Winter Internship Project Report

“Unconventional Play: CBM, An overview of Reservoir Characteristics, Production

Operations and Artificial Lift Techniques”

(3rd December 2018 to 15th December 2018)

Submitted By

Waquar Kaleem (EPE16040) and Akash Deep Mishra (EPE16003)

Third Year Undergraduate
Department of Petroleum Engineering

Rajiv Gandhi Institute of Petroleum Technology (RGIPT)

Under the supervision of

Mr. Karthik Santhanam

Senior Manager Production

Essar Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Limited

MCS (Main Compressor Station), Durgapur.

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 Essar Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Limited (EOGEPL)
MCS (Main Compressor Station), Durgapur, Bangal.

CERTIFICATE OF COMPLETION

This is to certify that Mr. Waquar Kaleem and Mr. Akash Deep Mishra, third year
B.Tech Petroleum Engineering has completed the winter project titled
“Unconventional Play: CBM, An overview of Reservoir Characteristics,
Production Operations and Artificial Lift Techniques” at EOGEPL Durgapur.

The internship was dated from 3rd December 2018 to 15th December 2018.

Mr. Karthik Santhanam

Senior Manager Production

Project Supervisor

Mr. Fayaz Iqbal

Manager Work Over and Production

Training Coordinator

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Contents:

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

UNDERTAKING

INTRODUCTION TO COAL BED METHANE (CBM)

RESERVOIR PROPERTIES

 POROSITY
 FRACTURE PERMEABILITY
 LANGMUIR ISOTHERM
 GAS CONTENT
 WELL BEHAVIOUR
 FACE CLEAT & BUTT CLEAT
GEOLOGY OF RANIGANJ COAL BASIN

GENERAL STRUCTURE

 MINERALS IN GONDWANA BELT

 DRIFT NATURE OF COAL
 ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
CBM WELL DRILLING AND COMPLETIONS

PRODUCTION IN CBM WELLS

HYDRAULIC FRACTURE SIMULATIONS

DYNAMIC CAVITY COMPLETIONS

WHAT IS ARTIFICIAL LIFT?

PROFRESSIVE CAVITY PUMPS

REFERENCES

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 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to Head- Human Resources, Glyniss Fernandes and Mr. Manoj Kumar
Mistry for giving us an opportunity to work at EOGEPL, Durgapur and providing facilities for carrying out the
project work.

My special thanks to Mr. Karthik Santhanam (Senior Manager Production), my mentor, for his guidance and interest
during my internship. He spared valuable time to teach me basics of CBM production and its application in field
development in spite of his busy schedule. His supervision and constant support truly helped me in the internship
programme.

My thanks to Mr. Fayaz Iqbal (Manager Work Over and Productions) Training Coordinator, Mr. Premal Dabhi
(Senior Manager Reservoir and Sub surface), Mr. Dibya Dhal (Manager Geology), Mr. Ram Niwas (Assistant
Engineer), Mr. Rishiraj Goswami (Assistant Manager Production), Mr. Akshit Sagwal (Assistant Manager
Reservoir and Sub surface) and many other I may have forgotten to mention.

We would also like to thank Mr. Sidesh Kamat and Mr. Prateek from Work Over Department, Team Alpha
and Team Bravo. We feel motivated and encouraged every time we were under their guidance. Without their
constant encouragement and guidance this training would not have be fruitful. Our deep sense of gratitude to
seniors for support and guidance.

The guidance and support received from all the members who contributed and who are contributing to this training,
was vital for the success of the training. We are grateful for their constant support and help.

We would also thank our Institution without whom this training would have been a distant reality.

--------------------- ----------------------
Waquar Kaleem Akash Deep Mishra

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 Essar Oil and Gas Exploration and Production Limited (EOGEPL)
MCS (Main Compressor Station), Durgapur, Bangal.

UNDERTAKING

We ( Waquar Kaleem and Akash Deep Mishra ), 3rd year B.Tech Petroleum Engineering student of RGIPT,
Jais, carrying out winter internship at EOGEPL, Durgapur from 4th December to 15th December 2018 on the
topic “Unconventional Play: CBM, An overview of Reservoir Characteristics, Production Operations and
Artificial Lift Techniques” under guidance of Mr. Karthik Santhanam (Senior Manager Production).

We undertake the following

 That we shall not disclose any confidential information (proprietary information) received from the
EOGEPL to any other person, company, organization, and firm; as I know that confidential information
cannot be sold, exchanged, published or disclosed to anybody by any way including photocopies or
reproduced materials etc. without prior written consent of EOGEPL.
 That we shall keep confidentiality to the highest extent in order to avoid the disclosure or use of the
information received during internship.
 That we will not publish/use data provided by EOGEPL anywhere in India or outside India
 That If we are proved to be guilty for the disclosure of the confidential or proprietary information,
EOGEPL has the sole discretion the right for the reimbursement of damages borne due to the disclosure.

--------------------- ----------------------
Waquar Kaleem Akash Deep Mishra
Date: Date:
Place: Durgapur Place: Durgapur

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INTRODUCTION TO COAL BED METHANE (CBM)
Coal-bed methane (CBM) is a form of natural gas (CH4) that is trapped in the carbon structure of coal seams.
That is, the methane is absorbed to the surface of the coal. It is an unconventional resource, as the methane
contained in the coal does not migrate to other rock strata. Its extraction involves drilling down vertically and
then horizontally in the coal seam. The gas is released in a controlled and safe manner by pumping out the water
that occurs naturally in coal seams, or cleats, to reduce the underground pressure on the coal. This is the basic
principle of CBM extraction: wells are drilled into the coal seams, and the water is removed to reduce the pressure
on the coal so the gas can be collected. If dewatering stops, the coal seam and the well fill with water, which
automatically prevents the gas from being released.
The entire process is reversible and any gas left in the wellbore is re-adsorbed by the coal, which makes CBM
inherently safer than conventional gas reservoirs. Methane is generally considered a cleaner form of energy than
traditional coal and oil. Exploration costs for CBM are low, and wells used to extract CBM are cost effective to
drill. Because methane is less dense than oxygen, it rises to the surface as water pressure is reduced within the
coal seam by pumping. Extraction of coal bed methane is not without controversy. CBM extraction involves pumping large
volumes of water from coal seams in order to release water pressure that traps gas within the coal. The quantity, quality, and
dispersal of this water is a source of much debate. Each well is expected to produce approximately 5 to 20 gallons
of water per minute. If a well produced 12 gallons per minute, that would total 17,280 gallons of water per day
for one well. The product water, although acceptable to drink or water livestock with, has a modestly high salinity
hazard and often a very high sodium hazard based on standards used for irrigation suitability. When considered
as an irrigation supply or when spread on the land, water of CBM quality could alter soil physical and chemical
properties; it could also limit long-term productivity of sensitive rangeland species. On the positive side, if the
right management practices and bioremediation processes can be defined, CBM product water can serve as a
valuable supplement to existing irrigation water supplies, as irrigation supplies are almost always in limited supply
and of undesirable quality by the middle of the summer in southeast Montana. Depending on soil type, discharge
water alone is often not suitable for irrigation except with very rigorous management or on the most coarser soils.
Faults are an important lateral boundary for coalbed methane, and can be identified as either closed or open faults.
A closed fault occurs when the displacement pressure of the rock body in the fault zone is greater than the reservoir
pressure.
The smearing action of mudstone reinforces the closing ability of a fault, and the lithological composition at both
sides of a fault differ due to fault throw and the displacement pressure in rock beds butted up to the coal reservoir.
Also, the strong catalysis of grains and diagenetic cementation can close up faults. The closing of an open fault
depends on the hydrostatic pressure in the fault belt. High hydrostatic pressure favors the retention of coalbed
methane; otherwise, coalbed gas dissipation results. It acts identically to the mechanism of the hydrodynamic
blockage boundary. A physical property boundary occurs when a coal body is recrystallized into mylonitic coal
by the action of tectonic stress, and its physical properties degrade and the displacement pressure increases
remarkably. As a result, the diffusion and migration of coalbed methane is blocked. Also, mylonitic coal has a
high gas content that increases the reservoir pressure, thereby blocking the concentrational diffusion, migration,
and dissipation of coalbed methane in the adjacent coal bodies.
This type of boundary is cogenetic usually with fault boundaries and is distributed along the fault belt, having
significance for the closing of a fault. Faults with different natures and the fault upthrow and downthrow tend to
create coal bodies with different widths and various recrystallizations. Increasing attention has been paid to this
type of boundary along with the development of coalbed methane and the coal mining progress. Lithological
boundary refers to the boundary at a pinchout zone of a coal bed. Two cases can be described in this type of
boundary: one is that the lithology at the pinchout zone of a coal bed has high permeability and low displacement
pressure, such as sandstone or fractured porous limestone. In this case, the accumulation of coalbed methane is
unlikely, as gas is subject to escape rather than be retained.

RESERVOIR PROPERTIES
Coal originates as an accumulation of organic matter in swamps and marshes commonly associated with fluvial
systems, deltas, and marine shorelines. It is critical to submerge the accumulating organic matter quickly beneath
the water table to prevent oxidation. This requires a combination of basin subsidence and a rising water table

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sufficient to match the accumulation rate. Organic matter accumulates at an average rate of approximately a
millimeter per year and compacts by a factor of seven to 10 times as it is transformed into coal. As organic matter
is buried, it is first transformed into peat, which consists of loosely compacted masses of organic material
containing more than 75% moisture. This transformation takes place mainly through the compaction and
expulsion of interstitial water. Biochemical reactions associated with this process transform the organic matter
into humid substances, which are the precursors of coal macerals. These reactions can also generate significant
amounts of biogenic methane, which often is referred to as swamp gas. Continued compaction and dehydration
transform peat into a low-quality coal called lignite, which contains 30 to 40% interstitial water. With deeper
burial, temperatures increase, and geochemical processes dominate physical processes. Lignite evolves into
subbituminous coal by expelling H2O, CO, CO2, H2S, and NH3, leaving behind a structure enriched in carbon and
hydrogen. At temperatures greater than approximately 220°F (104.4°C), carbon-carbon bonds begin to break,
generating gas and liquid hydrocarbons that become trapped in the coals.
As these bituminous coals are buried more deeply, their hydrocarbons are cracked into thermogenic methane and
expelled as an order of magnitude more gas is generated than the coal is capable of storing. In a typical coal, the
H/C atomic ratio decreases from 0.75 to 0.25 as coals mature from high-volatile bituminous to anthracite. The
generation and expulsion of hydrocarbons is accompanied by several profound changes in coal structure and
composition. Moisture content is reduced to just a few percent as water is expelled. Micro porosity increases as
the atomic structure of the coal changes, generating a huge surface area for absorbing methane. These changes
also lower the bulk density from 1.5 g/cm3 in high-volatile bituminous coals to less than 1.3 g/cm3 in low-volatile
bituminous coals. Coal strength decreases, making it easier for the coal to fracture as volatiles evolve and the coal
shrinks. This creates closely spaced cleats, which enhance permeability. At temperatures exceeding
approximately 300°F, bituminous coals are changed to anthracite (> 92% carbon). Methane generation and
expulsion decrease, and the bulk density increases from 1.3 g/cm3 to more than 1.8 g/cm3 as the coal structure
becomes more compact. Methane contents in anthracites are typically quite high, but permeability is lower than
bituminous coals because of cleat annealing. With further maturation, remaining volatiles are driven off and
carbon structures coalesce, resulting in a dense coal with very high carbon content and a chemical composition
similar to graphite. To generate temperatures high enough to produce large quantities of hydrocarbons, coals must
be buried deeply, typically to depths greater than 3000 m. Exceptions to this are coals transformed by local heat
sources such as igneous intrusions. After sufficient burial and time to generate hydrocarbons, coals must be
uplifted to shallower depths to be exploited commercially. At depths shallower than a few hundred meters, there
is not enough pressure in the cleat system to hold economic quantities of absorbed gas in the coal. At depths
greater than approximately 1200 m, permeabilities are generally too low to produce gas at economic rates.
POROSITY - Coalbed methane reservoirs are considered as a dual-porosity reservoir. Dual porosity reservoirs
are reservoirs in which porosity related to cleats (natural fractures) are responsible for flow behavior and reservoir
porosity of the matrix is responsible for the storage of gas. The porosity of a coalbed methane reservoir can vary
from 10%-20 %; However, the cleat porosity of the reservoir is estimated to be in the range of 0.1%-1 %.
FRACTURE PERMEABILITY - The fracture permeability acts as the major channel for the gas to flow. The
higher the permeability, the higher the gas production. For most coal seams found in the various parts of the world
the permeability lies in the range of 0.1–50 md. The permeability of fractured reservoirs changes with the stress
applied to them. Coal displays a stress-sensitive permeability and this process plays an important role during
stimulation and production operations. Fracture permeability in Coalbed methane reservoir tends to increase with
depletion of gas; in contrast to conventional reservoirs. This unique behavior is because of shrinking of coal,
when methane is released from its matrix, which results in opening up of fractures and increased permeability. It
is also believed that due to shrinkage of coal matrix at lower reservoir pressures, there is a loss of horizontal stress
in the reservoir which induces in-situ failure of coal. Such a failure has been attributed to sudden decrease in the
fracture permeability of the reservoir.

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LANGMUIR ISOTHERM-A Langmuir isotherm is a classical relationship between the concentrations of a solid
and a fluid, used to describe a state of no change in the sorption process.

 
GAS CONTENT - Gas contents in coal seams vary widely and are a function of coal composition, burial and
uplift history, and the addition of migrated thermal or biogenic gas. Both vitrinite- and liptinite-rich coals can
generate large quantities of hydrocarbons, but inertinite-rich coals, which consist of oxidized organic material,
generate very little gas. The highest gas contents are found in anthracite coals, although their permeabilities are
often too low to achieve commercial gas rates. High-volatile to low-volatile bituminous coals have lower gas
contents than anthracites but higher permeabilities.
WELL BEHAVIOUR - CBM wells usually produce little or no gas initially and have moderate to high initial
water rates. On a per well basis, water rates may range from a few barrels per day for low-permeability coals up
to thousands of barrels per day for high-permeability coals. The wells may produce water for several months or
years before producing significant volumes of gas. As the water is produced, the pressure near the wellbore is
reduced, allowing gas to desorb from the coal matrix. When the gas saturation exceeds the critical value, the gas
begins to flow to the wellbore. If the well pattern allows for adequate interference between wells and the coals
are not connected to a strong aquifer, the water rates will decline over time to some minimum that will likely
continue for the life of the well. In general, gas rates will increase until a peak rate is achieved, although the
reservoir behavior and the influence of offset wells may create a flat production profile or an early decline in gas
rate. It is possible, although not typical, to have high initial gas rates and relatively low water rates if the reservoir
is fully gas saturated and not supported by a large, active aquifer. Multiple wells are needed to develop a CBM
reservoir. Well interference helps dewater the reservoir more quickly, and closely spaced wells achieve peak rates
more quickly than widely spaced wells.

FACE CLEAT & BUTT CLEAT - Cleats are naturally occurring orthogonal joints in coal. They occur as two
perpendicular sets of fractures. The dominant cleat is called the "face cleat." It is oriented parallel to the maximum
horizontal compressive stress at the time of coalification when the cleats formed. The subordinate cleat, called
the “butt cleat,” forms at near right angles to the face cleat in the minimum stress orientation.

 
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GEOLOGY OF RANIGANJ COAL BASIN 

Most of the coal in the Raniganj coalbelt is deposited in the Gondwana period. Different
depositional strata, coal thickness, quality of coal has been occurred by different geological
formation. In this chapter we will discuss the coal formation according to geological era, rock
type, and the study between coal fire and geology. Here geology is treated as an individual
chapter in the thesis. Coal deposition can not be found properly with out geological structure.
The Raniganj coalbelt belongs to the Damodar valley coalfields, in the Gondwana system. It
comprises sedimentary rock formations excepting the Recent and Sub Recent alluvial and
lateritic deposits. These sediments all belong to the Lower Gondwana. This sedimentary
succession is complicated by the presence of crystalline metamorphic and intrusive rocks. They
are present two phases of igneous activity resulting in the intrusion of the numerous mica-
peridotite and doleritic dykes and sills, which intersect the lower Gondwana sediments. The
area that forms the Raniganj coalbelt at present was originally a small basin near the Panchet
hill. Its northern boundary has remained more or less undisturbed, indicating the natural pattern
of sediment deposition in it The general inclination of the strata is to the south and southwest
direction. The middle portion of the coal belt is traversed by faults. The major oblique fault
follows the course of the Ajoy river, and has a downthrow to the northeast. It hm; preserved
theTrans-Ajoy part of the Damuda sediments. The major disturbances in the Raniganj coal belt
are the results of tectonic displacements of the normal type resulting from the accommodation
of tensional stresses. Local folding is one of the reasons for this disturbance. Whereas minor
faultings have occurred in the early Gondwana times the major crustal disturbances
occurredduring the Jurassic times.  

GENERAL STRUCTURE - In general, the geological structure of the Raniganj coal belt is
comparatively of a simple type. The dip of the beds is in a southerly direction. The Talcher are
exposed on the northern boundary and newer Gondwana horizons, and are traversed from north
to south. The boundary of the basal Gondwana and the metamorphics is a line of natural
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deposition, normally unconformable and irregular and at a subsequent stratum, further
complicated by faulting. Over the greater part of the northern side, the Gondwana boundary it's
one of the original depositions, modified the course by erosion. The oldest beds are to be found
in the north and are overlapped by younger bases in a southward direction. Besides the boundary
faults there are also oblique and cross faults in the region. The main dislocation probably took
place in the Jurassic time. The region is traversed by many dolerites and micaperidotite dykes,
which have caused much damage to coal resources. The intrusive occurred later than the faults
and may be of Rajmahal or Deccan trap age. The southern boundary of the basin is faulted with
a series of en echelon faults, which are collectively known as the 'Main Boundary Fault'; while
the northern contact is unconformable~. The southern boundary is represented by a well-defined
fault of an immense downthrow to the north, at least 9000 feet in the vicinity of Panchet hill. In
the extreme southeast of the region, the continuation of this Main Botmdary Fault is largely
hidden by alluvium.

MINERALS IN GONDWANA BELT - The main important mineral in the Gondwana system centers around
coal, but there are also deposits of various types of clays. Sandstones and iron are also found in this area
Gondwana coal: Most of the coal of Gondwanas is found in the Damuda (Damodar) System, that is both in
Barakar and Raniganj Series, the former being the more important one. Coal seams are developed in practically
all the areas where the Barakar series occurs. Raniganj coal is important only in the Raniganj coalbelt though
found also in Jharia, Bokaro and a few neighbouring fields.

DRIFT NATURE OF COAL - The Gondwana era was initiated by a glacial climate during which a vast
continental ice sheet covered a large part of Gondwana land. In all the Gondwana coalfields of India the available
evidence points to the fact that the vegetation had traveled some distance before being deposited ultimately to
form coal. In no case has any upright tree stem been found in the coal seams nor are there tree roots extending
into the under-clay. It is true that stems are found but they generally lie more or less flat on the top of the coal
seams. Most of them are solidified except the cortical portion which has been carbonised Owing to pressure the
stems have generally been crushed to an elliptical section and they indicate that they have drifted from the place
where they originally grew. The nature of the coal seams is indicative of their 'draft' origin. All Gondwana coals
contain high ash and even the best seams contain not less than five or six per cm(mt ash). The ash is inherent in
the coal, being more or less uniformly distributed in the coal matter and therefore very difficult to eliminate by
ordinary washing processes. Regarding the proportion of coal to the strata in which they occur, it may be said that
it is generally high. In the Barakar Stage of the coalfields, the proportion of coal to strata is roughly 1 to 8 or 10.
In the Raniganj Series the proportion is less ranging from 1:20 to 1:35. Some of the seams in the Barakars are
very thick, between 15-30 metres. Coal is the most important economic mineral in Raniganj. Coal consists for
carbonized remains of vegetation accumulated either in situ or transported by water and deposited. Practically all
Indian coal seams to be of the la ter type.

Chemically it consists essentially of carbon and hydrogen with subordinate amounts of oxygen and nitrogen.
These are combined in very complex ways. Coal is usually banded, the bands being dull and bright. The dull
bands are composed of durain which is a organic matter mixed with extraneous mineral matter which later
constitutes the 'ash' of coal. The bright bands known as vitrain are much purer and are highly volatile. There are
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two other constituents also, one being clarion, a silky looking material, and the other fusion which looks like soft
friable charcoal and soils the hands when handled.

ECONOMIC GEOLOGY - Coal has been defined as 'a compact stratified mass of mummified plants. Raniganj
coal belong to bituminous types. Four distinctive and visibly differing portions forming the mass of an ordinary
bituminous coal, which includes -

(i) Fusain - It is equivalent of 'mother of coal' and 'mineral charcoal', occurs as patches flattened to the bedding-
plane. 

(ii) Durain - It is equivalent of 'dull' hard coal, occurs as bands, in lenticular shape. 

(iii) Clarainr vitrain- It is 'bright' coal occurs as narrow bands, in lenticular shape. 

The coal seams of the Raniganj coalbelt fall into two well marked groups, 

(i) The measures into a lower (Barakar) and 

(ii) An upper (Raniganj) series. 

(i) Barakar coal 

(a) A relatively low percentage of moisture ranging from 1 to 35 percent. 

(b) A comparatively low percentage of volatiles ranging from 21 to 30 percent. 

(c) A high proportion of fixed carbon ranging from 52 to 64 per cent. 

(d) The better-quality coals excellent steam coals and exhibit the form of a hard metallurgical coke. 

(ii) Raniganj coals 

(a) Alternatively, high proportion of moisture ranging from 3 to 10 per cent. 

(b) In the better-quality seams, the percentage of volatiles is hi~ ranging from 29 to 38 per cent. 

(c) Most of the better-quality coals are excellent gas-coals and free-burning steam. 

The Indian coal Grading Board classified coal of the Raniganj such a way: 

1. Coking coal of superior quality (selected grade and grade I) - Santoria and Dishergarh seam in Raniganj
measures 

2. Non-coking coal of superior quality (selected grade and grade I) Ramnagar, Laihdih, Begunia coal seam in the
Barakar measures) 

3. Coal of inferior quality (Below grade I) Gourangdih-Churulia and Trans-Ajoy Kasta areas. 

The various constituents of coal are ash, moisture and volatile matter. 

Ash - The ash of a coal seam represents the inorganic contents of the coal. It comprises: 

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Primary ash - (a) Inorganic substance in the original plants.  

(b) clayey particles laid down with vegetable debris Secondary ash  

(c) Carbonate and sulphide deposited by water percolating along the joints of the coal.  

(d) Matter introduced by igneous action. 

The ash is not only injurious to the quality of the seam but also replace an equal volume of heat-producing coal
therefore, relatively high specific gravity adds to the weight of the fuel. In coal the ash exhibits a decided tendency
to clinker a proportion of unburnt carbon is usually included within the residual ash, thus preventing complete
combustion from taking place. 

Moisture - The moisture content of a coal apart from hygroscopic moisture, appears to be in colloidal association
with the coal substances. Coals of high moisture content have a higher specific gravity than similar coals of low
moisture content. The moisture content also lowers the calorific value of a coal, by absorbing a certain proportion
of the total heat evolved for its own evaporation and in the form efficient heat. 

Volatile matter - The combustion of coal have containing about 20 per cent of volatile matter yield the greatest
thermal efficiency when the greater portion of oxygen included in volatiles, the lower the caloric value.
Oxygenation can apparently take place during the process of weathering of the coal which explains the
deterioration of coal. The tendency to ignite by spontaneous combustion, greater in Raniganj coals than others.
Spontaneous combustion have resulted not only through the crushing of pillars of coal within the mines but during
the transportation of large quantities of coal over long distance by sea, and in the case of slack coal when piled
for any length of time in heaps of a greater height than about six feet. Another detrimental character of certain
Raniganj coals is the tendency to disintegrate rapidly when stacked for long periods or during transportation. 

Production in CBM wells

To extract the gas, a steel-encased hole is drilled into the coal seam 100 to 1,500 metres (330 to 4,920 ft) below
ground. As the pressure within the coal seam declines due to natural production or the pumping of water from
the coalbed, both gas and produced water come to the surface through tubing. Then the gas is sent to a
compressor station and into natural gas pipelines. The produced water is either reinjected into isolated
formations, released into streams, used for irrigation, or sent to evaporation ponds. The water typically contains
dissolved solids such as sodium bicarbonate and chloride but varies depending on the formation geology.
Coalbed methane wells often produce at lower gas rates than conventional reservoirs, typically peaking at near
300,000 cubic feet (8,500 m3) per day (about 0.100 m³/s), and can have large initial costs. The production
profiles of CBM wells are typically characterized by a "negative decline" in which the gas production rate
initially increases as the water is pumped off and gas begins to desorb and flow. A dry CBM well is similar to a
standard gas well
The methane desorption process follows a curve (of gas content vs. reservoir pressure) called a Langmuir
isotherm. The isotherm can be analytically described by a maximum gas content (at infinite pressure), and the
pressure at which half that gas exists within the coal. These parameters (called the Langmuir volume and
Langmuir pressure, respectively) are properties of the coal, and vary widely.

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As production occurs from a coal reservoir, the changes in pressure are believed to cause changes in the
porosity and permeability of the coal. This is commonly known as matrix shrinkage/swelling. As the gas is
desorbed, the pressure exerted by the gas inside the pores decreases, causing them to shrink in size and
restricting gas flow through the coal. As the pores shrink, the overall matrix shrinks as well, which may
eventually increase the space the gas can travel through (the cleats), increasing gas flow.
The potential of a particular coalbed as a CBM source depends on the following criteria. Cleat density/intensity:
cleats are joints confined within coal sheets. They impart permeability to the coal seam. A high cleat density is
required for profitable exploitation of CBM. Also important is the maceral composition: maceral is a
microscopic, homogeneous, petrographic entity of a corresponding sedimentary rock. A high vitrinite
composition is ideal for CBM extraction, while inertinite hampers the same
The rank of coal has also been linked to CBM content: a vitrinite reflectance of 0.8–1.5% has been found to
imply higher productivity of the coalbed
The gas composition must be considered, because natural gas appliances are designed for gas with a heating
value of about 1,000 BTU (British thermal units) per cubic foot, or nearly pure methane. If the gas contains
more than a few percent non-flammable gases such as nitrogen or carbon dioxide, either these will have to be
removed or it will have to be blended with higher-BTU gas to achieve pipeline quality. If the methane
composition of the coalbed gas is less than 92%, it may not be commercially marketable.

CBM well drilling and completion

The process of drilling and completing coalbed methane (CBM) wells is similar to wells in conventional
reservoirs. Coring, however, can pose special challenges.

Drilling
The first step in creating a drilling program for a CBM well involves gathering information about existing wells
in a given area. These data include:

 Reservoir depths and pressures

 Drilling histories
 Environmental considerations

Sources of this information include:

 Regulatory agencies
 Service companies
 Coal-mine operators

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 Published literature

After these data are gathered and analyzed, a preliminary drilling and completion prognosis can be drafted with
the input of field operations personnel.

An important aspect in drilling frontier or appraisal wells is to keep the drilling procedures relatively simple.
For example, water-based drilling fluids may be more damaging to the coals than air or gas drilling, but they are
safer in the event of a gas kick, and the damage can be mitigated by fracture stimulation.

CBM wells range in depth from a few hundred meters to more than 3000 m. As a result, several rig types and
sizes may be suitable for a given well plan. The most common rig type is the conventional rotary drilling rig,
although modified water-well rigs commonly are used to drill shallow coal wells in locations such as the
Powder River basin of Wyoming. Other rig types include:

 Top-drive rigs
 Mining rigs
 Coiled-tubing drilling units

In some cases, a drilling rig is used to drill the well to the top of the target coal seams and set/cement casing. A
modified completion rig is used to drill the target coals and complete the well while the drilling rig moves to the
next well.

The selection of a rig, associated equipment, and drilling fluids is often guided by the completion method. For
example, if a dynamic-cavity completion is planned, the rig should be equipped with a power swivel for
rotating, reciprocating, and circulating during cleanouts. Auxiliary equipment for this completion will include
air compressors and boosters, blowout preventers, a rotating head, and specially designed manifold and
flowlines for production testing. In some instances, it is more efficient to select a drilling rig by starting with the
desired completion method and designing backwards.

Reservoir pressure and coal characteristics help dictate whether the coal interval is drilled with one of the
following:

 Mud
 Water
 Air
 Gas
 Mist

Water-sensitive shales may require the use of gas or air to minimize swelling and sloughing.
Slightly underbalanced drilling helps minimize coal formation damage. Horizontally drilled CBM wells are
becoming more common.

Coring
Coal cores can be obtained with several different techniques including conventional, wireline, and pressure
coring. Conventional coring equipment is drillpipe conveyed, which can result in trip times of an hour or more.
Because coal samples begin to desorb gas as they are lifted from the bottom of the well, long trip times can
result in large volumes of lost gas. Desorbed gas volumes can be corrected for this effect, but the correction
may not provide accurate gas content. As an alternative, many operators use wireline-coring equipment, which
can bring samples to the surface in 15 to 20 minutes, significantly reducing lost-gas volumes.

14 | P a g e  
 
A few operators use pressure coring, which traps the coal downhole in a sealed barrel, preventing any gas loss.
This technique requires specialized equipment, which can be difficult to operate, and is approximately five
times more expensive than conventional coring. The best applications for pressure coring are those cases in
which there are large discrepancies between existing gas content data and well behavior. For example, pressure
coring in some San Juan basin wells showed that gas contents were twice as high as those values obtained from
conventionally cored wells.

To obtain representative gas content values, high core recoveries are imperative. Unfortunately, recoveries are
often low because higher-quality coals tend to be highly cleated and friable, causing them to break up. In
addition, many operators wait to core until they see a gas kick on the mud log or a change in the rate of
penetration. Waiting until this point means that the top few feet of the coal seam will be missed, and if the coal
seam is thin, it may be missed entirely.

Completions
Several different types of CBM completions have been developed to link the wellbore to the cleat system
effectively. The most common completion type is to run casing, perforate, and hydraulically fracture the coal
seams. Frac jobs in low-permeability coals require long, narrow, propped fractures, whereas short, wide,
unpropped fractures are used in higher-permeability coals. If the permeability is high enough and the coals are
relatively undamaged by drilling, a simple openhole completion may be sufficient. In a few areas, dynamic-
cavity completions are used, resulting in gas rates that are substantially greater than fracture-stimulated
wells. Fig compares fracture-stimulated and dynamic-cavity completion types.

Comparison of fracture-stimulated and dynamic cavity completion types.

It is important to stress that optimizing completion methods in a coal reservoir is likely to be a trial-and-error
process. This process can be shortened by fully understanding the different completion types available, where
they are most applicable, and by collecting sufficient reservoir data to select the best completion. Reviewing
publications from the Gas Research Institute (now the Gas Technology Institute), which has been involved in a
wide range of CBM completion studies for many years, is a good place to start.

In developing a completion and stimulation procedure, it is useful to begin with a successful stimulation design
and modify it to fit a specific coal reservoir. Service companies typically have access to generic designs and an
in-house proprietary stimulation model. It is important to conduct this modeling before drilling the well because
factors such as stimulation treating pressures, the number of fracture stages, and the expected production rate
will have a direct bearing on components such as:

 Rig equipment
 Tubulars
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 Overall well cost

Hydraulic fracture stimulation

Hydraulic fracture stimulations in cased and perforated CBM wells are very similar to those in conventional
reservoirs, and there are many advantages to this completion type. By casing the well, interbedded strata can be
placed behind pipe. This is especially important if the strata include swelling shales or fractured lithologies that
could contribute large volumes of water. By perforating coal seams individually, they can be tested to determine
their pressure, permeability, and skin before the stimulation treatment.

The well then can be fractured in multiple stages, with treatments optimized for a particular coal seam or group
of seams. To ensure the appropriate interval is treated, stages can be isolated with:

 Bridge plugs
 Frac baffles
 Sand plugs

or

 Ball sealers

Limited-entry fracture stimulations may be appropriate if there are several coal zones distributed over a long
interval. If there are thin, multiple coals, a modified coiled-tubing unit can be used to treat each coal seam
successively, resulting in significant cost savings. During the stimulation, tracers often are added to the
fracturing fluids to determine fracture height by running a subsequent gamma ray log. Subsequent well testing
can help determine the conductivity of this fracture. During production, fluid-entry surveys can be used to
quantify the contribution of individual coal seams.

The biggest disadvantage to fracture stimulation is that productivity is often lower than expected. Horizontal,
vertical, or complex fractures may be generated, depending on the depth, seam thickness, and the distribution of
in-situ stresses. Induced fractures may be very tortuous, leading to high treatment pressures and early
screenouts. Severe formation damage can be caused by coal fines or fracturing fluids. These fracturing fluids
can be difficult to remove with gel breakers because of low formation temperatures. Most CBM hydraulic
stimulations are performed conventionally through perforations in the casing, although openhole hydraulic
stimulations have been tried in several basins. These stimulations typically yield unfavorable results because of
poor downhole controls

CBM fracture-stimulation treatments typically are water based and fall into one of the following four
categories:

 Water (slickwater)
 Gel
 Foam
 Proppantless

In a water fracture-stimulation treatment, the base fluid is plain water or water with a high-molecular-weight
polyacrylimide polymer added for friction reduction (slickwater). Water fracs are often a preferred treatment
because they are less damaging to the coals than gel treatments and are commonly less expensive. Water fracs
typically are pumped at high rates of 50 to 80 bbl/min to compensate for the low viscosity and poor sand-
carrying capacity of the water. Typical treatments use 12/20- to 20/40-mesh sand with proppant loadings of
16 | P a g e  
 
2,000 to 3,000 lbm/ft of net coal, ramping up from 1 lbm/gal to 4 to 6 lbm/gal at the end of a typical treatment.
One of the main disadvantages of a water frac is the tendency for premature screenouts, which create short
fracture half-lengths and result in poorer well performance.

Gelled water-based stimulation fluids use natural or synthetic polymers to provide viscosity and are categorized
as linear or cross-linked gels. Their high viscosities result in large transport capacities, which allow bigger jobs
to be pumped. Proppant sizes are commonly 12/20- to 20/40-mesh sand with proppant loadings of 5,000 to
10,000 lbm/ft of net coal. The key disadvantage to a gel-based fluid is the potential for serious formation
damage caused by cleat blockage from unbroken gel, gel residues, and sorption-induced coal swelling.

Foam treatments are formed by dispersing a gas (usually nitrogen or carbon dioxide) within a water-based fluid.
Foam stimulations are commonly used in coal reservoirs with low permeabilities and/or low pressures. When
combined with gel systems, foams can provide high viscosities to carry proppant efficiently. An additional
benefit of foam is its low hydrostatic pressure, which helps create rapid flowback of the fracturing fluids in low-
pressure coals. Disadvantages of foam are:

 The safety concerns of pumping an energized fluid

 Rapid proppant flowback
 The additional cost of the gas

Proppantless stimulations generally use plain water as the base fluid, although gel and foam can be used. When
water is used, the volumes and rates are similar to those of a slickwater design. Ball sealers are recommended to
ensure effective zonal treatment. Proppantless stimulations are attractive for the following reasons:

 There is no proppant flowback.

 There is no residual-gel damage.
 There are substantial cost savings.

These stimulations are effective in locations such as the Powder River basin of Wyoming, where the objective is
to connect the wellbore effectively to high-permeability coals. However, in lower-permeability coals,
production rates indicate that proppantless stimulations are less effective than sand/water stimulations by a ratio
of 2:1.

Dynamic-cavity completions
A cavity completion is defined as an openhole completion with an intentionally enlarged wellbore (cavity) in
the target coal interval. This completion type was pioneered in the overpressured Fruitland Coal fairway of the
San Juan basin, where cavity completions have produced gas and water at rates more than 10 times greater than
those of nearby fracture-stimulated wells. Dynamic-cavity completions are created by intentionally causing a
large pressure drop in the wellbore, resulting in the redistribution of stresses and subsequent coal failure.1 Sonar
probes run in cavitated wells indicate cavern diameters as large as 8 ft.

Different cavitation techniques have evolved in response to different coal properties and various problems,
including:

 The inability to initiate coal failure

 Stuck pipe or tools
 Cavity instability

At least five different types of cavitation are now used including:

17 | P a g e  
 
 Drilling
 Natural
 Injection
 Mechanical
 Jetting

Each of these operations usually are conducted multiple times over a given coal zone until an acceptable
flowrate is obtained. The flow rate following each operation can be determined quickly with a pitot gauge to
decide if another cavitation cycle is needed.

Drilling cavitation is performed by drilling through the coal zones in an underbalanced state. This creates a
pressure drop across the formation face, causing the coal to shear or break off along near-wellbore cleat or
fracture planes. High circulation rates with air, gas, or mist generally are used to clean the hole effectively.

Natural cavitation begins by drilling a targeted coal seam with air, gas, or mist. The bit is then lifted above the
seam and the well is shut in. The well builds pressure naturally until a specific pressure is achieved. Buildup
surface pressures should be recorded and a curve drawn of each buildup period. Once a pressure breakover
point is observed, the well is rapidly opened at the surface with hydraulically operated valves. This causes a
high-rate depressurization accompanied by a surge of water, gas, and coal rubble, which are produced up the
well and through a flowline to the flare pit. The bit is then lowered to the bottom of the hole while rotating,
reciprocating, and circulating. The wellbore is cleaned out and checked for fill, and the operation is repeated
until adequate results are achieved. The next zone is then drilled, and the process is repeated. In some cases, all
coal zones are drilled before the natural cavitation process is attempted.

Injection cavitation is similar to natural cavitation, except that the wellbore is pressured up from the surface and
then surged. The process typically is repeated many times, often for several days or weeks depending on the
results of each cycle. Several different fluids can be injected, including the following

 Gas
 Air
 Water
 CO2
 Foam
 Coal-comminuting solvents

These are pumped through the drillstring into the formation until a predetermined pressure is reached,
sometimes in excess of 1,500 psia. This induced pressure is then suddenly released at the surface by hydraulic
valves, resulting in the flow of water, gas, and coal rubble to the surface while continuing to circulate the
wellbore through the annulus with gas or air. Because of the large cavities that sometimes are created, a
substantial amount of the larger coal pieces may not be circulated out of the wellbore. It is crucial to drill up and
clean this fill so that the maximum production potential of the well can be determined.

Mechanical cavitation involves drilling the coal zones to total depth, and then a mechanical hole opener
(underreamer) is used to enlarge the wellbore. This process also removes any near-wellbore formation damage.
In some cases the noncoal zones above and below the coals are underreamed to relieve overburden stresses that
could cause the coals to fail and slough into the wellbore. In some cases, natural or surging cavitation is
performed after mechanical cavitation. Jetting cavitation uses hydraulic pressure to direct a jet of gas and water
directly toward the coal face. This process may be performed to facilitate a cavity when other cavitation
methods have failed. Recavitations are performed when the original openhole or cavity completion exhibits
poor production compared with offsetting cavitated wells. Additionally, a recavitation or cleanout is performed
18 | P a g e  
 
when the original cavity completion exhibits unexplainable production decline over time. The injection
cavitation technique is typically used and the procedure is carried out with a modified completion or cavitation
rig. The well is killed with water, and the production casing or liner, if there is one, is removed. The removal is
sometimes difficult, resulting in a sidetrack or redrill of the original hole. The well is then recavitated until:

 The flow rate is acceptable

 The cavity is stable
 The amount of produced coal fines is minimal

When a successful cavitation or recavitation operation is performed and the cavity is deemed stable, it is crucial
that no additional pressure surges (increasing or decreasing) are applied to the well. When the well is ready for
production, it should be opened slowly over a period of several hours to limit the surging of water and gas into
the wellbore, thereby minimizing the movement of coal fines and the spalling of coal.

Artificial lift
Artificial lift is a method used to lower the producing bottomhole pressure (BHP) on the formation to obtain a
higher production rate from the well. This can be done with a positive-displacement downhole pump, such as a
beam pump or a progressive cavity pump (PCP), to lower the flowing pressure at the pump intake. It also can be
done with a downhole centrifugal pump, which could be a part of an electrical submersible pump (ESP) system.
A lower bottomhole flowing pressure and higher flow rate can be achieved with gas lift in which the density of
the fluid in the tubing is lowered and expanding gas helps to lift the fluids. Artificial lift can be used to generate
flow from a well in which no flow is occurring or used to increase the flow from a well to produce at a higher
rate. Most oil wells require artificial lift at some point in the life of the field, and many gas wells benefit from
artificial lift to take liquids off the formation so gas can flow at a higher rate.

The major forms of artificial lift are:

 Sucker-rod (beam) pumping

 Electrical submersible pumping (ESP)
 Gas lift and intermittent gas lift
 Reciprocating and jet hydraulic pumping systems
 Plunger lift
 Progressive cavity pumps (PCP)

There are other methods, such as the electrical submersible progressive cavity pump (ESPCP) for pumping
solids and viscous oils, in deviated wells. This system has a PCP with the motor and some other components
similar to an ESP. Other methods include:

 Modifications of beam pump systems

 Various intermittent gas lift methods
 Various combination systems.
 Continuous Belt Transportation

Selecting an artificial lift system

To realize the maximum potential from developing any oil or gas field, the most economical artificial lift
method must be selected. The methods historically used to select the lift method for a particular field vary
broadly across the industry. The methods include:
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 Operator experience
 What methods are available for installations in certain areas of the world
 What is working in adjoining or similar fields
 Determining what methods will lift at the desired rates and from the required depths
 Evaluating lists of advantages and disadvantages
 “Expert” systems to both eliminate and select systems
 Evaluation of initial costs, operating costs, production capabilities, etc. with the use of economics as a tool
of selection, usually on a present-value basis

These methods consider:

 Geographic location
 Capital cost
 Operating cost
 Production flexibility
 Reliability
 “Mean time between failures”

In most cases, what has worked best or which lift method performs best in similar fields serve as selection
criteria. Also, the equipment and services available from vendors can easily determine which lift method will be
applied. However, when significant costs for well servicing and high production rates are a part of the scenario,
it becomes prudent for the operator to consider most, if not all, of the available evaluation and selection
methods. See Artificial lift selection methods. If the “best” lift method is not selected, such factors as long-term
servicing costs, deferred production during workovers, and excessive energy costs (poor efficiency) can reduce
drastically the net present value (NPV) of the project. Typically, the reserves need to be produced in a timely
manner with reasonably low operating costs. Conventional wisdom considers the best artificial lift method to be
the system that provides the highest present value for the life of the project. Good data are required for a
complete present-value analysis, and these data are not always broadly available.

Environmental and geographical considerations may be overriding issues. For example, sucker-rod pumping is,
by far, the most widely used artificial lift method in onshore. However, in a densely populated city or on an
offshore platform with 40 wells in a very small deck area, sucker-rod pumping might be a poor choice. Also,
deep wells producing several thousands of barrels per day cannot be lifted by beam lift; other methods must be
considered. Such geographic, environmental, and production considerations can limit the choices to only one
method of lift; determining the best overall choice is more difficult when it is possible to apply several of the
available lift methods.

Artificial lift method selection should be a part of the overall well design. Once the method is selected, the
wellbore size required to obtain the desired production rate must be considered. Many times, a casing program
has been designed to minimize well-completion costs, but it is later found that the desired production could not
be obtained because of the size limitation on the artificial lift equipment. This can lead to an ultimate loss of
total reserves. Even if target production rates can be achieved, smaller casing sizes can lead to higher long-term
well-servicing problems. If oil prices are low, it is tempting to select a small casing size to help with current
economics. Obviously, wells should be drilled and completed with future production and lift methods in mind,
but this is often not the case.

Reservoir pressure and well productivity

Among the most important factors to consider when selecting an artificial lift system are current and future
reservoir pressure and well productivity. If producing oil or liquid rate is plotted (X axis) against producing
20 | P a g e  
 
 bottom hole pressure (BHP) [Y axis], one of two inflow performance relationships (IPR) usually is seen.
Above the bubble point pressure, the liquid rate vs. pressure drop below the reservoir pressure (drawdown) is
linear. Below the bubble point pressure, a relationship similar to that described by Vogel
occurs. Fig. illustrates production vs. drawdown relationships as a single IPR with a bubble point of 750 psig
and an average reservoir pressure of 2,000 psig. If the necessary data are available, a single-phase IPR
expression for either gas or liquid flow is available from radial-flow equations. Gas deliverability curves show
a nonlinear dependence of gas rate similar to the liquid rate vs. pressure on a Vogel curve. Liquid-rate IPR
curves can have a gas-to-liquid ratio associated with the liquid rate, and gas deliverability curves can have a
liquid production (e.g., bbl/MMscf/D) associated with the gas rates. Our discussion will focus on IPRs with
liquid production as a function of the flowing BHP. Fig.IPR with bubblepoint pressure of 750 psi.

Some types of artificial lift can reduce the producing sandface pressure to a lower level than other artificial lift
methods. For pumping wells, achieving a rate that occurs below the bubblepoint pressure requires measures to
combat possible gas interference because gas bubbles (free gas) will be present at the intake of the downhole
artificial lift installation. In addition to setting the pump below the perforations, such measures include the use
of a variety of other possible gas-separation schemes and the use of special pumps to compress gas or reduce
effects of “fluid pound” in beam systems. However, the artificial lift method of gas lift is assisted by the
production of gas (with liquids) from the reservoir.

The reward for achieving a lower producing pressure will depend on the IPR. With the IPR data available, a
production goal may be set. For low-rate wells, the operator would want to produce the maximum rate from the
well. For high-rate wells, the production goal can be set by the capacity or horsepower limit of a particular
artificial lift method.

In addition to radial flow and IPR expressions for vertical wells, there are several IPR models[2] for horizontal
wells. Horizontal wells typically produce several multiples of what a vertical well would produce in the same
formation. Artificial lift usually is installed in the near vertical portion of a horizontal well, rarely into the
horizontal portion, to reduce slugging and to achieve maximum drawdown.

IPRs can be generated to represent the expected well conditions as the shut-in pressure depletes. When
correlated to a reservoir model or a tank material balance, time can be associated with future IPRs. Fig. shows
future IPR curves as the reservoir pressure drops as a result of depletion. This particular model shows the
productivity index (PI) remaining constant above the bubble point as the reservoir depletes. The bubble point
would not necessarily remain constant with time as modeled here. Reservoir models may be used to predict
expected inflow conditions of the wells for the life of the project. Usually this is done only for larger projects.
IPR expressions can be modified to show damage or stimulation effects. A test rate or absolute open flow for an
IPR increase due to skin removal can be found by multiplying by approximately (7+ s)/7 in which s is the
nonrate dependent initial “skin” of the well and the final skin is zero. This approximate ratio is determined by
dividing a radial-flow rate equation with no skin by a radial-flow equation with skin. The “7” is approximately
the log of 0.472 times the drainage radius over the wellbore radius. More complex relationships show the
effects of rate-dependent skin or turbulence. For more discussion, see Formation damage.
21 | P a g e  
 
 Fig. IPR with shut-in pressure declining with time.

Reservoir fluids
The characteristics of the reservoir fluid also must be considered. Paraffin buildup can be attacked mechanically
when sucker-rod pumping is used, but may require a thermal or chemical method when other artificial lift
methods are used. Sand- or solids-laden production, which can rule out the use of plunger lift, can also cause
wear with sucker-rod pumps, reciprocating hydraulic pumps, and jet pumps. Gas lift and PCPs produce
moderate volumes of solids with only minor problems. The producing gas/liquid ratio is very important to the
lift designer. If the percentage of free gas at intake conditions is high, gas interference is a potential detriment to
all methods of lift, but it is a benefit to gas lift. High-fluid viscosity hinders most major forms of lift, but the
PCP may produce low temperature, shallow, viscous fluids with little difficulty.

Long-term reservoir performance and facility constraints

Two approaches frequently are taken to account for long-term reservoir performance:

 Design on the basis of anticipated performance

 Design on the basis of current conditions

If future reservoir performance can be predicted, artificial lift equipment can be installed that can produce up to
the largest rate anticipated over the life of the well. This philosophy leads to the installation of oversized
equipment, perhaps in anticipation of ultimately producing large quantities of water. Because most artificial lift
methods operate at poor efficiency when under loaded, oversized equipment installed because of anticipated
high short-term production rates can lead to high energy or operational costs over a significant fraction of the
life of the field.

Another extreme is to design only for current conditions without anticipating future production profiles. This
can lead to multiple required changes in the size or type of installed lift equipment. Operating efficiently during
the short term may be possible, but large amounts of capital for changing equipment may be required later. For
example, changing reservoir conditions with time, as shown in Fig. , would have to be considered carefully in
sizing artificial lift equipment for current conditions and for some future date. Bennet[3] addresses some of the
concerns of timing related to artificial lift methods.

The operator should consider both long-term and short-term aspects of an artificial lift plan. The goal is to
maximize the present value profit (PVP) of the operation over the life of the field. Frequently, the lift method
that produces the most oil is the method that provides maximum PVP. However, if operational costs are
significantly high for a particular method, a method that can only produce a lower rate but produces more
reliably may be more economical. Changes in a lift method usually are not considered worthwhile, but, if
conditions change drastically, other lift methods may need to be implemented

22 | P a g e  
 
Progressing cavity pump (PCP) systems

Progressing cavity pumping (PCP) systems derive their name from the unique, positive displacement pump that
evolved from the helical gear pump concept first developed by Rene Moineau in the late 1920s. Although these
pumps are now most commonly referred to as progressing cavity (PC) pumps, they also are called screw pumps
or Moineau pumps. They are increasingly used for artificial lift, and have been adapted to a range of
challenging lift situations (e.g., heavy oil, high sand production, gassy wells, directional or horizontal wells).
This page provides an introduction to PCP systems.History

Progessive cavity (PC) pumps initially were used extensively as fluid transfer pumps in a wide range of
industrial and manufacturing applications, with some attempts made to use them for the surface transfer of
oilfield fluids. However, it was not until after the development of synthetic elastomers and adhesives in the late
1940s that PC pumps could be applied effectively in applications involving petroleum-based fluids. Except for
several limited field trials, it was not until the late 1970s that a concerted effort was made to use PC pumps as a
method of artificial lift for the petroleum industry. Over the past two decades, with the technical contributions
and persistence of many individuals and companies, PCP systems have experienced a gradual emergence as a
common form of artificial lift. Although precise numbers are difficult to obtain, it is estimated that more than
50,000 wells worldwide currently are being produced with these systems.

PCP configuration overview

The two key features that differentiate PCP systems from other forms of artificial lift are the downhole PC
pumps and the associated surface drive systems. Although other major components, such as the production
tubing and sucker rod strings, are found in other downhole lift systems, the design and operational requirements
typically differ for PCP applications. Also, many additional equipment components may be used in conjunction
with PCP systems to contend with specific application conditions.

The basic surface-driven PCP system configuration illustrated in Fig is the most common, although electric and
hydraulic downhole drive systems and various other hybrid PCP systems are also available. The downhole PC
pump is a positive displacement pump that consists of two parts:

 Helical steel “rotor”

 “Stator” comprised of a steel tubular housing with a bonded elastomeric sleeve formed with a multiple
internal helix matched suitably to the rotor configuration

23 | P a g e  
 
 

Fig. Configuration of a typical progressing cavity pumping (PCP) system.

The stator is typically run into the well on the bottom of the production tubing, while the rotor is connected to
the bottom of the sucker rod string. Rotation of the rod string by means of a surface drive system causes the
rotor to spin within the fixed stator, creating the pumping action necessary to produce fluids to surface.

PCP systems have several unique design features and operating characteristics that favor their selection for
many applications.

 High overall system energy efficiency, typically in the 55 to 75% range.

 Ability to produce high concentrations of sand or other produced solids.
 Ability to tolerate high percentages of free gas.
 No valves or reciprocating parts to clog, gas lock, or wear.
 Good resistance to abrasion.
 Low internal shear rates (limits fluid emulsification through agitation).
 Relatively low power costs and continuous power demand (prime mover capacity fully utilized).
 Relatively simple installation and operation.
 Generally low maintenance.
 Low profile surface equipment.
 Low surface noise levels.

PCP systems, however, also have some limitations and special considerations:

 Limited production rates (maximum of 800 m3/d [5,040 B/D] in large-diameter pumps, much lower in
small-diameter pumps).
 Limited lift capacity (maximum of 3000 m [9,840 ft]). Note that the lift capacity of larger displacement PC
pumps is typically much lower.
 Limited temperature capability (routine use to 100°C [212°F], potential use to 180°C [350°F] with special
elastomers).
 Sensitivity to fluid environment (stator elastomer may swell or deteriorate on exposure to certain fluids,
including well treatment fluids).
 Subject to low volumetric efficiency in wells producing substantial quantities of gas.
 Sucker rod strings may be susceptible to fatigue failures.
 Pump stator may sustain permanent damage if pumped dry for even short periods.
 Rod-string and tubing wear can be problematic in directional and horizontal wells.
 Most systems require the tubing to be pulled to replace the pump.
24 | P a g e  
 
 Vibration problems may occur in high-speed applications (mitigation may require the use of tubing anchors
and stabilization of the rod string).
 Paraffin control can be an issue in waxy crude applications (rotation as opposed to reciprocation of the rod
string precludes use of scrapers for effective wax removal).
 Lack of experience with system design, installation, and operation, especially in some areas.

Many of these limitations continue to change or be alleviated over time with the development of new products
and improvements in materials and equipment design. If configured and operated properly in appropriate
applications, PCP systems currently provide a highly efficient and economical means of artificial lift.

Applications
Use of a PCP system should be evaluated for situations that are:

 High-viscosity oil wells

 High-sand-cut wells
 Low-productivity wells
 Gassy wells
 Directional- and horizontal-well applications
 Hostile fluid conditions
 High-speed operations
 Coalbed-methane and water-source wells
 Elevated-temperature applications

REFERENCES
1. Moineau, R.J.L. 1932. Gear Mechanism. US Patent No. 1,892,217. 
2. Cholet, H. 1997. Progressing Cavity Pumps. Paris, France: Inst. Francais du Petrole. 
3. Lea, J.F., Anderson, P.O., and Anderson, D.G. 1988. Optimization Of Progressive Cavity Pump Systems
In The Development Of The Clearwater Heavy Oil Reservoir. J Can Pet Technol 27 (1). PETSOC-88-01-
05.  
4. Wright, D. and Adair, R. 1993. Progressive Cavity Pumps Prove More Efficient in Mature Waterflood
Tests. Oil & Gas J. 91 (32): 43. 
5. Clegg, J.D., Bucaram, S.M., and Hein, N.W.J. 1993. Recommendations and Comparisons for Selecting
Artificial-Lift Methods. J Pet Technol 45 (12): 1128–1167. SPE-24834-PA. 
6. Dugan, T.A. and Williams, B.L. 1988. History of Gas Produced from Coal Seams in the San Juan Basin.
Geology and Coal-bed Methane Resources of the Northern San Juan Basin, Colorado and New Mexico,
ed. J.E. Fassett, 1-10. Denver, Colorado: Rocky Mountain Assn. of Geologists. 
7. Rogers, R.E. 1994. Coalbed Methane: Principles and Practice, 345. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey:
Prentice Hall. 
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