a researcher or an observer wants to study the wedding rituals of a nomadic tribe. To
proceed with the research, the observer or researcher can reveal why he is attending
the marriage and even use a video camera to shoot everything around him.

26
Observation is a useful qualitative data collection method, especially when you want
to study the ongoing process, situation, or reactions on a specific issue related to the
people being observed.

Characteristics of Observation:-

 Use of Senses:-

The five senses either to see or hear are involve in the process of observation. For
specific data collection mental and physical elements should be used.

 Systematic and Relative:-

The observer cannot observe each and every thing. He studies only those things which
fall in his direct observation. For example an inspector of traffic observe only those
vehicles driven in wrong way or fast. In the same way a researcher take notice of those
things which & are the object and relative to his study.

 Quantity on the Basis of Quality:-

Observation is an efficient way to draw facts as quantitative on the basis of his nature
and quality. Efficient conclusions should be drawn, if qualitative techniques and tools
are used in observation method.

 Specific Objectives:-

A researcher having some purpose and objectives behind a study. To collect correct
facts, he study those phenomena’s which are related to his study and having specific
objectives.

 Dominant Interest:-

Without a researcher interest, no observation is possible. For this purpose observation

method is the outcome of a researcher personal interest and involvement.

 An Eye Affairs:-

Observation depends on all senses but mostly an eye is used for this method to
observe the happening events.

 Direct Method of Study:-

27
Observation is a direct method of study. An observe goes himself into the field and
observe all the problematic situations.

 Direct Cause-effect Relationship:-

An observation is a direct method to the study of cause and effect relationship.

Hypothesis may also be developed in the field due to keen study of cause and effect.

28