Putnam (1995-2010)

The Fifty-Sixth William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
Saturday, December 2, 1995
A–1 Let be a set of real numbers which is closed under different columns independent of each other. Let the
multiplication (that is, if and are in , then so is ). row sums d8e of the resulting matrix be rearranged
Let and be disjoint subsets of whose union is (if necessary) so that 90f40fe . Show that for some
. Given that the product of any three (not necessarily Ffgh/D5=5%> , it is at least four times as likely that both
distinct) elements of is in and that the product of i;W / and e;W E as that Q;[j;We .
any three elements of is in , show that at least one
of the two subsets is closed under multiplication. B–1 For a partition k of l-/=E8bA)mJ>BSn"8oA85Sp , let kq be
the number of elements in the part containing . Prove
A–2 For what pairs
of positive real numbers does the that for any two partitions k and kr , there are two dis-
improper integral tinct numbers and s in l%/=EbS)mJ>S8BSn"oS85Sp such
that kq ;tkq ]sS and kru ;tkrv ]sS . [A partition of
a set is a collection of disjoint subsets (parts) whose

union is .]
converge? B–2 An ellipse, whose semi-axes have lengths and , rolls
A–3 The number "!#%$'&&(&)%* has nine (not necessarily dis- without slipping on the curve sw;teyx)zN{R|(}~J . How are
tinct) decimal digits. The number + ! + $ &&(&)+ * is such .e related, given that the ellipse completes one rev-
that each of the nine 9-digit numbers formed by replac- olution when it traverses one period of the curve?
ing just one of the digits -, is ! $ &&& * by the corre- $
B–3 To each positive integer with F decimal digits, we as-
sponding digit +., ( /10324065 ) is divisible by 7. The sociate the determinant of the matrix obtained by writ-
number 7 ! 7 $ &&(&7 * is related to + ! + $ &&(&8+ * is the same ing the digits in order across the rows. For example, for
way: that is, each of the nine numbers formed by replac- oB
ing one of the + , by the corresponding 7 , is divisible by F;[E , to the integer 8617 we associate S# [;
/n
7. Show that, for each 2 , , 97 , is divisible by 7. [For >@? . Find, as a function of F , the sum of all the determi-
example, if !-$:&(&&8-*<; /(5=5->@?A/(5=5%B , then +DC may be 2 $
nants associated with F -digit integers. (Leading digits
or 9, since /(5%5%>=?%E@5%5=B and /(5%5%>=?=5=5%5=B are multiples of are assumed to be nonzero; for example, for Ft;E ,
7.] there are 9000 determinants.)
A–4 Suppose we have a necklace of F beads. Each bead is B–4 Evaluate
labeled with an integer and the sum of all these labels
is FGH/ . Prove that we can cut the necklace to form a /
E=E=?-n &
string whose consecutive labels !@ $@&(&&( JI satisfy E=E@?"ni $$)#! YY
K
L ~
, 0POQP/ for OR; /%ES&&(&)F:& Express your answer in the form , where .ed8
,NM ! are integers.
A–5 Let ! $ &&(&# I be differentiable (real-valued) func- B–5 A game starts with four heaps of beans, containing 3,4,5
tions of a single variable 7 which satisfy and 6 beans. The two players move alternately. A move
consists of taking either
!
;U ! ! ! )! $ $ HV(VVD ! I I
%T a) one bean from a heap, provided at least two beans
$ are left behind in that heap, or
;U $ ! ! $ $ $ HV(VVD $ I I
%T b) a complete heap of two or three beans.
.. ..
. . The player who takes the last heap wins. To win the
I game, do you want to move first or second? Give a
;U I ! ! I $ $ WVVV. I@I"I
%T winning strategy.
for some constants ",YX[Z\? . Suppose that for all 2 , B–6 For a positive real number , define
, ]T) _^`? as T_^\a . Are the functions ! $ &(&&( I
necessarily linearly dependent? u '; l]F@F;/=ES8bA&&(&p%&
A–6 Suppose that each of F people writes down the numbers Prove that l-/=E8bA&(&&p cannot be expressed as the dis-
1,2,3 in random order in one column of a bc4F matrix, joint union of three sets u #
and . [As
with all orders equally likely and with the orders for usual, is the greatest integer 0 .]
Solutions to the Fifty-Sixth William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
Kiran Kedlaya

A–1 Suppose on the contrary that there exist with A–5 Everyone (presumably) knows that the set of solutions

and with . Then of a system of linear first-order differential equations

v
while , contradiction. with constant coefficientsa is -dimensional, with ba-
}
sis vectors of the form V ~ V (i.e. a function times
A–2 The integral converges iff . The }
"! proof
easiest #$
a constant vector), where the ~ V !hare linearly indepen-
uses “big-O”
notation and the fact that }
!&%(')*)+! ! *)/! dent. In particular, our solution can be written as
for , ,.- ! . (Here means w 8 a ~ }
V V V .
bounded by a constant times .)
} } (DRDRD?}
So 0 0 Choose a ! vector X orthogonal to ~ ~
w but nots ! to
~} } } }
!1 ! !
#
3 4 %! . Since as , the
} s ~ } a
same is true of ;
.2 2 but that is simply . In other words, if
# X a
! 4 % '(!56*)+!87 9
(
V , then V must also go to 0.
hence: 0 0
However, it is easy to exhibit a solution which does
#< not go to 0. The sum of the eigenvalues of the matrix
!1 ! ! 4 %>=?!5@*)/! 7
;2 V , also known as the trace of , being the sum

of the diagonal entries of , is nonnegative, so has
and similarly
: an eigenvalue with nonnegative real part, and a cor-
0 0
} }
! ! !
#<
%>=C!.@*)/! 7

D responding eigenvector ~ . Then UR ~ is a solution that
2 2AB does not go to 0. (If is not real, add this solution to
Hence the integral we’re looking at is its complex conjugate to get a real solution, which still
E6F
doesn’t go to 0.)
#<
! %>=C!56*)+! 7 JI ! D

G
52H Hence
!
one X of the V , say , is zero, in which case
} s }

! #< *)/! 7
for all .
! 7LK #<
The term is bounded by a constant times
, whose integral
! 7LM
# <
converges. ! 7&M #<
Thus we only have to
%= A–6 View
decide whether N2@ converges. But nC this

as a random walk/Markov process with states
e t the triples of integers with sum 0, correspond-
has divergent integral, so we get convergence if and
only if 1O (in which case the integral telescopes any- ing to the difference between the first, second and third
way). rows with their average (twice the number of columns).
Adding a new column adds on a random permutation
I DRDDITS DDRD S X
A–3 Let P and Q be the numbers andS U U , re- of the vector 2 . I prefer to identify
the triple
I X 7 V X nC c A A
spectively. We are given S that U>VW2 V PZY e t with the point eJ2 2t tB2e in
/[)\^]`_ ba X 7 V X@+[)\c]d_
RDDRD9$g
and VJ2Ù>V Q Y
DRDD9g
for ef the plane, where is a cube root of unity. Then adding
. Sum the first relation over eh and we a new column corresponds to moving to one of the six
g Xk+[)\c]d_ Xm/[)\^]d_
get Qi2 P PjY , or Q PlY . neighbors of the current position in a triangular lattice.
Now add the first and second na
relations S for any particu- v
I X 7 V X
What we’d like to argue is that for large enough , the
lar ]`_ of e and we get V 2
value
/[)\^ V Q PoY
. But we know Q a P is divisible by 7, and 10 ratio of the probabilities of being in any two particular
I Xk/[)\^]d_
is coprime to 7, so Vp2 VpY . states goes to 1. Then in fact, we’ll see that eventually,

! `ssRsbN! /v %v about six times as many matrices have `B2 .

A–4 Let
X q>r rW2ut 2 , so that qw)Oqxy 2 than . This is a pain to prove, though,
. These form a cyclic sequence that doesn’t change and in fact is way more than we actually need.
when you rotate the necklace, except that the entire se-
quence gets translated ! by a constant. In particular, it Let 4w and w be the probability that we are at the
makes sense to! choose V for which X
qV is maximum and origin, or at a particular point adjacent to the origin,

make that one w ; this way qVhz for all e , which gives respectively. Then w? w . (In fact, w( is
! "ssRs({! /v %>v >%(
Vz| e 2 , but the right side may be times the sum of the probabilities
v
of being at each
replaced by ep2 since the left side is an integer. neighbor of the origin at time , but these are all w .)
% 'C%(
So the desired
v result, which is that % 4 w wm
'T% for B–4 The infinite continued fraction
'?'?XT_ is defined as_ the>%limit
'C'(XT

some large , is equivalent to w( w . of the sequence µx6 µw( 2 µw .
Suppose on the contrary that this is not the case; then Notice that the sequence is strictly decreasing (by in-
b'C%( w v duction) and thus indeed has a limit µ , which satisfies
w - for some constant . However, if '?'?XT_ % '?'(Xc_ O X
v ( µO 2 µ , or rewriting, µ 2 µ .
, the probability
that we chose b( each of the six
%^ ¡£¢ Moreover, we want the greater of the two roots.
types of moves times is already ,
which by Stirling’s $
#
approximation is asymptotic to a
7&¤ Now
! !
how to compute the eighth root of µ ? Notice
!¶ X that
constant b
T
'
% times . This term% alone is'T%bigger than if satisfies the quadratic 2@ , then we
w
, so we must have w( wm for some have
v %

. (In X fact, we must have w? wm 2m¥ for any X /! !1| /! !1|
¥B¦ .) 2·
<
! ' ! | D
B–1 For a given § , no more than three different values of 2 2
/!
§ are possible (four would require one part each of
size at least 1,2,3,4, and that’s already more than 9/! el- !
Clearly, !1then,
" the positive square roots ! of the #$ !)
k'quadratic

! ¨ /! 2A satisfy the quadratic 2 #$
ements). If no such exist, each pair § §8© X
! .! Thus #< µ
occurs for at most 1 element of , and since there are =c_>we
!¸ compute X that is the greater
£ª5 root! of _>!d2 , µ #¹ is the greater root
only possible pairs, each must occur exactly once. X 0
/! of 2 , and µ is the greater root of
In particular, each value of § must ! ?!5º X +y ´ %?'
+! occur 3 times. /! 2 , otherwise known as .
However, clearly any given value of § occurs tc§
times, where t is/! the number of distinct partitions of B–5 This problem is dumb if you know the Sprague-

that size. Thus § can occur 3 times only if it equals Grundy theory of normal impartial games (see Conway,
1 or 3, but we have three distinct values for which it Berlekamp and Guy, Winning Ways, for details). I’ll de-
occurs, contradiction. scribe how it applies here. To each position you assign
B–2 For those who haven’t taken enough physics, “rolling a nim-value as follows. A position with no moves (in
without slipping” means that the perimeter of the ellipse which case the person to move has just lost) takes value
and the curve pass at the same rate, so all we’re saying 0. Any other position is assigned the smallest number
is that the perimeter of the ellipse equals the length of not assigned to a valid move from that position.
one period of the sine curve. So set up the integrals: For a single pile, one sees that an empty pile has value
$« 0, a pile of 2 has value 1, a pile of 3 has value 2, a pile
E "
3 \ I of 4 has value 0, a pile of 5 has value 1, and a pile of 6
2¬4®¯B° &± ^° °
x has value 0.
«?²
E
3 4| % \ !&% I ! D You add piles just like in standard Nim: the nim-value
± of the composite of two games (where at every turn you
x
!³%
pick a game and make a move there) is the “base 2 ad-
Let °l \ in the second integral and write 1 as dition without carries” (i.e. exclusive OR) of the nim-
®¯ ° ± ° and you get values of the constituents. So our'¬starting
»6X£»º4position,
»6X with
$« piles of 3, 4, 5, 6, has nim-value .
E \
3 I
®¯ ° ± ° ° A position is a win for the player to move if and only if
x « : it has a nonzero value, in which case the winning strat-
E
"
\

I D egy is to always move to a 0 position. (This is always
®¯ ° ± ° ° possible from a nonzero position and never from a zero
x
position, which is precisely the condition that defines

Since the left side is increasing as a function
of , we the set of winning positions.) In this case, the winning

have equality if and only if | . move is to reduce the pile of 3 down to 2, and you can
v v easily describe the entire strategy if you so desire.
B–3 For we obviously get 45, while for the
½¾
answer is 0 because it both changes sign (because de- B–6 Obviously ¼ have to be greater than 1, and no two
terminants are alternating) and remains unchanged (by can both be rational, so without loss of!8generality as-
½ À ! !JÂ
symmetry) when you switch v ' any two rows other than sume that ¼ and are irrational. Let ¿ 2¸Á
! AÃ
the first one. So only is left. By the multilin- denote ah
the ¼
/dfractional
% part >% of T. Then
Ä XJÀ if and
earity of the determinant, the answer is the determinant only if ¼ 2 ¼ ¿ . In particular, this
Ã CÅ DRDD9 vhÀ /vÇ· %
of the matrix whose first (resp. second) row is the sum means that ¼ ¿ contains Æ ¼v 8Èh2
of all possible first (resp. second) /rows. There are 90
=T´?X =CXC´ elements, and similarly. Hence for every integer ,
first rows whose sum is the/=Tvector´?X =T´(X
, and 100 vË| vu| vu|
second rows whose sum is =c´5ª=c´(.X Thus the answer v D
=T´?X5ª=T´?X =c´(X1ª=TXC´ '?XC'C´(X D ÊÉ É ½ É ¾ 2
is 2 ¼ Ì Ì Ì
2
v v Í v Ð À v À
Dividing through
>% |by
>% ½ and
| >% taking
the limit as of points ¿ ¿ q is dense (and in fact equidis-
¾
shows that v ¼ . That in turn implies tributed) in the unit square.
%
In% particular, our claim def-
½
that for all , initely holds unless ¼ for some integers

Î vNº Î v)| Î vN| .
' D
2 2 ½ 2 ¾
¼ Ï Ï Ï On the other hand, suppose that such a relation
½
does hold. Since ¼ and are irrational, by the
Our desired contradiction is equivalent to showing that v one-dimensional Weil theorem, the set/! of points
vW% À vW% ½ À ¨J
the left side actually takes the value 1 for some . ¿T2 ¼ ¿T2 is !)
dense in the set of in the
Since the left side is an integer, it suffices to show that ¨
/vuº % À +vu| % ½ À v unit square such that is an integer. It is+! simple
¿C2 ¼ ¿C2 - for some . ¨^¬
X ¢ ;Ñ !) ¨
enough to show that (À
this set meets the region ¿
A result in ergodic theory (the two-dimensional version - unless is an integer, and that
Ð >% º% ½
of the Weil equidistribution theorem) states that if q would imply that ¼ , a quantity between 0 and
are linearly independent over the rationals, then the set 1, is an integer. We have our desired contradiction.
3
The Fifty-Seventh William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A–1 Find the least number such that for any two squares of minimal selfish sets, that is, selfish sets none of whose
combined area 1, a rectangle of area exists such that proper subsets is selfish.
the two squares can be packed in the rectangle (without
B–2 Show that for every positive integer O ,
interior overlap). You may assume that the sides of the 8 9 8 9
squares are parallel to the sides of the rectangle.
9 9
3OTS :WVYXV Z"[ ' = 6 =]\=== 3OTS ' 3O ; W : VX]V ^"[ N
A–2 Let and be circles whose centers are 10 units U U
apart, and whose radii are 1 and 3. Find, with proof, the
locus of all points for which there exists points on 9
and on such that is the midpoint of the line B–3 Given that L,H PH ,NN,N&PH!_&Q`0aL 3N,NN5PORQ , find,
segment . with proof, the largest possible value, as a function of O
(with ODbc3 ), of
H H ; H Hd ;>=,==; H_fe H!_ ; H_H N

A–3 Suppose that each of 20 students has made a choice of
anywhere from 0 to 6 courses from a total of 6 courses
offered. Prove or disprove: there are 5 students and 2
courses such that all 5 have chosen both courses or all 5
have chosen neither course.
B–4 For any square matrix , we can define ghji by the
usual power series:
A–4 Let
be the set of ordered triples of distinct 9
n _
elements of a finite set . Suppose that gPhki 0ml Y3r O S ; 9 4 s _t N
1.
if and only if
; _po&q
2.
if and only if
; Prove or disprove: there exists a 3vuw3 matrix with
3. and ! are both in
if and only if 8
" and !# are both in
.
real entries such that
9x9,yzyp{
9 :
there exists a one-to-one function $ from to
gPhki 0 @ N
% suchthat
Prove
$& (')$&#*'+$& , implies (-
.
% that
}
~ a finite string
of symbols and | , we9 write
Note: is the set of real numbers. B–5 Given
A–5 If . is a prime number greater than 3 and /02134.567 , for the number of } ’s in
minus the number
8
prove that the sum 8 8 of | ’s. For example, IK||K||D0AS . We
call a string
balanced if every substring of (con-
} IT
. 9#:<; .-: ;>=,==; .: secutive symbols of)
has S3- 3 . Thus,
3 / K||K|| is not balanced, since it contains the sub-
string ||K|| . Find, with proof, the number of bal-
of binomial coefficients is divisible by . .
anced strings of length O .
A–6 Let +?A@ be a constant. Give a complete descrip- B–6 Let 4] 4N,NN] f_5#_M be the vertices of a
BDC %Fwith
tion, EG% proof, B Iset
of the
5
H J
0
of B all continuous

H HK % .
; for allfunctions convex polygon which contains the origin in its inte-
rior. Prove that there exist positive real numbers H and
% such that
Note that denotes the set of real numbers. such that
B–1 Define a selfish set to be a set which has its own cardi-
9 element. Find, with H [ M [ ; H5 V M V ;===
nality (number of elements) as an ; f_54_H 0x @@z#N
proof, the number of subsets of L 3MN,NN5PORQ which are X X
Solutions to the Fifty-Eighth William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
Manjul Bhargava and Kiran Kedlaya
A-1 If and are the sides of two squares with combined W is a set of two courses of which U is taking either both
area 1, then . Suppose without loss of gen- or none. On the other hand, if a student U is taking X
erality that
. Then the shorter side of a rectangle courses, then he/she occurs in Y X MVZ P M N[ Z P such
containing both squares without overlap must be at least pairs VU6W . As Y X is minimized for X L , it follows
K K
, and the longer side must be at least . Hence the that every student occurs in at least \ 3 M P M 3 P such
desired value of is the maximum of . pairs V
6
U
W . Hence there can be at most ]
( + \ ( stu-
To find this maximum, we let "!# with dents, with equality only if each student takes 3 courses,
%$'& (*)+-,/. . Then we are to maximize and for each set of two courses, there are exactly 4 stu-
dents who take both and exactly 4 who take neither.
3 3
01*"!#2 3 * 456 71 8!
Since there are only 4 ways to complete a given pair
of courses to a set of 3, and only 4 ways to choose 3
3 courses not containing the given pair, the only way for
3
3 :9 3 6; =<>)+?, there to be 20 students (under our hypotheses) is if all
3 sets of 3 courses are in fact taken. This is the desired
@ 93 conclusion.
However, Robin Chapman has pointed out that the so-
with equality for AB)+-C . Hence this value is the de- lution is not unique in the problem as stated, because a
sired value of . given selection of courses may be made by more than
one student. One alternate solution is to identify the 6
A-2 Let D=E and D be the centers of FGE and F , respec- courses with pairs of antipodal vertices of an icosahe-
tively. (We are assuming F E has radius 1 and F has dron, and have each student pick a different face and
radius 3.) Then the desired locus is an annulus centered choose the three vertices touching that face. In this ex-
at the midpoint of D E D , with inner radius 1 and outer ample, each of 10 selections is made by a pair of stu-
radius 2. dents.
For a fixed point H on F , the locus of the midpoints of
the segments IJH for I lying on F E is the image of F E A-4 In fact, we will show that such a function ^ exists with
H ?+ 3 , which the property that `_Qa? b $dc if and only if ^ e >f
^ `g hfi^ Yj for some cyclic permutation e g Yj of
under a homothety centered3 at of radius
is a circle of radius -+ . As H varies, the center3 of this _kla- b . We proceed by induction on the number of el-
smaller circle traces out a circle FK of radius L + (again
by homothety). By considering the two positions of H ements in . If nm?_Qa? b-o and `_kla?lb $c , then
on the line of centers of the circles, one sees that F K is choose ^ with ^ _ #fp^ à 7fq^ `b , otherwise choose ^
centered at the midpoint of D=E;D , and the locus is now with ^ `_ sr1^ Va srt^ `b .
clearly the specified annulus. Now let u be an element of and v <:m u o .
3 ( Let _ E 5w5;w w5l_x be the elements of v labeled such that
A-3 The claim is false. There are MONKQP ways to choose
^ `_ E #fp^ _ 7f y5y;yzfp^ `_]x . We claim that there ex-
ists a unique { $|m6};w5w;w*~o such that _]* u l_]8 E $c ,
3 of the 6 courses; have each student choose a different
where hereafter _]x/ _ .
set of 3 courses. Then each pair of courses is chosen by
4 students (corresponding to the four ways to complete Z Z
this pair to a set of 3 courses) and is not chosen by 4 We show existence first. Suppose no such { exists; then
students (corresponding to the 3-element subsets of the for all { X $dm};w5w5w5*~o , we have _]" u l_] $:
+ c .
This holds by property 1 for X
Z
and by induction on
remaining 4 courses).
Note: Assuming that no two students choose the same
X in general, noting that
courses, the above counterexample is unique (up to per- _ " E u _ "
; _ " u l_ $hc
muting students). This may be seen as follows: Given a Z Z `_ " l_ Z 8 ; l_ _ "
E u] u
$ c
group of students, suppose that for any pair of courses
Z Z
`_ " E u l_ $cw Z
(among the six) there are at most 4 students taking both,
and at most 4 taking neither. Then there are at most
Z
3 (RST,', /M N pairs VU6W , where U is a student, and Applying this when X ~ , we get _] E u _] $ c ,
P [
contradicting the fact that _ u l_ E $>c . Hence ex- argument gives
[
l K
<R x [
istence follows.
E
Now we show uniqueness. Suppose `_ u l_ " E $ x} E ~
c ; then for any { <6 { { , we have
_]l_" E _} _}} _} E _] $c by the assumption on Q K E

3
. Therefore x/ E ~ x/ E 3 ~
`_ u _ " E ;`_ " E _ _ $Ac _ l _ u] $ c E K
<
`_ u _} _}} _} E _] A$ c u _}}l_/ E x/ E ~ ~# x/ ~ p
0<|~#
\}
K W
so `_ u l_ E $
+ c . The case { 1 is ruled out by (AT¡W w
x/ 2
~

W <|~
_ u l_ " 5E ;`_ 8 E _ " _ $c u _ " E l_ 8 $c
@
A-6 We first consider the case b ?+?, ; we shall show in
and the case { p
< is similar. this case Y must be constant. The relation
Finally, we put ^ u] in ^ _]x QR if { ~ , and Y Y T 4b Y **<# 4b Y *<#
^ _] ^ _]8 E otherwise; an analysis similar to that
@
above shows that ^ has the desired property. proves that Y is an even function. Let E be the
roots of p
#
b
< , both of which are real. If r¢ ,
@ ~ @ WA< , W divides OM x define £B and kx/ E 9 kx%<>b for each positive
A-5 (due to Lenny Ng) For P integer . By induction on ~ , f x/ E f x for all
and ~ , so the sequence m; x o tends to a limit ¤ which is a
W W<p W < 3 W<>~ root of k6¥b# not less than . Of course this means
3 y5y;y ~<p ¤ . Since Y T Y x for all ~ and x'¦ ,
W ~
j ~ we conclude Y Y , so Y is constant on h
.
*<R x [ E If E f f and x is defined as before, then by in-
%
W
~ duction, x f kx/ E f§ . Note that the sequence can
be defined because E r b ; the latter follows by noting
where the congruence TW means that < that the polynomial k#3 <>1b is positive at ¨b and
is a rational number whose numerator, in reduced form, has its minimum at ?+ r b , so both roots are greater
is divisible by W . Hence it suffices to show that than b .@ In any T
@ case, we deduce that Y is also constant
on ?E .
x
Z <R [ E (hTW w Finally, suppose f§ E . Now define z£%©ª x/ E
~ x >b . Given that x ft E , we have kx/ E r x . Thus
x/ E
if we had kx fp E for all ~ , by the same argument as in
the first case we deduce x«¦ ?E and so Y Y -E .
We distinguish two cases based on W4T \6 . First Actually, this doesn’t happen; eventually we have x r
suppose W \/ , so that X q, . Then ?E , in which case Y Y T x Y -E by what we
have already shown. We conclude that Y is a constant
Q
*<R x [ E function. (Thanks to Marshall Buck for catching an in-
/x E ~ accuracy in a previous version of this solution.)
Q Now suppose b r ?+?, . Then the sequence kx defined

< 3 by £ n( and x/ E ¬kx ¢b is strictly increasing
x} E ~ x/ E 3 ~ and has no limit point. Thus if we define Y on & £ * E .
K
as any continuous function with equal values on the

<

endpoints, and extend the definition from & x x/ E . to
~ ~# ~
G<>~# & kx/ E *kx/ . by the relation Y T Y T b , and
x} E /x E \/
extend the definition further to f ( by the relation
K W
(ATW Y T Y <# , the resulting function has the desired
x} ~2W<>~ property. Moreover, any function with that property
E clearly has this form.
3
since W
\} . B-1 Let & ~. denote the set m66 ;w5w;wk ~o , and let Y x denote
the number of minimal selfish subsets of & ~. . Then the
Now suppose W \/ | , so that X , L . A similar number of minimal selfish subsets of & ~. not containing
2
~ is equal to Y x E . On the other hand, for any mini- _ x , we deduce _ x K r _ x . Continuing in this
[
mal selfish subset of & ~. containing ~ , by subtracting 1
[ [ [
fashion, we prove that3 _ x r _ x E1ry;y5yRr _ E and
[
from each element, and then taking away the element so _ X for X 6 ;w5w;w*~ , i.e. that the optimal ar-
~< from the set, we obtain a minimal selfish subset Z
rangement is as claimed. In particular, the maximum
3
of & ~h< . (since and ~ cannot both occur in a selfish 3 value of the sum is
set). Conversely, any minimal selfish subset of & ~®< .
&
~ . y3 ~A<t »y ~« y L 3 y ,0 y5y;y T~A< 3 »y ~
gives rise to a minimal selfish subset of containing
~ by the inverse procedure. Hence the number of min- 3 4~ <|~« <t ;y y5y &8~A<t <p.
imal selfish subsets of & ~. containing ~ is Y x . Thus ~ <p ~2 3 ~<p

[
we obtain Y x Y x E Y x . Since Y}E Y : , we q~ <>~ 3 <qT~A<t
[ [
have Y x °¯ x , where ¯ x denotes the ~ th term of the 3 ~ K ~¼G<p};~;C \
Fibonacci sequence. L w
\
B-2 By estimating the area under the graph of ± !# using up-
per and lower rectangles of width 2, we get Alternate solution: We prove by induction that the value
² x E given above is an upper bound; it is clearly a lower
[ !#e6 @ 3 !ª y5y;y ± !ª 3 ~¨<t *
± ± L6 bound because of the arrangement given above. As-
E sume this is the case for ~s< . The optimal arrangement
² /x E for ~ is obtained from some arrangement for ~< by
@
± !#e6ªw inserting ~ between some pair of adjacent terms.
K
This operation increases the sum by ~jºp~ <1
~¼<|~<º ~< , which is an increasing function of
Since ³¥± !#e6¨ ± !#¥<R F , we have, upon expo-
nentiating and taking square roots, both and . In particular, this difference
3 is maximal
when and equal ~h<q and ~h< . Fortunately, this
3 ~<p
3 ~ <p g [ x} E yields precisely the difference between the claimed up-
g ¨´`µ/´ ¶· f per bound for ~ and the assumed upper bound for ~=< ,
@ 3 `´ µ/~ ´ ¶<p ·
L y5y5y ¨ completing the induction.
y;7
@ 3 ~ g [ x/ E B-4 Suppose such a matrix exists. If the eigenvalues of
(over the complex numbers) are distinct, then there
`
´
µ
¸ · L Kl¹ exists a complex matrix F such that v F½ 0F [ is
E
3 ~ ´ "
!
diagonal. Consequently, v is diagonal. But then
f g ´Vµ;´ ¸]· *"! F [ E `*"! v¥ F must be diagonalizable, a con-
tradiction. Hence the eigenvalues of are the same,
using the fact that f g fpL . E
and has a conjugate v F½ =F [ over the complex
E 5w;w5w;*x as an arrangement of the numbers
numbers of the form
B-3 View
3
} 5w;w5w*~ on a circle. We prove that the optimal ar-

rangement is (: w
w5w;w5 ~<>,z ~< 3 ~¡*~º<p} ~< L ;w5w;w
A direct computation shows that
To show this, note that if _kla is a pair of adjacent num-
8!G
8 ! v y 56
bers and b-le is another pair (read in the same order ( 8!# w
around the circle) with _ f e and a r b , then the seg-
ment from a to b can be reversed, increasing the sum Since 8! and 8! v are conjugate, their eigenvalues
by must be the same, and so we must have 8!G¨© . This
_]b21aeR<>_a<'be%©eJ<'_ V as<>b sr (w implies :( , so that *"! v is the identity matrix,
as must be 8! , a contradiction. Thus cannot exist.
Now relabel the numbers so they appear in order as fol- Alternate solution (due to Craig Helfgott and Alex
lows: Popa): Define both 8! and 56 by the usual power
series. Since commutes with itself, the power series
w5w5w5 _]x ]_ x _]x~¡l_]x E ]_ x K 5w;w5w identity
[ [ [ [
where without loss of generality we assume _ x Eqr *"! 456 ¾
_x . [
By considering the pairs _]x _]x and
_x [ E l_]x K and using the trivial fact _]x r [ _]x E , we holds. But if "! is the given
[ [ [ matrix,
3 then by the above
deduce _]x r _]x K . We then compare the pairs (d< y ; ¿6¿ \
_x l_]x [ and _]x [ E l_x K , and using that _]x E r identity, 6l must equal ( ( which is
[ [ [ [ [
3
a nilpotent matrix. Thus3«À'
6 is also nilpotent. How-
3 Now note that (1) is the gradient of the function
ever, the square of any nilpotent matrix must be
zero (e.g., by the Cayley-Hamilton theorem). This is a Y Ç * É g;6W`_ EÇ ta E É 1 g;6W`_ Ç ta É
contradiction. y;y5y 1g}W»_ x Ç t ax É
À
B-5 Consider a ~ checkerboard, in which we write an
~ -letter string, one letter per square. If the string is and so it suffices to show Y has a critical point. We will
balanced, we can cover each pair of Àq adjacent squares in fact show Y has a global minimum.
3
containing the same letter with a domino, and Clearly we have
these will not overlap (because no three in a row can
Y Ç * É
Ê5ËÌ«Í
Î Ë `_ Ç taTÉ Ï w
be the same). Moreover, any domino is separated from
the next by an even number of squares, since they must
cover opposite letters, and the sequence must alternate
in between. Note that this maximum is positive for Ç *É ¥d `(l( :
if we had Ç _ :
a É f ( for all { , then the subset
Conversely, any arrangement of dominoes where ad-
jacent dominoes are separated by an even number of Ç ÉU f ( of the U -plane would be a half-plane
squares corresponds to a unique balanced string, once containing all of the points _ Qa , whose convex hull
we choose whether the string starts with Á or D . In would then not contain the origin, a contradiction.
other words, the number of balanced strings is twice The function Î Ë _] Ç paTÉ is clearly continuous on
the number of acceptable domino arrangements. the unit circle Ç »>É]0 , which is compact. Hence it
We count these arrangements by numbering the squares has a global minimum ÐÑr ( , and so for all Ç *É ,
(565w;w5w*~G< and distinguishing whether the dominoes
start on even or odd numbers. Once this is decided, one Î Ë ` _] Ç ta`É
ÐÓÒ Ç 4É w
simply chooses whether or not to3Â put x ¹ Ã a domino in each
eligible position. 3 Thus xÂÅÄ E*we
Æ
have arrangements in
~©Ô on the disk of radius
the first case and [ ¹ Ã in the second, but note that In particular, Y
~º + Ð . Since Y `(l( Õ~ , the infimum of Y
the case of no dominoes has been counted twice. Hence Ò
the number of balanced strings is is the same over the entire Ç É -plane as over this disk,
3 ÂÅÄ x/ Æ ¹ * Ã 3 ÂÅÄ x/ E Æ ¹ Ã < 3 w which again is compact. Hence Y attains its infimal
value at some point in the disk, which is the desired
global minimum.
B-6 We will prove the claim assuming only that the convex
hull of the points _ la contains the origin in its in- Noam Elkies has suggested an alternate solution as fol-
terior. (Thanks to Marshall Buck for pointing out that lows: for |r ( , draw the loop traced by (1) as Ç É
the last three words are necessary in the previous sen- travels counterclockwise around the circle Ç =É] .
tence!) Let Ç ± }È2*É> ± 6È so that the left-hand For :( , this of course has winding number 0 about
side of the given equation is any point, but for large, one can show this loop has
`_ E l a 5E ]ÊËÌ ` _ QE Ç A a E É >`_ l a ]Ê5Ë]Ì _ Ç A aÉ winding number 1 about the origin, so somewhere in
between the loop must pass through the origin. (Prov-
y;y5y
`
_ x Q
a x ]Ê5Ë]Ì _ x Ç t
a x É w (1)
ing this latter fact is a little tricky.)
4
The Fifty-Eighth William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition

n %po

A–1 A rectangle, , has sides and B–1 Let denote the distance between the real number

. A triangle has as the intersection of the al- %
and the nearest integer. For each positive integer ,

titudes, the center of the circumscribed circle, the

evaluate
X 7 r Xq H D{n}2~| n| J

midpoint of , and the foot of the altitude from .
What is the length of ?
A–2 Players
are seated around a table, and sut HKvxwzy o o
DOP J denotes the minimum of P and .)
each has a single penny. Player 1 passes a penny to
vxwy
player 2, who then passes two pennies to player 3. (Here

Player 3 then passes one penny to Player 4, who passes
two pennies to Player 5, and so on, players alternately B–2 Let be a twice-differentiable real-valued function sat-
passing one penny or two to the next player who still isfying
D % J * D % J &@% FD % JD % J

has some pennies. A player who runs out of pennies

drops out of the game and leaves the table. Find an in-
where F D % J"g d for all real % . Prove that D % J is
finite set of numbers for which some player ends up
with all pennies.
A–3 Evaluate "! bounded.
X _]
---4 ~
] integer , write the sum sut H
# $%'& %)+( * .%)-0, / & .-0%)/1 -23* |
B–3 For each positive
in the form X X , where X and X are relatively prime
positive integers. Determine all such that 5 does not
---84:9
$ * %) 55 * 5 %)-6 / 5 * 5 -%)/ 57 -2 5 * % divide X .
B–4 Let P s X denotes the coefficient of % in the expansion

X
A–4 Let ; be a group with identity < and =?>@;BAC; a
of D * % * %)5 J . Prove that for all [integers] fhg ,
d
function such that
=EDGFIHJ=EDGF J=EDGF J =KDMLNHJ=EDML J=EDOL J

dal+r M D J P q lk

5 < ( L H L L . Prove 5 ( that there
whenever F H F F
5 ( PRQS; such5 that ( TD % J P=ED % J t# & c
exists an element
is a homomorphism (i.e. TD %U J
T.D % J8TD U J for all
V
Q ; B–5 Prove that for g ,

% U ).
terms terms
A–5 Let WX denote the

Z
of ordered ^-tuples ] P H * of _] posi-
Y
D P H P
number
[
P \
X J P * j & 0
* ^] P X ` . Determine
tive integers
5 whether WaH # is even or odd.
such that
5 D J
50 5 vx
A–6 For a positive integered and any ,real number b d , define
%Nc recursively by % # , % H and for fhg , B–6 The dissection of the 3–4–5 triangle shown below (into
b H D f\J ]~
% cji 5 %cji & f * & %c
four congruent right triangles similar to the original) has
diameter . Find the least diameter of a dissection of
Fix k
and then take b to be the largest value for which this triangle into four parts. (The diameter of a dissec-
d l lm tion is the least upper bound of the distances between
% X i H . Find % c in terms of and f , f . pairs of points belonging to the same part.)
Solutions to the Fifty-Eighth William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
Manjul Bhargava, Kiran Kedlaya, and Lenny Ng
(Euler
A–1 The centroid of the triangle is collinear with and and so by induction,
line), and the centroid lies two-thirds of the cYd
way from to . Therefore is also two-thirds of H
from to , so
. Since the triangles e Z * QfU g Sbijlk * m Zno8rn7srt!R!R!ur- G
way
the

), we have
and are similar (they’re right triangles and Thus the desired integral is simply
, or "!#$% 34& !'(% 9)!: . Now vd

*
+ -
.
,

0
/ 1
* 2
+

5
/ 6
* 8
, 7 , but e Q yH x D g G
3 ;,<=+>2?/@A Q w
, so
A–4 In order to have z+{Zb/|o}T~+{Zb/ for all Z , we must in par-
22B ,C7! )ED ) F74EF6G ticular have this for Z g , and so we take }sE~+ g / S#U .
* We first note that
A–2 We show more precisely that the game terminates with ~ +:6/5~+ g /l~+: S#U /@E~+ g /l~+:6/5~+: S#U /
H IJ,2 or H IJ,E for some K . First sup-
one player holding all of the pennies if and only if and so ~+_/ commutes with ~+ g / for all . Next, we
pose we are in the following situation for some L3M2 .
note that
(Note: for us, a “move” consists of two turns, starting ~+Zb/l~+6/5~+ SpU Z S#U /@A~+ g 5/ ~+Zu_/l~+ S#U Z SpU /
with a one-penny pass.)
and using the commutativity of ~+ g / , we deduce
– Except for the player to move, each player has L ~+ g / S#U ~+{Zb/l~+ g / S#U ~+{_/@A~+ g / SpU ~+{Z6/
pennies;
– The player to move has at least L pennies. or z+{Z6/|oz+Z'/z1+6/ , as desired.
A–5 We may discard any solutions for which } X} , since
We claim then that the game terminates if and only if
those come in pairs; so assume } } . Similarly, we
U4 *
the number of players is a power of 2. First suppose U *
may assume that }E} , }TE} , }To}T , }To} e .
the number of players is even; then after K complete U
rounds, every other player, starting with the player who Thus we get the equation
moved first, will have K more pennies than initially, and } U , }T|, }T|,Yh }T@,Yh }T G
the others will all have 0. Thus we are reduced to the
Again, we may assume } E}T and }TE}T , so we get
situation with half as many players; by this process, we
7T} U ,17T}T,h}T ; and U } E}T , so FT } ,h }T
. This implies that +>} U F/]+{U }T/O ,U which by
eventually reduce to the case where the number of play-
ers is odd. However, if there is more than one player,
counting has 5 solutions. Thus e is odd.
after two complete rounds everyone has as many pen-
nies as they did before (here we need KNMO ), so the
U
A–6 Clearly Z is a polynomial in of degree H , so it suf-
QfU
fices to identify H values of for which Z
QfU 2 . We
game fails to terminate. This verifies the claim.
Returning to the original game, note that after one com- claim these are H s 4 for E6R hRGGRGq H s ; in
plete round, PRQTS#U players remain, each with 2 pennies
*V to move, who has either 3 or 4 pen- +5/1case,
this Z' is the coefficient of S#U in the polynomial
except for the player O+5 C 5/5+5 a,W5/ QTS#UqS . This can be verified by
nies. Thus by the above argument, the game terminates noticing that satisfies the differential equation
if and only if P QTS#U is a power of 2, that is, if and only ' +{5/ H W a
if H AJW,X or* H V EJY,Y for some K . +{5/ ,= at

A–3 Note that the series on the left is simply Z[]\_^`+0aZb*/ .
By integration by parts, (by logarithmic differentiation) or equivalently,

cYd c d
= +0 at * / + 5/ {+ 5/]¡¢+ H Y
at/]+0 5/t_+0 £,=5/¥¤
* R
* m H {+ 5/]¡¢+ H Y aC /+ H W /¥¤
e Z
Q
f R
U h
g b
S
i l
j k n
Z o
e Z * QTSpUqghSbijlk *Rm Z
and then taking the coefficient of
L#+ H / denotes the largest integer
on both sides:

where
H Lo. ÎWe wish to determine those H such that the
such that
+>L,o /0Zb f * W+¦L8Y §/Z' ¸ sum has nonnegative 5–valuation. (By the 5–
+H Y aC /0Zb fU + H Y §/Zb_G
above
valuation of a number } we mean the largest integer Ï
such that }_Ð is an integer.)
In particular, the largest such is H s , and Z ©¨ QT S#U
for Ls2 h«6RGRGGq H . SpUqª If P H
V ¸Ñ¼ , then L , since Ä U , Ä * , Ä each have valu-
the last term in the above sum
has 5–valuation
show directly that H = is the largest root, without
Greg Kuperberg has suggested an alternate approach to ation 0; on the other hand, all other terms must have
5–valuation strictly larger than L . It follows that
computing the others. Note that the condition Z Q
QfU o
states that +Z RGGRG5Z / is an eigenvector of the matrix
has 5–valuation exactly L ; in particular,
Q has non-
U Q negative 5–valuation in this case if and only if LC© ,
± ² ³ ´ ³ ,X i.e., H , 2, or 3.
¬®1°¯ H ´2´ ³ Y Suppose now that P H
Ò7 . Then we must also
otherwise have H
P S#U V ¸ V 7 . The former condition
plies that the last term of the above sum is
¸ Ä im-
with eigenvalue . By the Perron-Frobenius theorem, §6+0 !§ S * / , which has 5–valuation +>L¿C/ .
has a unique eigenvector with positive entries, whose Ä Ä
It is clear that e (mod 25); hence if
P H SpU V equals 20 or 24,* thenÊ the second–to–last term
* Ê
eigenvalue has modulus greater than or equal to that of
any other eigenvalue, which proves the claim.
of the above sum (if it exists) has valuation at least
B–1 It is trivial to check that J ¶µ J ¸ µ J Q · +>Lt / Ä . The
H ¸ K ¸ H H , that º J Q Q %µ J QyQy·¹ third–to–last term (if it exists) is of
for
µ J Qy· the form¼ S * , so that the sum ofÄ the last term and
H ¸ K ¸;H ¼ , that J Q ½ X¾µ J Q@·» ¸ µ J Q·
for

to last term takes the form + ,E T h/l S * .
and that ¿ J Àµ J A
· ¸ µ J Q ·
for the thirdÄ
¼7 H ¸ K K ¸ 7 H . ,Therefore Q Q
the desired sum is¸ n
· for Since
and §_
can be(mod congruent only to 0,1, or -1 (mod 5),
¸ ¸ Ê 5), we conclude that the sum of the
last term and¼ third–to–last term has valuation +>Ln/ ,
* v QTS#U K v Q_S#U
H , +0 K H / while all other terms have valuation strictly higher.
Hence
¼ Q has , leading to the values H 7 (arising from
nonnegative 5–valuation in this case only
J w * Q
v QTSpU J K wU v QTS#U when L
, + H W /p, 1 K HÂ H G
¸
LÓ ), 20,24 (arising from LÓ and P H SpU
and 24 resp.), 101, 102, 103, and 104 (arisingV from
J w Q ¼ J w Q4Á LÀ , P H SpU V À ) and

to show that Ã +Z'/RÃ is bounded for
120, 121, 122, 123, and
124 (arising from LsA , P H S#U A 7 ).

B–2 It suffices ZM , V
since +5aZb/ satisfies the same equation as +{Zb/ . But Finally, suppose P H 7 and P H S#U V ½6 , 22,
then V
or 23. Then as before, the first condition implies that
the last term of the sum in (*) has valuation +¦Ls/ ,
m +{Zb/]+ +Z'/, +Z'/5/
m Z ¨l+ +Zb/l/ * ,o+ +{Zb/5/ * ª o while the second condition implies that the second–to–

Z6#+Zb/R+ +Z'/5/ * ¸ last term in the same sum has valuation +¦Lp¿ / . Hence

so that + +Z'/5/0*
all terms in the sum (*) have 5–valuation strictly higher
than +>L8W / , except for the second–to–last term, and
¸H + +{/5/0*|,E+ +>h/5/5* for Z9M . therefore 5–valuation +¦L8 / in this case. In
B–3 The only such are the numbers 1–4, 20–24, 100–104, particular,
Q has
and 120–124. For the proof let if L
Q gives the additional values H _ , 22,
, which
is integral (mod 5) in this case if and only
¸
vQ and 23.
Q K B–4 Let Ô "Õ ¬ +5 / ¬ } S#UqÇ ¬ be the given sum (note that
J wU } S#UqÇ ¬ is nonzero precisely for ³ E6GRGG]P * V / . Since
and introduce the auxiliary function
Ä v } J fUqÇ Q o} J Ç Q ,} J Ç QTSpU ,=} J Ç QTS *
Q K G
UÆÅ J ÅbQTÇ®È J Ç «É wU Ä
we have
Ô <Ô SpU
, Ôf *
R hR hl6« (mod ) for H Ê h«6 ¼ l7Æ (mod Q 5) re-Ê
It is immediate (e.g., by induction) that
v
spectively, and moreover, we have the equality 5+ / ¬ +{} QTS ¬ Ç ¬ ,=} TQ S ¬ Ç ¬ fU ,} QTS ¬ Ç ¬ f * /
v ÄTË v¬
Q 5+ / ¬ } QTS ¬ fUqÇ ¬ f * o
Ô§ f hG
e J Qk «ÌyÍ ¬
J w
2
By computing Ô e Ö h«Ô Ö h«Ô , we may eas- B–6 The answer is T . Place the triangle on the carte-
U
ily verify by induction that Ô 5 $Ô 0
* so that its¼ vertices are at Ö;+>6«h/q«Î
ÔR5 f * ØÔ5 f AN for all ´ MÙ . (Alternate fU × and sian plane
+{ /] +7ulh/ . It is easy to check that the five points
¼ «1«éÛ2+¦TT ¼ «7TT ¼ /] and ê+¦h)_ ¼ lh/ are
so-
a
Ú {
+ `
Z l
_
½
/
Õ ¬d w e +{.,oZ_* ,oZu* / ¬ , and note note that Ô§ is the
lution suggested by John Rickert: write
all in the triangle and have distance at least hhT apart
coefficient of in Ú+0 l6/+0 ,=6/l6+0 at / .) from each other (note that éºêohhT ); thus any ¼ dis-
¼
Û iÜ ÝÞ for Hß .
section of the triangle into four parts must have diame-
B–5 Define the sequence Z À , Z ter at least hhT .
U Q
It suffices to show that for every , ZH Z J fU Ê !R!! ¼
+H à.á_â H H / for some Käã H . We do thisJ byÊ induction on
We now exhibit a dissection with least diameter hhT .
¼
, with A being obvious.
(Some variations of this dissection are possible.) Put
+5 h_ ¼ R ëTT ¼ / , +5 h_ ¼ lh/ ,
Write H åæ ç , where ç is odd. It suffices to show +{R ëTT ¼ / , ì3»+ ¼ h_ 6R T ¼ / , and divide
into
that Z J !R!R! modulo æ and modulo ç , for some the convex polygonal regions éº , ê.ì , ,
Kèã H . Ê For the former, H by inductionwe only need Z
QTS#U Må} , éº ê.ì ; each region has diameter T ¼ , as can be
but clearly Z M on H . For the lat-
ter, note that Z
QTSpU Z !R!!n+{à.áTâ9ç]/ as long as
verified by checking the distance between each pair of
Z J S#UaÊ Z J Ê J !R!Ê!9+à.J á_fâ-Un~Ê +¦ç]/5/ , where ~+ H / is the Eu-

vertices of each polygon. (One need only check for the
pentagon: note that éº and ê.ì are contained in
circular sectors centered at and , respectively, of ra-
KØãÀ~+¦ç]/|, ¸ H . (Thanks to Anoop Kulkarni for
ler totient function. By hypothesis, this occurs for some
dius hh_ and angle less than , and that is
catching a lethal typo in an earlier version.) a rectangle¼ with diagonal ½ãX¼ h_ .)
¼
3
The 59th William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A–1 A right circular cone has base of radius 1 and height 3. B–1 Find the minimum value of
A cube is inscribed in the cone so that one face of the
cube is contained in the base of the cone. What is the (x + 1/x)6 − (x6 + 1/x6 ) − 2
side-length of the cube? (x + 1/x)3 + (x3 + 1/x3 )
A–2 Let s be any arc of the unit circle lying entirely in the
first quadrant. Let A be the area of the region lying for x > 0.
below s and above the x-axis and let B be the area of
the region lying to the right of the y-axis and to the left B–2 Given a point (a, b) with 0 < b < a, determine the min-
of s. Prove that A + B depends only on the arc length, imum perimeter of a triangle with one vertex at (a, b),
and not on the position, of s. one on the x-axis, and one on the line y = x. You may
A–3 Let f be a real function on the real line with continuous assume that a triangle of minimum perimeter exists.
third derivative. Prove that there exists a point a such B–3 let H be the unit hemisphere {(x, y, z) : x2 + y 2 +
that z 2 = 1, z ≥ 0}, C the unit circle {(x, y, 0) : x2 +
y 2 = 1}, and P the regular pentagon inscribed in C.
f (a) · f ′ (a) · f ′′ (a) · f ′′′ (a) ≥ 0. Determine the surface area of that portion of H lying
over the planar region inside P , and write your answer
in the form A sin α + B cos β, where A, B, α, β are real
A–4 Let A1 = 0 and A2 = 1. For n > 2, the num-
numbers.
ber An is defined by concatenating the decimal expan-
sions of An−1 and An−2 from left to right. For ex-
ample A3 = A2 A1 = 10, A4 = A3 A2 = 101, B–4 Find necessary and sufficient conditions on positive in-
A5 = A4 A3 = 10110, and so forth. Determine all n tegers m and n so that
such that 11 divides An .
A–5 Let F be a finite collection of open discs in R2 whose X
mn−1
(−1)⌊i/m⌋+⌊i/n⌋ = 0.
union contains a set E ⊆ R2 . Show that there is a
i=0
pairwise disjoint subcollection D1 , . . . , Dn in F such
that
B–5 Let N be the positive integer with 1998 decimal digits,
E ⊆ ∪nj=1 3Dj .
all of them 1; that is,
Here, if D is the disc of radius r and center P , then 3D
is the disc of radius 3r and center P . N = 1111 · · · 11.
A–6 Let A, B, C denote distinct points with integer coordi- √

Find the thousandth digit after the decimal point of N.
nates in R2 . Prove that if
(|AB| + |BC|)2 < 8 · [ABC] + 1

√ a, b, c, there exists a posi-
B–6 Prove that, for any integers
tive integer n such that n3 + an2 + bn + c is not an
then A, B, C are three vertices of a square. Here |XY | integer.
is the length of segment XY and [ABC] is the area of
triangle ABC.
Solutions to the 59th William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A–1 Consider the plane containing both the axis of the cone A and W . By letting 3 W increase in the latter inequality,
and two opposite vertices of the cube’s bottom face. we see that UYXLA W must be positive for sufficiently
The cross section of the cone and the cube in this plane large W ; it follows that UYXLA b\c] for all A . Similarly,
consists of a rectangle of sides and inscribed in UYXLA $\] and UYX XZ[A \] imply that UV[A !\] for all
an isosceles triangle of base and height , where is A . Therefore UVLA UYXLA UYX`XZ[A UYX`X XZ[A N\R] for all A , and
the side-length of the cube. (The side of the rect- we are done.
angle lies on the base of the triangle.) Similar triangles
yield

, or A-4 The number of digits in the decimal expansion of Nd
is the Fibonacci number 3 ed , where f
, hg?i
,
K
A–2 First solution: to fix notation, let be the area of re- and hdjfhd hd g for k \l . It follows that
I>K I
gion
& ! , and " be the area of $#% ; further let the sequence mn dpo , modulo 3 11, satisfies the recursion
denote the area of sector '( , which only depends d c_!
_

q <
r
s t d d g . (Notice that the recur-
I>K I
on the arc length of . If ) *,+.-0/ denotes &43 the area of tri- sion for d depends only on the value of d g modulo
I
angle ) *1+.
-
&83 / , then we have 2
) (
'
5/64) '(5/ 2.) Using these recursions, we find that Nuv ] and
and "7 ) '(%9/:;) '(#</ . But clearly
3 ) '(5/
& = Owvx
modulo 11, and that u v7
and hwvx
mod-
) '(#/ and ) '(5/> ) '(%?/ , and so "@ . ulo 2. It follows that Od7vyNd<zJ{ (mod 11) for all
k}|~
. We find that among Og O O N , and
K
D O{ , only vanishes3 modulo 11. Thus 11 divides Nd
K
H if and only if k4T
for some nonnegative integer
E .
I
A–5 Define the sequence b by the following greedy algo-
rithm: let be the disc of largest radius (breaking ties
O F G K
arbitrarily), let g be the disc of largest radius not meet-
ing , let be the disc of largest radius not meeting
K
or g , and so on, up to some final disc d . To see
K
that lx d , consider a point in ; if it lies in
K
one of the b , we are done. Otherwise, it lies in a disc
of radius , which meets one of the b having radius
Second solution: We may parametrize a point in by
|f (this is the only reason a disc can be skipped
any of A , B , or CDFEG<HJI>KLB A . Then and " are
in our 3 algorithm). Thus the centers lie at a distance
just the integrals 3 of B0MA and ANMB over the appropriate 9
, and so every point at distance less than
3
intervals; thus " is the integral of AOMB5PBQMA (mi-
from the center of lies at distance at most
nus because the limits of integration
3 are reversed). But
from the center of the corresponding .
MC$RAOMB$1B0MA , and so "@TS.C is precisely the
g 3 & g &
radian measure of . (Of course, one can perfectly well A–6 Recall the inequalities & N" " & | O"P "
do this problem by computing the two integrals sepa- (AM-GM) and O"P " V| ) O" / (Law of Sines).
rately. But what’s the fun in that?) Also recall that the area of a triangle with integer
A-3 If at least one of UVLW , UYXZLW , UYX XW , or UYX X XZLW van- coordinates is half an integer (if its vertices lie at
] ] L 6 , the area is a < ), and that
ishes at some point W , then we are done. Hence we
may assume each of UVLA , UYXZ[A , UYX XZ[A , and UYX X XZ[A if and " have integer coordinates, then O"P g is an
integer (Pythagoras). Now observe that
is either strictly positive or strictly negative on the
real line. By replacing UV[A by OUV[A if necessary, & g 3 & g 3 &
) N" /= O" " ) N" /
we may assume UYX XZLA \^] ; by replacing UV[A by g 3 & g 3 &
UV_ A if necessary, we may assume UYX X XZ[A !\T] . (No- O" " N" "
& 3
tice that these substitutions do not change the sign of ) O" /

UV[A UYXLA UYX`XLA UYX`X XZ[A .) Now UYX XZ[A $\ ] implies that
U X [A is increasing, and3 U X X X [A !\] implies 3 that U X [A and that the first and second expressions
& are3 both& inte-
!
\ g g 3
is convex, so that UYXLA W UYXLA WaUYX XZLA for all gers. We conclude that ) O" / O"P "
& g 3 & g &
) O" & / , and so O" " N" " & Piecing our various cases together, we easily deduce
) O" / ; that is, " is a right angle and O"~" , that » L¼ k ] if and only if the highest powers of 2

as desired. dividing ¼ and k are different.
B–1 Notice that B–5 Write Ô¥
] KÕÕ w Ö
. Then
3 { { 3 A {
[ A
A ;[A
3 3 3

A

] Õ ÕÕ ¦
[A
A LA Ô
×
] >
I KÕÕ
w
3 3 2[A 3
A
LA
A ;[A
A

] ÕÕÕ
w 3
_
O
] JI K_ÕÕ
(difference of squares). The latter is easily seen (e.g.,
by AM-GM) to have minimum value 6 (achieved at g
A
). where
] I ©©© . Now the digits after the deci-
mal point of
ÕÕÕ are given by ®« , while the
]
B–2 Consider a triangle as& described by the problem; la- digits after the decimal point of {K
] IpÕÕÕ are given by
bel its vertices & " so that lW , " lies on ]]]]] «®
« «® . It follows that the first 1000

the A -axis, and

lies on the line B Â . Further digits of Ô are given by «® ¨
; in particu-
let ¡¢W be the reflection of in the A -axis, lar, the thousandth digit is
.

and let £¤ W be the reflection & of & in the line
6 3 g 3 3DØ
B¢A . Then O"^& y" and 3 &T38 & , and so B–6 First solution: Write 3 e[k Tk Wk k . Note

the ¦ perimeter 3
of O"
3 g
is "
3 g
" ¥| that eLk and eLk have the same parity, and recall
W g LW W g . It is clear that & that any perfect square3 is congruent to 0 or 1 (mod 4).

this lower bound can be achieved; just set " (resp. ) Thus if eLk and eLk are perfect squares, they are
3 g 3
to be the intersection between the segment and the congruent mod 4. But e[k ÃeLk v k (mod

A -axis (resp. line 3 A1 B ); thus the minimum perimeter 4), which is not divisible by 4 if k and have opposite

is in fact W g g . parity.

B–3 We use the well-known result 3 that the surface area of Second solution: We prove more generally that for any
_A g g 3 g polynomial Ù with integer coefficients which is not
the “sphere cap” mLA B B
| o §
is simply ª _
: . (This §
result is easily verified using
§ ¨§ §n© a perfect square, there exists a positive integer k such
calculus; we omit the derivation here.) Now the desired
§n© that Ù[k is not a perfect square. Of course it suffices
surface area is just ª minus the surface areas of five to assume Ù has no repeated factors, which is to say
§
identical halves of sphere caps; these caps, up to isome- Ù and its derivative Ù!XZ are relatively prime.
§ §
try, correspond to being the distance from the center In particular, if we carry out the Euclidean algorithm
§«©
of the pentagon to any of its sides, i.e.,
§ ©
¬®¯±° . on Ù and Ù!X without dividing, we get an in-
ª ª
®
¬
¯±° ³
§ §
Thus
´ ª
the desired area is $
g ² teger (the discriminant of Ù ) such that the great-
ª e
ª

¬µ¯ ° (i.e., "@ ). est common divisor of ÙLk and Ù!XZ[k divides
3 for any k . Now there exist infinitely many primes
B–4 For convenience, define U¶N· dY[¸ ¹ ¶.º ¹ d>º , so that such that divides Ù[k for some k : if there were
¶0d
the given sum is » [¼ k ¢½ IJK !
¾¿VÀ rÁ Â . If only finitely many, say, ®« Í , then for any k di-

¼ and k are both odd, then »Ã[¼ k © is the sum of an visible by ¼
] K
ÚÙ gÜÛ«Û®Û Í , we have Ù[k v

] K
odd number of Ä.
’s, and thus cannot be zero. Now Ù LÝbÞP¼ , that is, Ù[k Ù ] is not divisible

consider the case where ¼ and k have opposite par- by «® pÍ , so must be Ä.
, but then Ù takes some
3 z K6
ity. Note that ¹ ¶ º ¹
3 ¶ K º ÅÆÇ
for all value infinitely many times, contradiction. In particu-
¶0d
integers ¸ ¼ . Thus ¹ ¶ º ¹ ¶ I I>K º ^k8}
lar, we can choose some such not dividing3 , and
3 ¶0d choose3 k such that divides ÙLk . Then Ù[k v
and ¹ d º 3 ¹ I d IJK º È¼ÉÊ3
; this implies that

U¶N· dpL¸ U¶N· dpL¼k(b¸P
;¼ k( is odd, and so Ù[k 6pÙ!XLk LÝßaÞÜ (write out the Taylor series

_
¾ V
¿ À
r Á Â
_
¾ V
¿ À
r Á ¶0d Â of the left side); in particular, since does3 not divide
_!
!
I IJK for all ¸ . It follows
that » [¼ k ] if ¼ and k have opposite parity. Ù!XLk , we can find some such that ÙLk is di-
g
visible by but not by , and so is not a perfect square.
Now suppose g that ¼¢ and k8 <Ë are both even.
g z
Then ¹ g¶ º f¹ g¶ K º for all Ì , so » can be computed Third solution: (from David Rusin, David Savitt, and
3 g 3
as twice the sum over only even indices: Richard
3;Ø Stanley independently) Assume that k
W k
gÎÐ ÍÎÏ k is a square for all k \] . For sufficiently large
IJK

Ë ¾Ñ À Ò Á Â 3 ÍÓzJÏ Ó k ,
» !
2» Z ËZ
_!

© Îàg 3
àg g 3 g 3 3DØ
<
Z
Ë [k W k K Ö
k Wk k
Thus3 »Ã vanishes if and only if » Z ËZ vanishes
ÍÓzJÏ
(if
_!
] , then and Ë have opposite parity
Lk
àg 3
W k K
àg 3

gá
and so »
Ë also vanishes).

2
3
thus3 if k 35isØ a large even3 perfect square, we have k get an expression which tends to 0 as kDâ£ã , contra-
g Îàg àg g
Wk k [k gK Wk K . We conclude this is an diction.)

equality of polynomials, but the right-hand side is not a 3 g 3 3ÖØ
perfect square for k an even non-square, contradiction. Note: in case k Wk k has no repeated fac-

(The reader might try generalizing this approach to ar- tors, it is a square for only finitely many k , by a theorem
bitrary polynomials. A3 related3 argument, due to Greg of Siegel; work of Baker gives an explicit (but large)
3DØ
Kuperberg: write k Wk g k as k àg times a bound on such k . (I don’t know whether the graders

power series in
k and take two finite differences to will accept this as a solution, though.)
3

A-1 Find polynomials , , and , if they exist, ^
B-1 Right triangle W"XYH has right angle at H
and
Z[X\
W]H

such that for all , ; the point _ is chosen on ]
W X so that `
W H W"_ d^
; the point a is chosen on X\H so that ZbH_ca .

if
!

The perpendicular to \
X H at a meets ]
W X at e . Evalu-
" if
# ate fhghikjml > ane .
if .
p
A-2 Let $
qk o
B-2 Let qk of degree B such that o
be a polynomial
o
rsr , where
be a polynomial that is nonnegative for all
polynomial
is a quadratic and
&' )(*+*+*,(- ./ that for some % , there are polynomials
real . Prove or r is the second derivative of o . Show that if
) such that
. o has at least two distinct roots then it must have B
0 4 1 5768* distinct roots.
$
31 2 & utvM(5wx[y z M(3w{ }| M(3w~9
B-3 Let W . For W , let
A-3 Consider the power series expansion 9M(3w~ 0 w = (
0 G
9: 6 <; = = * [ 6
= 2?>A@
(
Prove that, for each integer BDC , there is an integer E where the sum ranges over all pairs E B of positive
such that integers satisfying the indicated inequalities. Evaluate
6 6 & * w 6 9 6 wx59M(3w~*
= = F l & fhgh i& s
@ @ @/G
A-4 Sum the series
0; 0; 6 *
E B

E =
B-4 Let be a realfunction
)(m )with
(m acontinuous
(- third deriva-
2 & =2 & G B G tive such that r rsr rsr r are positive for
G
A-5 Prove that there is a constant H such that, if $
that r rsr
all.bSuppose for all . Show that
is a r for all .
polynomial of degree 1999, then
& û R

/

7L M* B-5 For an integer BC , let B . Evaluate the
$ HJI & $ determinant of the BB matrix W . , where is
K 1 has entries
the. B B identity matrix and W
= =/N & &O ( 6 1 +8+h 8^ % ^v for all 8( % . @
A-6 ( sequence
The RQ ( isQ defined by @
and,@ for BSC , @ @
@/P 6 & = :V = K & 6= 6
= UT @ = K @ K P @ K
* ¢1.
B-6 Let be a finite set of integers, each greater than
@ = K 6 = K@ Suppose that ¤¥ ( ¦
for each
integer B
+¤M ( ¦
there is some ¡
@ @ P such that £ (3§¡ B or £ ¤¥ ¡ (5B §5 ¡ . Show that
Show that, for all n, = is an integer multiple of B . there exist ¡ such that £ ¡ is prime.
@
A–1 Note that if r(x) and s(x) are any two functions, then a2n , b2n+1 = an (an−1 + an+1 ). Then
max(r, s) = (r + s + |r − s|)/2. 2b2n+1 + b2n = 2an an+1 + 2an−1 an + a2n−1 + a2n

= 2an an+1 + an−1 an+1 + a2n
Therefore, if F (x) is the given function, we have
= a2n+1 + a2n = b2n+2 ,
F (x) = max{−3x − 3, 0} − max{5x, 0} + 3x + 2
= (−3x − 3 + |3x + 3|)/2 and similarly 2b2n + b2n−1 = b2n+1 , so that {bn }
satisfies the same recurrence as {an }. Since further
− (5x + |5x|)/2 + 3x + 2
b0 = 1, b1 = 2 (where we use the recurrence for {an }
1 to calculate a−1 = 0), we deduce that bn = an for all
= |(3x + 3)/2| − |5x/2| − x + ,
2 n. In particular, a2n + a2n+1 = b2n+2 = a2n+2 .
so we may set f (x) = (3x + 3)/2, g(x) = 5x/2, and Second solution: Note that
h(x) = −x + 12 .
1
A–2 First solution: First factor p(x) = q(x)r(x), where q 1 − 2x − x2
has all real roots and r has all complex roots. Notice √ √ !
that each root of q has even multiplicity, otherwise p 1 2+1 2−1
= √ √ + √
would have a sign change at that root. Thus q(x) has a 2 2 1 − (1 + 2)x 1 − (1 − 2)x
square root s(x).
and that
Now write r(x) = j=1 (x − aj )(x − aj ) (possible
Qk
because r has roots in complex conjugate pairs). Write ∞
√
1
j=1 (x − aj ) = t(x) + iu(x) with t, x having real
Qk X
√ = (1 ± 2)n xn ,
coefficients. Then for x real, 1 + (1 ± 2)x n=0
p(x) = q(x)r(x) so that

= s(x)2 (t(x) + iu(x))(t(x) + iu(x)) 1 √ √
an = √ ( 2 + 1)n+1 − (1 − 2)n+1 .
= (s(x)t(x))2 + (s(x)u(x))2 . 2 2
(Alternatively, one can factor r(x) as a product of A simple computation (omitted here) now shows that
quadratic polynomials with real coefficients, write each a2n + a2n+1 = a2n+2 .
as a sum of squares, then multiply together to get a sum
Third solution
(by Richard Stanley): Let A be the ma-
of many squares.)
0 1
trix . A simple induction argument shows that
Second solution: We proceed by induction on the de- 1 2
gree of p, with base case where p has degree 0. As in
the first solution, we may reduce to a smaller degree
an an+1

in case p has any real roots, so assume it has none. An+2 = .
an+1 an+2
Then p(x) > 0 for all real x, and since p(x) → ∞
for x → ±∞, p has a minimum value c. Now p(x) − c The desired result now follows from comparing the top
has real roots, so as above, we deduce that p(x) − c is left corner entries of the equality An+2 An+2 = A2n+4 .
a√sum of squares. Now add one more square, namely
( c)2 , to get p(x) as a sum of squares.
A–4 Denote the series by S, and let an = 3n /n. Note that
A–3 First solution: Computing
Pthe coefficient of xn+1 in the ∞ X
∞
identity (1 − 2x − x ) m=0 am xm = 1 yields the
2 ∞ X 1
S=
recurrence an+1 = 2an + an−1 ; the sequence {an } am (am + an )
m=1 n=1
is then characterized by this recurrence and the initial ∞ X ∞
conditions a0 = 1, a1 = 2. 1
X
= ,
an (am + an )
Define the sequence {bn } by b2n = a2n−1 + m=1 n=1
2
where the second equality follows by interchanging m largest positive real number such that R(x) − kx ≥ 0
and n. Thus on [0, 1]; then
XX Z 1 Z 1
1 1
2S = + |P (x)| dx = |Q(x)R(x)| dx
m n
am (am + an ) an (am + an ) −1 −1
XX 1 Z 1
= > |Q(x)(R(x) − kx)| dx,
m n
am an −1
!2
X∞
n and Q(x)(R(x) − kx) has more roots in [0, 1] than does
=
3n
. P (and has the same value at 0). Repeating this argu-
ment shows that 0 |P (x)| dx is greater than the cor-
n=1
R1
But responding integral for some polynomial with all of its

roots in [0, 1].
∞
X n 3 Under this assumption, we have
n
=
n=1
3 4
1999
Y
P (x) = c (x − ri )
since, e.g., it’s f (1), where
0
i=1
∞
X xn 3 for some ri ∈ (0, 1]. Since
f (x) = n
= ,
n=0
3 3 − x Y
P (0) = −c ri = 1,
and we conclude that S = 9/32.
we have
A–5 First solution: (by Reid Barton) Let r1 , . . . , r1999 be Y
|c| ≥ |ri−1 | ≥ 1.
the roots of P . Draw a disc of radius around each
ri , where < 1/3998; this disc covers a subinterval of
[−1/2, 1/2] of length at most 2, and so of the 2000 (or Thus it suffices to prove that if Q(x) is a monic polyno-
fewer) uncovered intervals in [−1/2, 1/2], one, which mial of degree 1999 with all of its roots in [0, 1], then
≥ D for some constant D > 0. But the
R1
we call I, has length at least δ = (1−3998)/2000 > 0. 0 |Q(x)| dx
We will exhibit an explicit lower bound for the integral integral of 0 i=1 |x−ri | dx is a continuous function
R 1 Q1999
of |P (x)|/P (0) over this interval, which will yield such for ri ∈ [0, 1]. The product of all of these intervals is
a bound for the entire integral. compact, so the integral achieves a minimum value for
Note that some ri . This minimum is the desired D.
1999
Third solution (by Abe Kunin): It suffices to prove the
|P (x)| Y |x − ri | stronger inequality
= .
|P (0)| i=1
|ri | Z 1
sup |P (x)| ≤ C |P (x)| dx
Also note that by construction, |x − ri | ≥ for each x∈[−1,1] −1
|ri | ≥ . If |ri | > 1,

x ∈ I. If |ri | ≤ 1, then we have |x−r i|
holds for some C. But this follows immediately from
then the following standard fact: any two norms on a finite-
|x − ri | dimensional vector space (here the polynomials of de-
= |1 − x/ri | ≥ 1 − |x/ri | ≥= 1/2 > . gree at most 1999) are equivalent. (The proof of this
|ri | statement is also a compactness argument: C can be
We conclude that I |P (x)/P (0)| dx ≥ δ, indepen-
R taken to be the maximum of the L1-norm divided by
dent of P . the sup norm over the set of polynomials with L1-norm
1.)
Second solution: It will be a bit more convenient to as-
Note: combining the first two approaches gives a con-
sume P (0) = 1 (which we may achieve by rescaling
unless P (0) = 0, in which case there is nothing to structive solution with a constant that is better than that
given by the first solution, but is still far from optimal. I
prove) and to prove that there exists D > 0 such that
don’t know offhand whether it is even known what the
|P (x)| dx ≥ D, or even such that 0 |P (x)| dx ≥
R1 R1
−1 optimal constant and/or the polynomials achieving that
D. constant are.
We first reduce to the case where P has all of its roots
in [0, 1]. If this is not the case, we can factor P (x) as A–6 Rearranging the given equation yields the much more
Q(x)R(x), where Q has all roots in the interval and tractable equation
R has none. Then R is either always positive or alan an−1 an−2
=6 −8 .
ways negative on [0, 1]; assume the former. Let k be the an−1 an−2 an−3
3
Let bn = an /an−1 ; with the initial conditions b2 = and if z has negative real part, so does 1/(z − ri ) for
2, b3 = 12, one easily obtains bn = 2n−1 (2n−2 − 1), i = 1, . . . , n, so the sum is nonzero.
and so The above argument also carries through if z lies on the
n−1 imaginary axis, provided that z is not equal to a root of
P . Thus we also have that no roots of P 0 lie on the sides
Y
an = 2n(n−1)/2 (2i − 1).
i=1 of the convex hull of P , unless they are also roots of P .
From this we conclude that if r is a root of P which is
To see that n divides an , factor n as 2k m, with m odd.
a vertex of the convex hull of the roots, and which is
Then note that k ≤ n ≤ n(n − 1)/2, and that there
not also a root of P 0 , then f has a single pole at r (as r
exists i ≤ m − 1 such that m divides 2i − 1, namely i =
cannot be a root of P 00 ). On the other hand, if r is a root
φ(m) (Euler’s totient function: the number of integers
of P which is also a root of P 0 , it is a multiple root, and
in {1, . . . , m} relatively prime to m).
then f has a double pole at r.
B–1 The answer is 1/3. Let G be the point obtained by re- If P has roots not all equal, the convex hull of its roots
flecting C about the line AB. Since ∠ADC = π−θ 2 , has at least two vertices.
we find that ∠BDE = π − θ − ∠ADC = π−θ 2 =
∠ADC = π − ∠BDC = π − ∠BDG, so that E, D, G B–3 We first note that
are collinear. Hence X xy
xm y n = .
|BE| |BE| sin(θ/2) (1 − x)(1 − y)
|EF | = = = , m,n>0
|BC| |BG| sin(3θ/2)
Subtracting S from this gives two sums, one of which
where we have used the law of sines in 4BDG. But by
l’Hôpital’s Rule, is
sin(θ/2) cos(θ/2)
X X x2n+1 x3 y
lim = lim = 1/3. xm y n = yn =
θ→0 sin(3θ/2) θ→0 3 cos(3θ/2) n
1−x (1 − x)(1 − x2 y)
m≥2n+1
B–2 First solution: Suppose that P does not have n distinct and the other of which sums to xy 3 /[(1 − y)(1 − xy 2)].
roots; then it has a root of multiplicity at least 2, which Therefore
we may assume is x = 0 without loss of generality. Let
xk be the greatest power of x dividing P (x), so that xy x3 y xy 3
S(x, y) = − −
P (x) = xk R(x) with R(0) 6= 0; a simple computation (1 − x)(1 − y) (1 − x)(1 − x y) (1 − y)(1 − xy 2 )
2
yields xy(1 + x + y + xy − x2 y 2 )
=
P 00 (x) = (k 2 − k)xk−2 R(x) + 2kxk−1 R0 (x) + xk R00 (x). (1 − x2 y)(1 − xy 2 )
Since R(0) 6= 0 and k ≥ 2, we conclude that the great- and the desired limit is lim(x,y)→(1,1) xy(1 + x + y +
est power of x dividing P 00 (x) is xk−2 . But P (x) = xy − x2 y 2 ) = 3.
Q(x)P 00 (x), and so x2 divides Q(x). We deduce (since
Q is quadratic) that Q(x) is a constant C times x2 ; in B–4 (based on work by Daniel Stronger) We make repeated
fact, C = 1/(n(n − 1)) by inspection of the leading- use of the following fact: if f is a differentiable function
degree terms of P (x) and P 00 (x). on all of R, limx→−∞ f (x) ≥ 0, and f 0 (x) > 0 for
Now if P (x) = j=0 aj xj , then the relation P (x) =
Pn all x ∈ R, then f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ R. (Proof: if
f (y) < 0 for some x, then f (x) < f (y) for all x < y
Cx2 P 00 (x) implies that aj = Cj(j − 1)aj for all j;
since f 0 > 0, but then limx→−∞ f (x) ≤ f (y) < 0.)
hence aj = 0 for j ≤ n − 1, and we conclude that
P (x) = an xn , which has all identical roots. From the inequality f 000 (x) ≤ f (x) we obtain
Second solution (by Greg Kuperberg): Let f (x) =
f 00 f 000 (x) ≤ f 00 (x)f (x) < f 00 (x)f (x) + f 0 (x)2
P 00 (x)/P (x) = 1/Q(x). By hypothesis, f has at most
two poles (counting multiplicity).
since f 0 (x) is positive. Applying the fact to the differ-
Recall that for any complex polynomial P , the roots ence between the right and left sides, we get
of P 0 lie within the convex hull of P . To show this, it
suffices to show that if the roots of P lie on one side of a 1 00
(f (x))2 < f (x)f 0 (x). (1)
line, say on the positive side of the imaginary axis, then 2
P 0 has no roots on the other side. That follows because
if r1 , . . . , rn are the roots of P , On the other hand, since f (x) and f 000 (x) are both pos-
n itive for all x, we have
P 0 (z) X 1
=
P (z) i=1
z − ri 2f 0 (x)f 00 (x) < 2f 0 (x)f 00 (x) + 2f (x)f 000 (x).
4
Applying the fact to the difference between the sides Since k=1 eik`θ = 0 for integer ` unless n | `, we con-
Pn
yields clude that Av (m) = 0 for m = 0 or for 2 ≤ m ≤
n − 1. In addition, we find that (Av (1) )j = n2 e−ijθ =
f 0 (x)2 ≤ 2f (x)f 00 (x). (2) n (n−1)
)j and (Av (n−1) )j = n2 eijθ = n2 (v (1) )j ,
2 (v
so that A(v (1) ± v (n−1) ) = ± n2 (v (1) ± v (n−1) ).
Combining (1) and (2), we obtain
Thus {v (0) , v (2) , v (3) , . . . , v (n−2) , v (1) + v (n−1) , v (1) −
1

f 0 (x)2
2
1 00 v (n−1) } is a basis for Cn of eigenvectors of A with the
< (f (x))2 claimed eigenvalues.
2 2f (x) 2
< f (x)f 0 (x),
Finally, the determinant of I+A is the product of (1+λ)
or (f 0 (x))3 < f (x)3 . We conclude f 0 (x) < 2f (x), as
over all eigenvalues λ of A; in this case, det(I + A) =
desired.
(1 + n/2)(1 − n/2) = 1 − n2 /4.
Note: one can actually prove the result with a smaller
constant in place of 2, as follows. Adding 12 f 0 (x)f 000 (x)
to both sides of (1) and again invoking the original
bound f 000 (x) ≤ f (x), we get
1 0 1 B–6 First solution: Choose a sequence p1 , p2 , . . . of primes
[f (x)f 000 (x) + (f 00 (x))2 ] < f (x)f 0 (x) + f 0 (x)f 000 (x) as follows. Let p1 be any prime dividing an element of
2 2
3 0
S. To define pj+1 given p1 , . . . , pj , choose an integer
≤ f (x)f (x). Nj ∈ S relatively prime to p1 · · · pj and let pj+1 be a
2
prime divisor of Nj , or stop if no such Nj exists.
Applying the fact again, we get
1 0 3
f (x)f 00 (x) < f (x)2 . Since S is finite, the above algorithm eventually ter-
2 4
minates in a finite sequence p1 , . . . , pk . Let m be the
Multiplying both sides by f 0 (x) and applying the fact smallest integer such that p1 · · · pm has a divisor in S.
once more, we get (By the assumption on S with n = p1 · · · pk , m = k
has this property, so m is well-defined.) If m = 1, then
1 0 1
(f (x))3 < f (x)3 . p1 ∈ S, and we are done, so assume m ≥ 2. Any di-
6 4 visor d of p1 · · · pm in S must be a multiple of pm , or
else it would also be a divisor of p1 · · · pm−1 , contra-
From this we deduce f 0 (x) < (3/2)1/3 f (x) < 2f (x), dicting the choice of m. But now gcd(d, Nm−1 ) = pm ,
as desired. as desired.
I don’t know what the best constant is, except that it is
not less than 1 (because f (x) = ex satisfies the given
conditions). Second solution (from sci.math): Let n be the small-
est integer such that gcd(s, n) > 1 for all s in n; note
B–5 We claim that the eigenvalues of A are 0 with mul-
that n obviously has no repeated prime factors. By the
tiplicity n − 2, and n/2 and −n/2, each with mul-
condition on S, there exists s ∈ S which divides n.
tiplicity 1. To prove this claim, define vectors v (m) ,
0 ≤ m ≤ n − 1, componentwise by (v (m) )k = eikmθ ,
and note that the v (m) form a basis for Cn . (If we ar-
range the v (m) into an n × n matrix, then the determi- On the other hand, if p is a prime divisor of s, then by
nant of this matrix is a Vandermonde product which is the choice of n, n/p is relatively prime to some element
nonzero.) Now note that t of S. Since n cannot be relatively prime to t, t is
divisible by p, but not by any other prime divisor of n
n
X (as those primes divide n/p). Thus gcd(s, t) = p, as
(Av (m) )j = cos(jθ + kθ)eikmθ desired.
k=1
n n
eijθ X ik(m+1)θ e−ijθ X ik(m−1)θ
= e + e .
2 2
k=1 k=1
The 61st William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A-1 Let A be aP
positive real number. What are the possible exist integers r, s, t such that raj + sbj + tcj is odd for
∞
values of j=0 x2j , given that x0 , x1 , . . . are positive at least 4N/7 values of j, 1 ≤ j ≤ N .
P∞
numbers for which j=0 xj = A?
B-2 Prove that the expression
A-2 Prove that there exist infinitely many integers n such
that n, n + 1, n + 2 are each the sum of the squares of gcd(m, n) n
two integers. [Example: 0 = 02 + 02 , 1 = 02 + 12 , n m
2 = 12 + 12 .]
is an integer for all pairs of integers n ≥ m ≥ 1.
A-3 The octagon P1 P2 P3 P4 P5 P6 P7 P8 is inscribed in a cir- PN
cle, with the vertices around the circumference in the B-3 Let f (t) = j=1 aj sin(2πjt), where each aj is real
given order. Given that the polygon P1 P3 P5 P7 is a and aN is not equal to 0. Let Nk denote the number of
k
square of area 5, and the polygon P2 P4 P6 P8 is a rect- zeroes (including multiplicities) of ddtkf . Prove that
angle of area 4, find the maximum possible area of the
octagon. N0 ≤ N1 ≤ N2 ≤ · · · and lim Nk = 2N.
k→∞
A-4 Show that the improper integral
[Editorial clarification: only zeroes in [0, 1) should be
Z B counted.]
lim sin(x) sin(x2 ) dx
B→∞ 0 B-4 Let f (x) be a continuous function such that f (2x2 −
converges. 1) = 2xf (x) for all x. Show that f (x) = 0 for
−1 ≤ x ≤ 1.
A-5 Three distinct points with integer coordinates lie in the
plane on a circle of radius r > 0. Show that two of B-5 Let S0 be a finite set of positive integers. We define fi-
these points are separated by a distance of at least r1/3 . nite sets S1 , S2 , . . . of positive integers as follows: the
integer a is in Sn+1 if and only if exactly one of a−1 or
A-6 Let f (x) be a polynomial with integer coefficients. De- a is in Sn . Show that there exist infinitely many integers
fine a sequence a0 , a1 , . . . of integers such that a0 = 0 N for which SN = S0 ∪ {N + a : a ∈ S0 }.
and an+1 = f (an ) for all n ≥ 0. Prove that if there ex-
ists a positive integer m for which am = 0 then either B-6 Let B be a set of more than 2n+1 /n distinct points
a1 = 0 or a2 = 0. with coordinates of the form (±1, ±1, . . . , ±1) in n-
dimensional space with n ≥ 3. Show that there are
B-1 Let aj , bj , cj be integers for 1 ≤ j ≤ N . Assume for three distinct points in B which are the vertices of an
each j, at least one of aj , bj , cj is odd. Show that there equilateral triangle.
Solutions to the 61st William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A–1 The possible values comprise the interval (0, A2 ). We deduce from theparea of P1 P3 P5 P7 that the ra-
To see that the values must lie in this interval, note that dius of the circle is 5/2. An easy calculation using
the Pythagorean Theorem
√ then√ shows that the rectangle

m
2
m
P2 P4 P6 P8 has sides 2 and 2 2. For notational ease,
X X X denote the area of a polygon by putting brackets around
 xj  = x2j + 2xj xk ,
the name of the polygon.
j=0 j=0 0≤j<k≤m
Pm By symmetry, the area of the octagon can be expressed

so j=0 x2j ≤ A2 − 2x0 x1 . Letting m → ∞, we have as
P∞ 2 2 2
j=0 xj ≤ A − 2x0 x1 < A .
[P2 P4 P6 P8 ] + 2[P2 P3 P4 ] + 2[P4 P5 P6 ].
To show that all values in (0, A2 ) can be obtained, we
use geometric progressions with P∞x1 /x0 = x2 /x1 = √
Note that [P2 P3 P4 ] is 2 times the distance from P3
· · · = d for variable d. Then j=0 xj = x0 /(1 − d)
and to P2 P4 , which is maximized when P3 lies √ on the mid-
point of arc P2 P4 ; similarly, [P4 P5 P6 ] is 2/2 times
2
the distance from P5 to P4 P6 , which is maximized

∞ 2 ∞
X x0 1−d X
when P5 lies on the midpoint of arc P4 P6 . Thus the
x2j = 2
= xj  .
j=0
1 − d 1 + d j=0 area of the octagon is maximized when P3 is the mid-
point of arc P2 P4 and P5 is the midpoint of arc P4√P6 . In
As d increases from 0 to 1, (1 − d)/(1 + d) decreases this case, it is easy√to calculate that [P2 P3 P4 ] = 5 − 1
from P1 to 0. Thus if we and [P4 P5√ P6 ] = 5/2 − 1, and so the area of the oc-
∞ P∞take geometric progressions
with j=0 xj = A, j=0 x2j ranges from 0 to A2 . tagon is 3 5.
Thus the possible values are indeed those in the interval
(0, A2 ), as claimed. A–4 We use integration by parts:
2
A–2 First solution: Let a be an even integer such that a + 1 Z B Z B
is not prime. (For example, choose a ≡ 2 (mod 5), so sin x
sin x sin x2 dx = sin x2 (2x dx)
that a2 + 1 is divisible by 5.) Then we can write a2 + 1 0 0 2x
as a difference of squares x2 − b2 , by factoring a2 + 1 sin x
B
cos x2

as rs with r ≥ s > 1, and setting x = (r + s)/2, =−
2x
b = (r − s)/2. Finally, put n = x2 − 1, so that Z B
0

n = a2 + b2 , n + 1 = x2 , n + 2 = x2 + 1. cos x sin x
+ − cos x2 dx.
Second solution: It is well-known that the equation 0 2x 2x2
x2 − 2y 2 = 1 has infinitely many solutions (the so-
called “Pell” equation). Thus setting n = 2y 2 (so that Now sin x 2
2x cos x tends to 0 as B → ∞, and the integral
n = y 2 + y 2 , n + 1 = x2 + 02 , n + 2 = x2 + 12 ) yields sin x 2
of 2x2 cos x converges absolutely by comparison with
infinitely many n with the desired property. 1/x2 . Thus it suffices to note that
Third solution: As in the first solution, it suffices to ex-
B
hibit x such that nx2 − 1 is the sum of two squares. We
Z
cos x cos x
will take x = 32 , and show that x2 n− 1 is the sum of cos x2 dx = cos x2 (2x dx)
0 2x 4x2
two squares by induction on n: if 32 − 1 = a2 + b2 , cos x B
2
then = sin x
4x2

0
n+1 n n Z B
(32 − 1) = (32 − 1)(32 + 1) 2x cos x − sin x
− sin x2 dx,
n−1 n−1
0 4x3
= (32 a + b)2 + (a − 32 b)2 .
√ and that the final integral converges absolutely by com-

A–3 The maximum area is 3 5. parison to 1/x3 .
k
An alternate approach is to first rewrite sin x sin x2 as B–3 Put fk (t) = df
dtk
. Recall Rolle’s theorem: if f (t) is dif-
1 2 2
2 (cos(x − x) − cos(x + x). Then ferentiable, then between any two zeroes of f (t) there
B exists a zero of f 0 (t). This also applies when the zeroes
Z B
2x + 1 are not all distinct: if f has a zero of multiplicity m at
cos(x2 + x) dx = −
0 sin(x2 + x) 0 t = x, then f 0 has a zero of multiplicity at least m − 1
B there.
2 sin(x2 + x)
Z
− dx Therefore, if 0 ≤ a0 ≤ a1 ≤ · · · ≤ ar < 1 are the
0 (2x + 1)2
roots of fk in [0, 1), then fk+1 has a root in each of
converges absolutely, and
RB
cos(x2 −x) can be treated the intervals (a0 , a1 ), (a1 , a2 ), . . . , (ar−1 , ar ), so long
0
similarly. as we adopt the convention that the empty interval (t, t)
actually contains the point t itself. There is also a root in
A–5 Let a, b, c be the distances between the points. Then the the “wraparound” interval (ar , a0 ). Thus Nk+1 ≥ Nk .
area of the triangle with the three points as vertices is Next, note that if we set z = e2πit ; then
abc/4r. On the other hand, the area of a triangle whose
N
vertices have integer coordinates is at least 1/2 (for ex- 1 X 4k
ample, by Pick’s Theorem). Thus abc/4r ≥ 1/2, and f4k (t) = j aj (z j − z −j )
2i j=1
so
max{a, b, c} ≥ (abc)1/3 ≥ (2r)1/3 > r1/3 . is equal to z −N times a polynomial of degree 2N .

Hence as a function of z, it has at most 2N roots;
A–6 Recall that if f (x) is a polynomial with integer coeffi- therefore fk (t) has at most 2N roots in [0, 1]. That is,
cients, then m−n divides f (m)−f (n) for any integers Nk ≤ 2N for all N .
m and n. In particular, if we put bn = an+1 − an , then To establish that Nk → 2N , we make precise the ob-
bn divides bn+1 for all n. On the other hand, we are servation that
given that a0 = am = 0, which implies that a1 = am+1 N
and so b0 = bm . If b0 = 0, then a0 = a1 = · · · = am
X
fk (t) = j 4k aj sin(2πjt)
and we are done. Otherwise, |b0 | = |b1 | = |b2 | = · · · , j=1
so bn = ±b0 for all n.
Now b0 + · · · + bm−1 = am − a0 = 0, so half of the is dominated by the term with j = N . At the points
integers b0 , . . . , bm−1 are positive and half are negative. t = (2i + 1)/(2N ) for i = 0, 1, . . . , N − 1, we have
In particular, there exists an integer 0 < k < m such N 4k aN sin(2πN t) = ±N 4k aN . If k is chosen large
that bk−1 = −bk , which is to say, ak−1 = ak+1 . From enough so that
this it follows that an = an+2 for all n ≥ k − 1; in |aN |N 4k > |a1 |14k + · · · + |aN −1 |(N − 1)4k ,
particular, for m = n, we have
then fk ((2i + 1)/2N ) has the same sign as
a0 = am = am+2 = f (f (a0 )) = a2 . aN sin(2πN at), which is to say, the sequence
fk (1/2N ), fk (3/2N ), . . . alternates in sign. Thus be-
B–1 Consider the seven triples (a, b, c) with a, b, c ∈ {0, 1} tween these points (again including the “wraparound”
not all zero. Notice that if rj , sj , tj are not all even, then interval) we find 2N sign changes of fk . Therefore
four of the sums arj + bsj + ctj with a, b, c ∈ {0, 1} limk→∞ Nk = 2N .
are even and four are odd. Of course the sum with
a = b = c = 0 is even, so at least four of the seven B–4 For t real and not a multiple of π, write g(t) = f (cos t)
sin t .
triples with a, b, c not all zero yield an odd sum. In Then g(t + π) = g(t); furthermore, the given equation
other words, at least 4N of the tuples (a, b, c, j) yield implies that
odd sums. By the pigeonhole principle, there is a triple
f (2 cos2 t − 1) 2(cos t)f (cos t)
(a, b, c) for which at least 4N/7 of the sums are odd. g(2t) = = = g(t).
sin(2t) sin(2t)
B–2 Since gcd(m, n) is an integer linear combination of m
and n, it follows that In particular, for any integer n and k, we have

gcd(m, n) n g(1 + nπ/2k ) = g(2k + nπ) = g(2k ) = g(1).
n m Since f is continuous, g is continuous where it is de-
fined; but the set {1 + nπ/2k |n, k ∈ Z} is dense in the
is an integer linear combination of the integers
reals, and so g must be constant on its domain. Since
g(−t) = −g(t) for all t, we must have g(t) = 0 when t

m n n−1 n n n
= and = is not a multiple of π. Hence f (x) = 0 for x ∈ (−1, 1).
n m m−1 n m m
Finally, setting x = 0 and x = 1 in the given equation
and hence is itself an integer. yields f (−1) = f (1) = 0.
2
B–5 We claim that all integers N of the form 2k , with k a max{S0 }, then
positive integer and N > max{S0 }, satisfy the desired X X
conditions. ≡ (1 + xN ) xj
j∈Sn j∈S0
It follows from the definition of Sn , and induction on n,
that and SN = S0 ∪ {N + a : a ∈ S0 }, as desired.
X X B–6 For each point P in B, let SP be the set of points with

xj ≡ (1 + x) xj all coordinates equal to ±1 which differ from P in ex-
j∈Sn j∈Sn−1 actly one coordinate. Since there are more than 2n+1 /n
≡ (1 + x) n
X
xj (mod 2). points in B, and each SP has n elements, the cardinal-
ities of the sets SP add up to more than 2n+1 , which
j∈S0
is to say, more than twice the total number of points.
By the pigeonhole principle, there must be a point in
From the identity (x + y)2 ≡ xn2 + y 2n (mod
n
2) and in- three of the sets, say SP , SQ , SR . But then any two of
duction on n, we have (x+y)2 ≡ x2 +y 2 (mod 2). P, Q, R differ in exactly two coordinates, so P QR is an
Hence if we choose N to be a power of 2 greater than equilateral triangle, as desired.
3
The 62nd William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A-1 Consider a set and a binary operation , i.e., for each B-2 Find all pairs of real numbers 6/ QE
satisfying the sys-
, . Assume
for all tem of equations
. Prove that
for all .
" "
A-2 You have coins . For each , ! is bi- ( 6 / (SR Q
&RE/ ( Q
ased so that, when tossed, it has probability "#$ &%'()"
/ % Q
" "
of fallings heads. If the * coins are tossed, what is the 2 Q %$ Q 1 2T/ 1
U
probability that the number of heads is odd? Express / %
the answers as a rational function of * .
A-3 For each integer + , consider the polynomial B-3 For any positive integer * , let VW*YX denote the closest in-
,.- teger to Z * . Evaluate
&/
0 /$12) &%'+3(54
/ ( 6+725%

,8- [
For what values of + is &/
the product of two non- \ %E_ ` (M%aY_ ^`
constant polynomials with integer coefficients?
^]8 %
A-4 Triangle 9:; has an area 1. Points < => lie, respec-
tively, on sides :; , ?9 , 9?: such that 9?< bisects : =
at point @ , : = bisects > at point , and > bisects
B-4 Let
b denote the set of rational
hgi numbers
P different from
9< at point A . Find the area of the triangle @ A . 2;" D "dc . Define e7f by e. 6/ /j23"#'/ .
Prove or disprove that
A-5 Prove that there are unique positive integers , * such [
that
B8 2) (C"
%ED'DF" . k
eml ^n
o)p$
A-6 Can an arc of a parabola inside a circle of radius 1 have ]8
a length greater than 4?
B-1 Let * be an even positive integer. Write the numbers where e l n denotes e composed with itself * times.
" % G * in the squares of an *IHJ* grid so that the
-th row, from left to right, is B-5 Let and be real numbers in the interval 6D "#E%
,
and let q be a continuous real-valued function such
6K2L"
&*
()" 6;2M"
*N(M% O 6;2M"
*P(5* that qY rqs 6/
O
tu qs 6/
( / for all real / . Prove that
Color the squares of the grid so that half of the squares qs 6/
Cv / for some constant v .
in each row and in each column are red and the other
half are black (a checkerboard coloring is one possi- B-6 Assume that
$w. is an increasing sequence of pos-
bility). Prove that for each coloring, the sum of the itive real numbers such that xryrz F#'* D . Must
numbers on the red squares is equal to the sum of the there exist infinitely many positive integers * such that
numbers on the black squares. ( ^B % for } " % G *K2)" ?
a{ {|
Solutions to the 62nd William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition

A–1 The hypothesis

implies
Note: a more sophisticated interpretation of this argu-
for all

(by replacing
!" by ),#and hence
$% ment can be given using Galois theory. Namely, if a
for all (using ). is neither a square nor
lm a lm
twice

a square, then the number
*),+.- fields d and d 3 are distinct quadratic fields,
A–2 Let &#' denote) the desired probability. Then &( ,
so their compositum is a number fieldf of degree 4,
and, for /0 ,
) whose Galois group acts transitively on b d a=b d 3 i .
21 3 / 1 )<; Thus & \ is irreducible.
& ' ) 6 & '879( 4 ):6 & '879(
3 /54 3 / 4 oCTp t
u eo uv
;=) ) A–4 Choose n so that qUr nMsUr r s
21 3 / p
) 6 & '879( 4 )?> rUs , and let w x yz${ denote the area of triangle
3 /54 3 5/ 4 u u|t
x^yz . Then w sq{ w q{ since the tri-
+CB E-.+.F
The recurrence yields &A@ 3 , &#D , and by a angles
u
have
}
the
+
same
u
altitude 2);
and base. t Also
simple induction, one then checks that for general / one w sUq|{ sq sUr w sUr|{ n , and w~qUr {
+: ), + t<+ u| u );o[
has & ' / 3 /54 . qr sUr r r w sUr{ n (e.g., by the
law of sines). Adding this all up yields
Note: Richard Stanley points out the following
HJI 'KML H +:
nonin-
),
ductive argument. Put G HPO HP ( 4 3.N 3.N 4 ; )< u u t t
w sUq{:4=w s {k4=w~qUr {
then the coefficient of in G is the probability of R)$; R)$;o, ; ; o
getting exactly Q heads. Thus the desired number is 3 n 4n 3 n n
R),S; T;U),R+
G G 3 , and both values of G can be com- R) o,V) oCR) pp,R) )
),V)
puted directly: G , and or n 4 . Similarly 4 4n .
) - ;) ) _ Z
8 _:
T;U),$ 3 / Let H G ` )[w +:) HP w be theRfunction
m given by
G -XW BXWZY,Y[YCW ) ) > G 4 ; then G G G n n . However,
3 /54 3 /54 H H HP
HP^`_ H @
G is strictlyHdecreasing R
in , so G G is increas-
A–3 By the quadratic formula, if &]\ , then ing and H
G G G isHdecreasing.
R H
Thus there is at most
acb 3Cd 3 a one such that G G G ; in fact, since the equa-
egf b
4 3 , and hence the four roots of & \ are C ;) B.+
ahb d 3 i
given by d . If &#\ factors into two tion G has
op
a positive root 4 d 3 , we
nonconstant
polynomials over the integers, then some must have n .
subset of consisting of one or two elements form the u t u|t<+u u
We u
now compute+ w tU s
u
{
t
r
.+
w sUr{ ,
roots of a polynomial with integer coefficients. 3 , analogously
w sU!{ sU s w s {
u .+ 9 u ;
First suppose this subset has a single element, say w~sUr { w~r { 3 , and w~ { w sUr{
ajb d 3 u ; ; u [*);-.C+ ,E 7 D
d ; this element
must be a rational number. w sU!{ w~sUr { w~r { 3 .
Then d ahb d 3 @ 3 4 aEb 3Cd 3 a

is an integer, ) o[^)
@
so a is twice a perfect square, say a 3 / . But then Note: the key relation n 4 can also be de-
ab d 3 V b ), d 3 b )
rived by computing using homogeneous coordinates or
d
/ is only rational if / , i.e.,
if a 3 . vectors.
Next, suppose that the subset contains two elements; '#(;2 )[ ' _._8)
f f A–5 Suppose 4 3
. Notice that
then we can take it to be one of d a*b d 3ki , d 3 b
'#( [
) '
; )
a i f 4=w 4 { is a multiple of ; thus divides
d or b d a 4 d 3 i . In all cases, the sum and the 3
_C_
3

3 W
F
W
)C)
W
) -
[
.
product of the elements of the subset must be a ratio- Vl _C_:) h)
nal number. In the first case, this means 3 d a , Since
-.
3 is divisible by 3, we must
'#( have
) '
,
a , otherwise one of and 4 is a mul-
so is
l
a perfect square. In the second case, we have
, contradiction. In the third case, tiple of 3 and the other is not, so their difference cannot
%l we have
3 d 3 ' #( )X -.
a @ el
d 4 d 3 , or a 4 3 4 3Cd 3 a , which be divisible

by 3. Now
)[ ' V)X ^-.
, so we must
means that a is twice a perfect square. have 4 , which forces / to be even,
H and in particular at least 2.
We conclude that & \ factors into two nonconstant '#( ;U ), ' ¡;U ), ' ¢
polynomials over the integers if and only if a is either If is even, then ;U
4 4
), ' £;U)X ¢
.
a square or twice a square. Since / is even, 4 . Since
_._8)UE)¤ ¢ + +
3 ,),this is impossible.
_C_:)m2F ).)
Thus is odd,
)[-
every row contains exactly / 3 elements of and / 3
and so must
' #( ;¥
divide
), ' ¢
W W . Moreover,
UV)¤ ¢
elements of s , Ä Ä
4 , so .
F )C) ),- o[ o[
Of the divisors of W W , those congruent to 1 mod G G >
3 are precisely those not divisible by 11 (since 7F and )[13 ÅÇÆÉÈ ÅÆMÊ
-
are both congruent
to 1 mod 3). Thus divides
)X ¢
W
),- . +
Now is only possible if divides . Similarly, because every
+ column contains exactly / 3
¤j) ); ' ¦ _._8)
We cannot have , since for any 3 3 elements of andÄ / 3 elements
Ä of s ,
*§)[-
/ . Thus the only possibility is . One eas-
=£),-8 o[ o[
ily checks that / 3 is a solution; all that Â Â >
remains is to check )[- '#that no _Cother works.
/ )Z ©.In
fact,
ÅÇÆMÈ ÅÆMÊ
( _:)
if /¨0 3 , then
),- ' #( )[- ©C
3 . But
5e)[-:
since / is even, contradiction. It follows
Ä that Ä
Thus / 3 is the unique solution.
o[ o, ) o[ o[ ).
Note:
_._
once one has
ª
that
);
/ is
), '
even, one can use that) G /4ËÂ 4 G /4XÂ 4
'#( ÅÆMÈ ÅÆMÊ
3 3 4 4 is divisible by 4
to rule out cases.
as desired.
A–6 The answer is yes. Consider the arc of the parabola
« ¬u|H @ H @ « ;%), @ j)
inside the circleu
4
)[+
, where Note: Richard Stanley points out a theorem of Ryser
we initially assume that _:_.
0 3 . This intersects the
u;=)[+u, u; (see Ryser, Combinatorial Mathematics,
u
Theorem_3.1)
;=)
b
circle
),R+u|
in three points, andu
d 3 3 that can also be applied. Namely, if and s are
. We claim that for sufficiently _large,
:_.
the matrices with the same row and column sums, then
length ® of the parabolic
u;),+u5[ u¤;X),R+u| arc between and there is a sequence of operations on 3 W 3 matrices of
d 3 3 is greater than 3 , which im- the form
plies the desired result by symmetry. We express ® us- _h) ) _
ing the usual formula for arclength: 1
)%_ 6
1
_¬) 6
@° 7#(²± °
¯ ) u|H @?µ H
® 4 3 u
³ ´ or vice versa, which transforms into s . If we iden-
) @ @° 7#( tify 0 and 1 with red and black, then the given color-
¯ ) H @ µ H
u
³ ´ 4 ing and the checkerboard coloring both satisfy the sum
3
condition. Since the desired result is clearly true for the
) @ @° 79(
¯ ) H @ ;HP µ H; checkerboard coloring, and performing the matrix op-
3 4 u·¶ 4 3¹¸
3 ³ ´ erations does not affect this, the desired result follows
in general.
;!H
where we have artificially introduced
Hº=_
into the inte-
grand in the last step. Now, for , B–2 By adding and subtracting the two given equations, we
) ) ) obtain the equivalent pair of equations
) H @ ;!H º
4 ) H @ H 0 ) H @ H ), » +.H%H )[_.H @ « @ B «
´ d 3 d 3 4
4 4 4 3 4 4
),+ « %BCH ),_CH @ « @
µ H+: 3 H ),
4 4
« >
since ¼¾³ ½ 4 diverges, so does
) H @ ;H µ H
¼]³ ½ d 4 . Hence, for sufficiently large H
u @ @° 7#( ) H @ ; H µ H Multiplying the former by and the latter by « , then
, we have ¼ ³ d 4 0 3 , and hence adding and subtracting the two resulting equations, we
®0 3 .
obtain another pair of equations equivalent to the given
Note:u a numerical
-M¢ F
computation shows that one must ones,
take 0 > to obtain ®0 3 , and that the maximum
¢ _C_ F u%¿%À¹¢ ) -|VH « )¡HÌ; « >
value of ® is about > 3 , achieved for > . 4
B–1 Let (resp. s ) denote the set of red (resp. black) H- (±
),+ - (R± ;=),R+
o It follows that 4 3 and « 3
squares
o, ino[ such ) a coloring, and for Ás , let o
G /4Â 4 denote the number written in square , is the unique solution satisfying the given equations.
_Ã o, o[Ã ;)
where G
o,
Â / . Then it is clear
o
that the ;%),+ @ @ ; )[+M¢ ),+ @
value of G o, depends only on the row of , while o
the B–3 Since N
)[+M¢
3 N N 4

and N 4 3
@
value of Â depends only on the column of . Since N 4 N 4 , we have that ÍT/?Î N if and only if
2
@ ; )Ã Ã @
NÄ N 4 / N 4Ä N . Hence
Ä injective. Since Â is also continuous, Â is either strictly
increasing or strictly decreasing.
H
Moreover, Â cannot
'Ð 7 'Ð 'Ð 7 'Ð
½ 3CÏ 4 3 Ï ½ 3CÏ 4 3 Ï tendHPtoa;
finite limit ® as
H<*H
4 , or else we’d have
L
3 ' K L
É L K
3 ' Â Â Â , with the left side bounded and
' ( Ä ( : ' Ñ 'Ä Ð
ÏÉK Ò K K K the right side unbounded.
HÞ;
Similarly, Â cannot tend to a
7 finite limit as . Together with monotonicity,
½ 3 4 3
this yields that Â is also surjective.
KÉL
Ä ( '
LK Ò K 3 ' H H eß
7 #(
K K K Ò K K Ò K
Pick ³ arbitrary, H
andHdefine
' for all /
_ H
recur-
½ 7 7 ; 7 7 sively by '#( Â ' for /0 , and ':79(
3 4 3 3 3 7#( H _ Þ
@
¢
R
+
KÉL Â ' for /jà . Let n¹( 4 d 4 3
Ä (
"; @ ¢ R+
KCÓÔK KCÓÔK and n @
H @ ; HX;e¥£_
d 4 3 and n @ be the roots of
_ )
½ 7 7 @Õ ; 7 @Õ , so that n ( 0
KÉL 3 3 gn,ã @ and
0á 0
Ä ( Ä nM( 0 n @ . Then there exist âÉ( â @ such that
H ' ' ^ß
K.ÓK K.ÓÔK ' â ( n ( 4â@,n @ for all / .
½ 7 7 @Õ ; ½ 7 7 @Õ ä
¦ _
KÉL 3 K L
É 3 Suppose Â H is strictly H
increasing. If â,@ for some
'
-
( D choice of ³ , then ' is dominated H
by
H
n @ for / suffi-
> ciently negative. But taking ' and ' @ for _
/ suffi-
H
ciently
H negative
H of the
H right parity, we get à '= à
Alternate Ó the sum as solution: rewrite
Ó ' @ but Â ' 0%Â ' @ , contradiction. Thus â @
Ö L ¦ Ö L _ H H H H
'½ ( )3
7 '
. Note that Í²/?Î Ï
' Ð Õ
4 '½ ( 3
7 ':7
Ï
'Ð Õ ; sinceH ³ âÉ( and ( âÉ(nM( , we have Â n¹(
a @ a a for e all_ . Analogously, if Â is strictly decreasing, then
Î if and only if /
Í²/Z4 4 for some . H '
;
Thus /4=ÍT/?Î and / Í²/?Î each increase by 1 except at â@ or else ' is H dominated H
by n ( for / sufficiently
a @
/ 4
a
, where the former skips from a @ 4 3 a to positive. But taking ' and ' @ _ for / H sufficiently H
pos-
a @ a a @ itive of the right parity, we get à ' @Ëà ' but
4 3 4 3 and the latter repeats the value . Thus H H
theÄ sums are Ä Ä Ä Â ' @ àÂ ' , contradiction. Thus in that case,
HP¾ H H
Â n,@ for all .
Ò Ò
½ 7P' ; ½ 7P\ ½ 7P' ½ 7P\ )=-
L 3 L 3 4 L 3 4 L 3 3 4 > B–6 Yes, there must exist infinitely many such
/ . Let
º_
be
³
' ( \ ( ' \ ( the convex hull of the set of points / ' for / .
+.Ø
Geometrically, is the intersection of all convex sets
B–4 For a rational number +.× ØM expressed
in Ø:lowest

terms, (or even all halfplanes)
containing the H#points
«
/ ' ;
define +.its height Ù × to be × 4 . Then for algebraically, is the
set

of points K K which

can
Øj
any × +.ØMR^ Ø expressed in lowest terms, we have be written
K
as â ( / ( :
' å 4 Y,Y[Y 4â /
' æ for some
@ ; @ Ø:
Ù G × × 4 × ; since by assumption â[( >[>,> â which are nonnegative of sum 1.
Ø *
¦ Ø:
× and are nonzero integers with × , we have We prove that for infinitely many / , / ' is a vertex

+CØMR; +CØM¾ Ø @ ; @ Ø:; ; Ø: on the upper boundary of , and that these
/ satisfy the
Ù G × Ù × × 4 × ×
º- : Ø ;= [;= Ø: given condition. The condition

that / ' is a vertex
4 × × on the upper boundary of is equivalent
to the exis-
[;), Ø:;)[ º
× 4 3 3 > tence of a line passing through / ' with all other _
Ó points of below it. That is, there should exist a 0
' ¾
It follows that G Õ consists solely of numbers of such that
height strictly larger than 3 /4 3 , and hence K a ; ç ºe)
Ó à ' 4 N / N > (1)
Ú L ' Õ ¾ Û
'½ ( G > ä)
We
K +
first
`_
show that
ä
/ satisfies (1).
K ; The condition
+: ;m),
_
N as N implies that
f K ;5 R+8 ;),
( N
Note: many choices for the height function are+.possible:
+.ØM
*^ÜMÝ| ÔM Ø: ØM as well. Thus the set ( N i has an upper
one can take Ù × × , or Ù × Ø equal K Ã= ;),
bound a , and now ( 4
a N , as desired.
to the total number of prime factors of × and , and so
on. The key properties of the height function are that Next, we show that given one / satisfying (1), there
on one hand, there are only finitely many rationals with exists a larger
K +
one_ also satisfying
(1). Again, the con-
K ;
height below any finite bound, and on the other hand, dition
R+: ;
N
Z _
as N

implies that
the height function is a sufficiently “algebraic” function ' N
f K ;Ì +: ;
/
K.è
as N . Thus the sequence
+CØ
of its argument that one can relate the heights of × ' N / i ' has a maximum element; sup-
+.ØM
and G × . pose N n is the largest value of N that achieves this
hCé!;¥ +: ;
a
H<
maximum, and put ' n / . Then the
K
« « HR< R é, a
B–5 Note that Â H «
implies that Â Â
Â Â Â line through n of slope lies strictly above N K
and hence from the given equation. That is, Â is for N 0*n and passes through or lies above N for
3
a ë). ;h) ;
N àhn . Thus (1) holds for / n with replaced by for Q >,>[> / , the points / Q '87 O and
a ;Ëê ê _

for suitably small 0 . /4mQ ' O lie below the line through / ' of; slope
a a a
. That means ' O à ' 4

Q and '87 O à

' Q;
By induction, we have that (1) holds for infinitely
_
many adding these together gives ':7 O 4 ' O à 3 ' , as de-
a sired.
/ . For any such / there exists 0 such that
4
The 63rd William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A1 Let k be a fixed positive integer. The n-th derivative of Each player, in turn, signs his or her
1
xk −1
has the form (xkP−1)
n (x)
n+1 where Pn (x) is a polyno-
name on a previously unsigned face. The
mial. Find Pn (1). winner is the player who first succeeds in
signing three faces that share a common
A2 Given any five points on a sphere, show that some four vertex.
of them must lie on a closed hemisphere.
A3 Let n ≥ 2 be an integer and Tn be the number of non- Show that the player who signs first will always win by
empty subsets S of {1, 2, 3, . . . , n} with the property playing as well as possible.
that the average of the elements of S is an integer. Prove
that Tn − n is always even. B3 Show that, for all integers n > 1,
A4 In Determinant Tic-Tac-Toe, Player 1 enters a 1 in an n
1 1 1 1
empty 3 × 3 matrix. Player 0 counters with a 0 in a va- < − 1− < .
cant position, and play continues in turn until the 3 × 3 2ne e n ne
matrix is completed with five 1’s and four 0’s. Player
0 wins if the determinant is 0 and player 1 wins other- B4 An integer n, unknown to you, has been randomly
wise. Assuming both players pursue optimal strategies, chosen in the interval [1, 2002] with uniform probabil-
who will win and how? ity. Your objective is to select n in an odd number of
A5 Define a sequence by a0 = 1, together with the rules guesses. After each incorrect guess, you are informed
a2n+1 = an and a2n+2 = an + an+1 for each inte- whether n is higher or lower, and you must guess an
ger n ≥ 0. Prove that every positive rational number integer on your next turn among the numbers that are
appears in the set still feasibly correct. Show that you have a strategy so
that the chance of winning is greater than 2/3.
an−1 1 1 2 1 3
:n≥1 = , , , , ,... .
an 1 2 1 3 2 B5 A palindrome in base b is a positive integer whose base-
b digits read the same backwards and forwards; for ex-
A6 Fix an integer b ≥ 2. Let f (1) = 1, f (2) = 2, and ample, 2002 is a 4-digit palindrome in base 10. Note
for each n ≥ 3, define f (n) = nf (d), where d is the that 200 is not a palindrome in base 10, but it is the 3-
number of base-b digits of n. For which values of b does digit palindrome 242 in base 9, and 404 in base 7. Prove
∞ that there is an integer which is a 3-digit palindrome in
X 1
base b for at least 2002 different values of b.
n=1
f (n)
converge? B6 Let p be a prime number. Prove that the determinant of

the matrix
B1 Shanille O’Keal shoots free throws on a basketball
court. She hits the first and misses the second, and 
x y z

thereafter the probability that she hits the next shot is  xp y p z p 
equal to the proportion of shots she has hit so far. What 2 2 2
xp y p z p
is the probability she hits exactly 50 of her first 100
shots?
is congruent modulo p to a product of polynomials of
B2 Consider a polyhedron with at least five faces such that the form ax + by + cz, where a, b, c are integers. (We
exactly three edges emerge from each of its vertices. say two integer polynomials are congruent modulo p if
Two players play the following game: corresponding coefficients are congruent modulo p.)
Solutions to the 63rd William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
Kiran Kedlaya and Lenny Ng
A1 By differentiating Pn (x)/(xk − 1)n+1 , we find that A4 (partly due to David Savitt) Player 0 wins with opti-
Pn+1 (x) = (xk − 1)Pn0 (x) − (n + 1)kxk−1 Pn (x); sub- mal play. In fact, we prove that Player 1 cannot prevent
stituting x = 1 yields Pn+1 (1) = −(n + 1)kPn (1). Player 0 from creating a row of all zeroes, a column of
Since P0 (1) = 1, an easy induction gives Pn (1) = all zeroes, or a 2 × 2 submatrix of all zeroes. Each of
(−k)n n! for all n ≥ 0. these forces the determinant of the matrix to be zero.
Note: one can also argue by expanding in Taylor series For i, j = 1, 2, 3, let Aij denote the position in row i
around 1. Namely, we have and column j. Without loss of generality, we may as-
sume that Player 1’s first move is at A11 . Player 0 then
1 1 1 plays at A22 :
= = (x − 1)−1 + · · · ,
xk − 1 k(x − 1) + · · · k  
1 ∗ ∗
so ∗ 0 ∗
dn 1 (−1)n n! ∗ ∗ ∗
=
n k
dx x − 1 k(x − 1)−n−1 After Player 1’s second move, at least one of A23 and
and A32 remains vacant. Without loss of generality, assume
A23 remains vacant; Player 0 then plays there.
dn 1 After Player 1’s third move, Player 0 wins by playing at
Pn (x) = (xk − 1)n+1
dxn xk − 1 A21 if that position is unoccupied. So assume instead
= (k(x − 1) + · · · )n+1 that Player 1 has played there. Thus of Player 1’s three

(−1)n n!
moves so far, two are at A11 and A21 . Hence for i equal
(x − 1)−n−1 + · · · to one of 1 or 3, and for j equal to one of 2 or 3, the
k
following are both true:
= (−k)n n! + · · · .
(a) The 2 × 2 submatrix formed by rows 2 and i and
A2 Draw a great circle through two of the points. There are by columns 2 and 3 contains two zeroes and two
two closed hemispheres with this great circle as bound- empty positions.
ary, and each of the other three points lies in one of (b) Column j contains one zero and two empty posi-
them. By the pigeonhole principle, two of those three tions.
points lie in the same hemisphere, and that hemisphere
thus contains four of the five given points. Player 0 next plays at Aij . To prevent a zero column,
Player 1 must play in column j, upon which Player 0
Note: by a similar argument, one can prove that among completes the 2 × 2 submatrix in (a) for the win.
any n+3 points on an n-dimensional sphere, some n+2
of them lie on a closed hemisphere. (One cannot get by Note: one can also solve this problem directly by mak-
with only n + 2 points: put them at the vertices of a reg- ing a tree of possible play sequences. This tree can be
ular simplex.) Namely, any n of the points lie on a great considerably collapsed using symmetries: the symme-
sphere, which forms the boundary of two hemispheres; try between rows and columns, the invariance of the
of the remaining three points, some two lie in the same outcome under reordering of rows or columns, and the
hemisphere. fact that the scenario after a sequence of moves does
not depend on the order of the moves (sometimes called
A3 Note that each of the sets {1}, {2}, . . . , {n} has the “transposition invariance”).
desired property. Moreover, for each set S with in- Note (due to Paul Cheng): one can reduce Determi-
teger average m that does not contain m, S ∪ {m} nant Tic-Tac-Toe to a variant of ordinary tic-tac-toe.
also has average m, while for each set T of more than Namely, consider a tic-tac-toe grid labeled as follows:
one element with integer average m that contains m,
T \{m} also has average m. Thus the subsets other than A11 A22 A33
{1}, {2}, . . . , {n} can be grouped in pairs, so Tn − n is A23 A31 A12
even. A32 A13 A21
Then each term in the expansion of the determinant oc- For b = 2, we have a slightly different identity because
curs in a row or column of the grid. Suppose Player f (2) 6= 2f (2). Instead, for any positive integer i, we
1 first plays in the top left. Player 0 wins by playing have
first in the top row, and second in the left column. Then
i d
there are only one row and column left for Player 1 to 2X −1 i −1
2X
1 1 1 X 1 1
threaten, and Player 1 cannot already threaten both on =1+ + + . (2)
f (n) 2 6 f (d) n
the third move, so Player 0 has time to block both. n=1 d−1
d=3 n=2
A5 It suffices to prove that for any relatively prime positive Again comparing an integral to a Riemann sum, we see
integers r, s, there exists an integer n with an = r and that for d ≥ 3,
an+1 = s. We prove this by induction on r + s, the case d
2X −1 2d
r + s = 2 following from the fact that a0 = a1 = 1.
Z
1 1 1 dx
Given r and s not both 1 with gcd(r, s) = 1, we must < d−1 − d +
n 2 2 2d−1 x
have r 6= s. If r > s, then by the induction hypothesis n=2d−1
we have an = r − s and an+1 = s for some n; then 1
= + log 2
a2n+2 = r and a2n+3 = s. If r < s, then we have 2d
an = r and an+1 = s − r for some n; then a2n+1 = r 1
≤ + log 2 < 0.125 + 0.7 < 1.
and a2n+2 = s. 8
Note: a related problem is as follows. Starting with the 1
Put c = +log 2 and L = 1+ 12 + 6(1−c)
8
1
. Then we can
sequence i
P2 −1 1
prove that n=1 f (n) < L for all i ≥ 2 by induction
0 1 on i. The case i = 2 is clear. For the induction, note
, ,
1 0 that by (2),
repeat the following operation: insert between each pair i
2X −1 i
a c a+c 1 1 1 X 1
b and d the pair b+d . Prove that each positive rational <1+ + +c
number eventually appears. f (n) 2 6 f (d)
n=1 d=3
Observe that by induction, if ab and dc are consecutive 1 1 1
terms in the sequence, then bc − ad = 1. The same <1+ + +c
2 6 6(1 − c)
holds for consecutive terms of the n-th Farey sequence, 1 1
the sequence of rational numbers in [0, 1] with denomi- =1+ + = L,
2 6(1 − c)
nator (in lowest terms) at most n.
P∞ 1
A6 The sum converges for b = 2 and diverges for b ≥ 3. as desired. We conclude that n=1 f (n) converges to a
We first consider b ≥ 3. Suppose the sum converges; limit less than or equal to L.
then the fact that f (n) = nf (d) whenever bd−1 ≤ n ≤ Note: the above argument proves that the sum for b = 2
bd − 1 yields is at most L < 2.417. One can also obtain a lower
d
bound by the same technique, namely 1 + 12 + 6(1−c 1
0)
∞ ∞ −1
bX
X 1 X 1 1 with c0 = log 2. This bound exceeds 2.043. (By con-
= . (1)
f (n) f (d) n trast, summing the first 100000 terms of the series only
n=1 d−1
d=1 n=b
yields a lower bound of 1.906.) Repeating the same ar-
However, by comparing the integral of 1/x with a Rie- guments with d ≥ 4 as the cutoff yields the upper bound
mann sum, we see that 2.185 and the lower bound 2.079.
d
bX −1 Z bd
B1 The probability is 1/99. In fact, we show by induc-
1 dx tion on n that after n shots, the probability of having
>
n bd−1 x made any number of shots from 1 to n − 1 is equal to
n=bd−1
1/(n − 1). This is evident for n = 2. Given the result
= log(bd ) − log(bd−1 ) = log b, for n, we see that the probability of making i shots after
n + 1 attempts is
where log denotes the natural logarithm. Thus (1) yields

∞ ∞
i−1 1 i 1 (i − 1) + (n − i)
1 1 + 1− =
n n−1 n n−1 n(n − 1)
X X
> (log b) ,
n=1
f (n) n=1
f (n) 1
= ,
n
a contradiction since log b > 1 for b ≥ 3. Therefore the
sum diverges. as claimed.
2
B2 (Note: the problem statement assumes that all polyhe- which is evident because the inequalities hold term by
dra are connected and that no two edges share more than term.
one face, so we will do likewise. In particular, these are Note: David Savitt points out that the upper bound can
true for all convex polyhedra.) We show that in fact be improved from 1/(ne) to 2/(3ne) with a slightly
the first player can win on the third move. Suppose the more complicated argument. (In fact, for any c > 1/2,
polyhedron has a face A with at least four edges. If the one has an upper bound of c/(ne), but only for n above
first player plays there first, after the second player’s a certain bound depending on c.)
first move there will be three consecutive faces B, C, D
adjacent to A which are all unoccupied. The first player B4 Use the following strategy: guess 1, 3, 4, 6, 7, 9, . . . un-
wins by playing in C; after the second player’s second til the target number n is revealed to be equal to or lower
move, at least one of B and D remains unoccupied, and than one of these guesses. If n ≡ 1 (mod 3), it will be
either is a winning move for the first player. guessed on an odd turn. If n ≡ 0 (mod 3), it will be
It remains to show that the polyhedron has a face with at guessed on an even turn. If n ≡ 2 (mod 3), then n + 1
least four edges. (Thanks to Russ Mann for suggesting will be guessed on an even turn, forcing a guess of n on
the following argument.) Suppose on the contrary that the next turn. Thus the probability of success with this
each face has only three edges. Starting with any face strategy is 1335/2002 > 2/3.
F1 with vertices v1 , v2 , v3 , let v4 be the other endpoint Note: for any positive integer m, this strategy wins
of the third edge out of v1 . Then the faces adjacent to F1 when the number is being guessed from [1, m] with
must have vertices v1 , v2 , v4 ; v1 , v3 , v4 ; and v2 , v3 , v4 . probability m 1 2m+1
b 3 c. We can prove that this is best
Thus v1 , v2 , v3 , v4 form a polyhedron by themselves, possible as follows. Let am denote m times the proba-
contradicting the fact that the given polyhedron is con- bility of winning when playing optimally. Also, let bm
nected and has at least five vertices. (One can also de- denote m times the corresponding probability of win-
duce this using Euler’s formula V − E + F = 2 − 2g, ning if the objective is to select the number in an even
where V, E, F are the numbers of vertices, edges and number of guesses instead. (For definiteness, extend the
faces, respectively, and g is the genus of the polyhe- definitions to incorporate a0 = 0 and b0 = 0.)
dron. For a convex polyhedron, g = 0 and you get the
“usual” Euler’s formula.) We first claim that am = 1+max1≤k≤m {bk−1 +bm−k }
and bm = max1≤k≤m {ak−1 + am−k } for m ≥ 1. To
Note: Walter Stromquist points out the following coun-
establish the first recursive identity, suppose that our
terexample if one relaxes the assumption that a pair of
first guess is some integer k. We automatically win if
faces may not share multiple edges. Take a tetrahedron
n = k, with probability 1/m. If n < k, with proba-
and remove a smaller tetrahedron from the center of an
bility (k − 1)/m, then we wish to guess an integer in
edge; this creates two small triangular faces and turns
[1, k − 1] in an even number of guesses; the probabil-
two of the original faces into hexagons. Then the sec-
ity of success when playing optimally is bk−1 /(k − 1),
ond player can draw by signing one of the hexagons,
by assumption. Similarly, if n < k, with probability
one of the large triangles, and one of the small trian-
(m − k)/m, then the subsequent probability of winning
gles. (He does this by “mirroring”: wherever the first
is bm−k /(m − k). In sum, the overall probability of
player signs, the second player signs the other face of
winning if k is our first guess is (1 + bk−1 + bm−k )/m.
the same type.)
For optimal strategy, we choose k such that this quan-
B3 The desired inequalities can be rewritten as tity is maximized. (Note that this argument still holds
if k = 1 or k = m, by our definitions of a0 and b0 .)
1 1 1 The first recursion follows, and the second recursion is
1 − < exp 1 + n log 1 − <1− .
n n 2n established similarly.
By taking logarithms, we can rewrite the desired in- We now prove by induction that am = b(2m + 1)/3c
equalities as and bm = b2m/3c for m ≥ 0. The inductive step relies
on the inequality bxc + byc ≤ bx + yc, with equal-
ity when one of x, y is an integer. Now suppose that

1 1
− log 1 − < −1 − n log 1 − ai = b(2i + 1)/3c and bi = b2i/3c for i < m. Then
2n n

1
2(k − 1)

2(m − k)

< − log 1 − . 1 + bk−1 + bm−k = 1 + +
n 3 3

Rewriting these in terms of the Taylor expansion of 2m
≤
− log(1−x), we see that the desired result is also equiv- 3
alent to
∞ ∞ ∞ and similarly ak−1 + am−k ≤ b(2m + 1)/3c, with
X 1 X 1 X 1
equality in both cases attained, e.g., when k = 1. The
i i
< i
< ,
i=1
i2 n i=1
(i + 1)n i=1
ini inductive formula for am and bm follows.
3
B5 (due to Dan Bernstein) Put N = 2002!. Then for side. Moreover, both sides have the same leading coef-
d = 1, . . . , 2002, the number N 2 written in base b = ficient. Since they both have degree only p, they must
N/d − 1 has digits d2 , 2d2 , d2 . (Note that these really then coincide.
are digits because 2(2002)2 < (2002!)2 /2002 − 1.) We thus have
Note: one can also produce an integer N which has base p−1 p−1
b digits 1, ∗, 1 for n different values of b, as follows. Y Y
x (y + ix) (z + ix + jy)
Choose c with 0 < c < 21/n . For m a large positive
i=0 i,j=0
integer, put N = 1 + (m + 1) · · · (m + n)bcmcn−2 . For
p−1
m sufficiently large, the bases Y
≡ x(y p − xp−1 y) ((z + jy)p − xp−1 (z + jy))
N −1 Y j=0
b= n−2
= (m + j) p−1
(m + i)m
j6=i
Y
≡ (xy p − xp y) (z p − xp−1 z + jy p − jxp−1 y)
j=0
for i = 1, . . . , n will have the properties that N ≡ 1
(mod b) and b2 < N < 2b2 for m sufficiently large. ≡ (xy − x y)((z p − xp−1 z)p
p p
Note (due to Russ Mann): one can also give a “noncon- − (y p − xp−1 y)p−1 (z p − xp−1 z))
structive” argument. Let N be a large positive integer. 2 2
−p p
≡ (xy p − xp y)(z p − xp z )
For b ∈ (N 2 , N 3 ), the number of 3-digit base-b palin-
p p−1
dromes in the range [b2 , N 6 − 1] is at least − x(y − x y) (z − xp−1 z)
p p
2 2 2 2
−p+1 p p
6 ≡ xy p z p − xp yz p − xp y z + xp yz p
N − b2 N6

− 1 ≥ 2 − b − 2, 2 2
−p+1 p p 2 2
b b − xy p z p + xp y z + xp y p z − xp y p z
2 2 2
since there is a palindrome in each interval [kb, (k + ≡ xy p z p + yz p xp + zxp y p

2 2 2
1)b − 1] for k = b, . . . , b2 − 1. Thus the average num- − xz p y p − yxp z p − zy p xp ,
ber of bases for which a number in [1, N 6 − 1] is at
least which is precisely the desired determinant.
3
NX −1
Note: a simpler conceptual proof is as follows. (Ev-
N6

1 erything in this paragraph will be modulo p.) Note
− b − 2 ≥ log(N ) − c
N6 b that for any integers a, b, c, the column vector [ax +
b=N 2 +1 2
by + cz, (ax + by + cz)p , (ax + by + cz)p ] is a linear
for some constant c > 0. Take N so that the right side combination of the columns of the given matrix. Thus
exceeds 2002; then at least one number in [1, N 6 − 1] ax+by+cz divides the determinant. In particular, all of
is a base-b palindrome for at least 2002 values of b. the factors of (3) divide the determinant; since both (3)
and the determinant have degree p2 + p + 1, they agree
B6 We prove that the determinant is congruent modulo p to up to a scalar multiple. Moreover, they have the same
2
p−1 p−1
coefficient of z p y p x (since this term only appears in
Y Y the expansion of (3) when you choose the first term in
x (y + ix) (z + ix + jy). (3)
each factor). Thus the determinant is congruent to (3),
i=0 i,j=0
as desired.
We first check that Either argument can be used to generalize to a corre-
sponding n × n determinant, called a Moore determi-
p−1
Y nant; we leave the precise formulation to the reader.
(y + ix) ≡ y p − xp−1 y (mod p). (4) Note the similarity with the classical Vandermonde de-
i=0
terminant: if A is the n × n matrix with Aij = xji for
Since both sides are homogeneous as polynomials in x i, j = 0, . . . , n − 1, then
and y, it suffices to check (4) for x = 1, as a congru- Y
ence between polynomials. Now note that the right side det(A) = (xj − xi ).
has 0, 1, . . . , p − 1 as roots modulo p, as does the left 1≤i<j≤n
4
A1 Let be a fixed positive integer. How many ways are

B1 Do there exist polynomials 'a6 ( % 'b6 ( "A 'bc ( "d 'ac ( such

there to write as a sum of positive integers,
, with an arbitrary positive integer
that
e f6 c 6 c M 'a6 ( A 'bc ( % 'b6 ( d 'bc (

and ? For example, with
A2 Let
!!!"$# and % % &!!! % # be nonnegative
there are four ways: 4, 2+2, 1+1+2, 1+1+1+1.
holds identically?
' " #( *)"# ' % % % #( *)"#

real numbers. Show that
g g be!!a!positive
# " #
, jkform O sequence
entries

B2 Let integer. Starting with the
,+ ' % -( ' % ( ' # % #(/. )"# ! h 72i !!! "#
l5#
jm2n by taking the averages of two con-
a new sequence of
Optheo entries,
secutive entries in the first sequence. Repeat the aver-
and continue until 6 the

aging of neighbors on second sequence to obtain a
02135476 98: 16 ;"< 4=6 98:&; 6 1> 8 6 8 1 8 6?0
A3 Find the minimum value of
third sequence of
6 $
o r a single number # .
6 Show that #]q
final sequence produced consists of
.
A4 Suppose that @ % AB"CD"EF"G are real numbers, IK H J

for real numbers .
L
C M
H J #
B3 Show that for each positive integer n,
and
that
0 , 6such % 6 6 9A 0 0 C 6 9E 6 NG 0 ts$ vxw y 8z|{$ o !!!}
~ rP !
u
0 % =O P
A 0 0 E 7O PCQG 0 ! (Here 8-z denotes the least common ~ 6
y
denotes the greatest integer
6 .)
for all real numbers . Show that
multiple, and
' O '
is a lattice path of upsteps ( and B4 Let
downsteps 6 ( that starts at the origin R and never
'a ( M h O % g O A 9d O O
A5 A Dyck -path
dips below the -axis. A return is a maximal sequence

of contiguous downsteps that terminates on the -axis.
6 M 'W T ( 'a T ( 'W T g ( 'a T h (
where @ % "ABd are integers, K
T Q T is a rational number and T H \ J .T pShow
For example, the Dyck 5-path illustrated has two re-
turns, of length 3 and 1 respectively.
H T g that T hif,
then T T is a rational number.
B5 Let CDE , and G be equidistant points on the circumfer-

ence of a circle of unit radius centered at R , and let
be any point in the circle’s interior. Let @ % "A be the dis-
tance from to CE"G , respectively. Show that there
O
is a triangle with side lengths @ % A , and that the area of
' O ( depends only on the distance from to R .
Show that there is a one-to-one correspondence be-
tween the Dyck -paths with no return of even length
'a6 ( be a continuous real-valued function defined
this triangle
BT U ' ( V Y X S
and the Dyck -paths.
S W
' V B
V ( on the interval + J . . Show that
B6 Let
V ZX S V [ H V V \ V ]^ 0 'b6 ( 'ac ( 0 d 6 d c 0 'b6 ( 0 d 6 !

A6 For a set of nonnegative integers, let denote
the number of ordered pairs such that ,
E
, , and
'T_ ( T` ' (
. Is it possible to
partition the nonnegative integers into two sets and C
in such a way that for all ?
A1 There are n such sums. More precisely, there is exactly the left. Thus AM-GM shows that the terms under con-
one such sum with k terms for each of k = 1, . . . , n sideration on the left exceed those on the right; adding
(and clearly no others). To see this, note that if n = these inequalities over all k yields the desired result.
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak with a1 ≤ a2 ≤ · · · ≤ ak ≤ a1 + 1, Third solution: Since both sides are continuous in each
then ai , it is sufficient to prove the claim with a1 , . . . , an all
positive (the general case follows by taking limits as
ka1 = a1 + a1 + · · · + a1 some of the ai tend to zero). Put ri = bi /ai ; then the
≤ n ≤ a1 + (a1 + 1) + · · · + (a1 + 1) given inequality is equivalent to
= ka1 + k − 1.
(1 + r1 )1/n · · · (1 + rn )1/n ≥ 1 + (r1 · · · rn )1/n .
However, there is a unique integer a1 satisfying these
inequalities, namely a1 = bn/kc. Moreover, once a1 In terms of the function
is fixed, there are k different possibilities for the sum
a1 + a2 + · · · + ak : if i is the last integer such that f (x) = log(1 + ex )
ai = a1 , then the sum equals ka1 + (i − 1). The pos-
and the quantities si = log ri , we can rewrite the de-
sible values of i are 1, . . . , k, and exactly one of these
sired inequality as
sums comes out equal to n, proving our claim.

Note: In summary, there is a unique partition of n with 1 s1 + · · · + sn
(f (s1 ) + · · · + f (sn )) ≥ f .
k terms that is “as equally spaced as possible”. One n n
can also obtain essentially the same construction induc-
tively: except for the all-ones sum, each partition of n This will follow from Jensen’s inequality if we can ver-
is obtained by “augmenting” a unique partition of n−1. ify that f is a convex function; it is enough to check that
f 00 (x) > 0 for all x. In fact,
A2 First solution: Assume without loss of generality that
ai + bi > 0 for each i (otherwise both sides of the de- ex 1
f 0 (x) = =1−
sired inequality are zero). Then the AM-GM inequality 1 + ex 1 + ex
gives
is an increasing function of x, so f 00 (x) > 0 and

a1 · · · an
1/n Jensen’s inequality thus yields the desired result. (As
long as the ai are all positive, equality holds when
(a1 + b1 ) · · · (an + bn ) s1 = · · · = sn , i.e., when the vectors (a1 , . . . , an ) and

1 a1 an (b1 , . . . , bn ). Of course other equality cases crop up if
≤ + ··· + ,
n a1 + b1 an + bn some of the ai vanish, i.e., if a1 = b1 = 0.)
Fourth solution: We apply induction on n, the case
and likewise with the roles of a and b reversed. Adding
n = 1 being evident. First we verify the auxiliary in-
these two inequalities and clearing denominators yields
equality
the desired result.
Second solution: Write the desired inequality in the (an + bn )(cn + dn )n−1 ≥ (acn−1 + bdn−1 )n
form
for a, b, c, d ≥ 0. The left side can be written as
(a1 +b1 ) · · · (an +bn ) ≥ [(a1 · · · an )1/n +(b1 · · · bn )1/n ]n ,
an cn(n−1) + bn dn(n−1)
expand both sides, and compare the terms on both n−1
X n − 1
sides in which k of the terms are among the + an cni dn(n−1−i)
ai . On the left, one has the product of each k- i=1
i
element subset of {1, . . . , n}; on the right, one has n−1
X n − 1
n
bn cn(n−i) dn(i−1) .
k/n
k (a1 · · · an ) · · · (b1 . . . bn )(n−k)/n , which is pre- +
n i − 1
cisely k times the geometric mean of the terms on i=1
Applying the weighted AM-GM inequality between 1 − 2/(c − 1)2 , which
√ vanishes when (c − 1)2 =√ 2, i.e.,
matching terms in the two sums yields where c = 1 ± 2. Only the value c =√1 − 2 is in
bounds, at which the value of f is 1 − 2 2 > −1.83.
(an + bn )(cn + dn )n−1 As for the pole at c = 1, we observe that f decreases
≥ an cn(n−1) + bn dn(n−1) as c approaches from below (so takes negative values
n−1
for all c < 1) and increases as c approaches from above
X n (so takes positive values for all c > 1); from the data
+ ai bn−i c(n−1)i d(n−1)(n−i) ,
i collected so far, we see that f has no sign crossings, so
i=1
the minimum of |f | is achieved at a critical
√ point of f .
proving the auxiliary inequality. We conclude that the minimum of |f | is 2 2 − 1.
Now given the auxiliary inequality and the n−1 case of Alternate derivation (due to Zuming Feng): We can also
the desired inequality, we apply the auxiliary inequality minimize |c + 2/(c − 1)| without calculus (or worrying
1/n 1/n about boundary conditions). For c > 1, we have
with a = a1 , b = b1 , c = (a2 · · · an )1/n(n−1) ,
d = (b2 . . . bn )1/n(n−1) . The right side will be the n-th 2 √
power of the desired inequality. The left side comes out 1 + (c − 1) + ≥1+2 2
c−1
to
by AM-GM √ on the last two terms, with equality for
(a1 + b1 )((a2 · · · an )1/(n−1) + (b2 · · · bn )1/(n−1) )n−1 , c − 1 = 2 (which is out of range). For c < 1, we
similarly have
and by the induction hypothesis, the second factor is
less than (a2 + b2 ) · · · (an + bn ). This yields the de- 2 √
sired result. −1 + 1 − c + ≥ −1 + 2 2,
1−c
Note: Equality holds if and only if ai = bi = 0 for √
some i or if the vectors (a1 , . . . , an ) and (b1 , . . . , bn ) here with equality for 1 − c = 2.
are proportional. As pointed out by Naoki Sato, the Second solution: Write
problem also appeared on the 1992 Irish Mathematical
1 a+b
Olympiad. It is also a special case of a classical in- f (a, b) = a + b + + .
equality, known as Hölder’s inequality, which general- ab ab
izes the Cauchy-Schwarz inequality (this is visible from Then the problem is to minimize |f (a, b)| subject to the
the n = 2 case); the first solution above is adapted from constraint a2 + b2 − 1 = 0. Since the constraint re-
the standard proof of Hölder’s inequality. We don’t gion has no boundary, it is enough to check the value
know whether the declaration “Apply Hölder’s inequal- at each critical point and each potential discontinuity
ity” by itself is considered an acceptable solution to this (i.e., where ab = 0) and select the smallest value (after
problem. checking that f has no sign crossings).
A3 First solution: Write We locate the critical points using the Lagrange mul-
tiplier condition: the gradient of f should be parallel
f (x) = sin x + cos x + tan x + cot x + sec x + csc x to that of the constraint, which is to say, to the vector
1 sin x + cos x (a, b). Since
= sin x + cos x + + .
sin x cos x sin x cos x ∂f 1 1
√ =1− 2 − 2
We can write sin x + cos x = 2 cos(π/4 − x); this ∂a a b a
suggests making the substitution y = π/4 − x. In this and similarly for b, the proportionality yields
new coordinate,
a2 b3 − a3 b2 + a3 − b3 + a2 − b2 = 0.
1 1
sin x cos x = sin 2x = cos 2y,
2 2 The irreducible factors of the left side are 1 + a, 1 + b,
√ a − b, and ab − a − b. So we must check what happens
and writing c = 2 cos y, we have when any of those factors, or a or b, vanishes.
If 1 + a = 0, then b = 0, and the singularity of f be-

2
f (y) = (1 + c) 1 + 2 −1 comes removable when restricted to the circle. Namely,
c −1
2 we have
=c+ .
c−1 1 b+1
f =a+b+ +
a ab
We√ must √ of c √
√ analyze this function in the range
[− 2, 2]. Its
√ value at c =
√ − 2 is 2 − 3 2 < −2.24, and a2 +b2 −1 = 0 implies (1+b)/a = a/(1−b). Thus
and at c = 2 is 2 + 3 2 > 6.24. Its derivative is we have f = −2; the same occurs when 1 + b = 0.
2
√
If a − b √
= 0, then a = b = √ ± 2/2 and either ellipse ax2 + bxy + cy 2 = 1, and their respective en-
f = 2 + 3 2 > 6.24, or f = 2 − 3 2 < −2.24. closed areas are π/(4AC − B 2 ) and π/(4ac − b2 ).
If a = 0, then either b = −1 as discussed above, or Case 3: B 2 − 4AC ≤ 0 and b2 − 4ac > 0. Since
b = 1. In the latter case, f blows up as one approaches Ax2 + Bx + C has a graph not crossing the x-axis, so
this point, so there cannot be a global minimum there. do (Ax2 + Bx + C) ± (ax2 + bx + c). Thus
Finally, if ab − a − b = 0, then (B − b)2 − 4(A − a)(C − c) ≤ 0,
a2 b2 = (a + b)2 = 2ab + 1 (B + b)2 − 4(A + a)(C + c) ≤ 0
√
and so ab = 1 ± 2. The √ plus sign is impossible since and adding these together yields
|ab| ≤ 1, so ab = 1 − 2 and
2(B 2 − 4AC) + 2(b2 − 4ac) ≤ 0.
1
f (a, b) = ab + +1 Hence b2 − 4ac ≤ 4AC − B 2 , as desired.
ab
√
= 1 − 2 2 > −1.83. A5 First solution: We represent a Dyck n-path by a se-
quence a1 · · · a2n , where each ai is either (1, 1) or
This yields the smallest value of |f | in the
√list (and in- (1, −1).
deed no sign crossings are possible), so 2 2 − 1 is the
desired minimum of |f |. Given an (n − 1)-path P = a1 · · · a2n−2 , we
distinguish two cases. If P has no returns
Note: Instead of using the geometry of the graph of f of even-length, then let f (P ) denote the n-path
to rule out sign crossings, one can verify explicitly that (1, 1)(1, −1)P . Otherwise, let ai ai+1 · · · aj denote the
f cannot take the value 0. In the first solution, note that rightmost even-length return in P , and let f (P ) =
c + 2/(c − 1) = 0 implies c2 − c + 2 = 0, which has (1, 1)a1 a2 · · · aj (1, −1)aj+1 · · · a2n−2 . Then f clearly
no real roots. In the second solution, we would have maps the set of Dyck (n − 1)-paths to the set of Dyck
n-paths having no even return.
a2 b + ab2 + a + b = −1.
We claim that f is bijective; to see this, we simply
Squaring both sides and simplifying yields construct the inverse mapping. Given an n-path P , let
R = ai ai+1 ...aj denote the leftmost return in P , and
2a3 b3 + 5a2 b2 + 4ab = 0, let g(P ) denote the path obtained by removing a1 and
aj from P . Then evidently f ◦ g and g ◦ f are identity
whose only real root is ab = 0. But the cases with maps, proving the claim.
ab = 0 do not yield f = 0, as verified above.
Second solution: (by Dan Bernstein) Let Cn be the
A4 We split into three cases. Note first that |A| ≥ |a|, by number of Dyck paths of length n, let On be the num-
applying the condition for large x. ber of Dyck paths whose final return has odd length,
Case 1: B 2 − 4AC > 0. In this case Ax2 + Bx + C and let Xn be the number of Dyck paths with no return
has two distinct real roots r1 and r2 . The condition im- of even length.
plies that ax2 + bx + c also vanishes at r1 and r2 , so We first exhibit a recursion for On ; note that O0 = 0.
b2 − 4ac > 0. Now Given a Dyck n-path whose final return has odd length,
split it just after its next-to-last return. For some k (pos-
B 2 − 4AC = A2 (r1 − r2 )2 sibly zero), this yields a Dyck k-path, an upstep, a Dyck
≥ a2 (r1 − r2 )2 (n − k − 1)-path whose odd return has even length, and
a downstep. Thus for n ≥ 1,
= b2 − 4ac.
n−1
X
Case 2: B 2 − 4AC ≤ 0 and b2 − 4ac ≤ 0. As- On = Ck (Cn−k−1 − On−k−1 ).
sume without loss of generality that A ≥ a > 0, and k=0
that B = 0 (by shifting x). Then Ax2 + Bx + C ≥
ax2 + bx + c ≥ 0 for all x; in particular, C ≥ c ≥ 0. We next exhibit a similar recursion for Xn ; note that
Thus X0 = 1. Given a Dyck n-path with no even return,
splitting as above yields for some k a Dyck k-path with
4AC − B 2 = 4AC no even return, an upstep, a Dyck (n−k−1)-path whose
≥ 4ac final return has even length, then a downstep. Thus for
n ≥ 1,
≥ 4ac − b2 .
n−1
X
Alternate derivation (due to Robin Chapman): the el- Xn = Xk (Cn−k−1 − On−k−1 ).
lipse Ax2 + Bxy + Cy 2 = 1 is contained within the k=0
3
To conclude, we verify that Xn = Cn−1 for n ≥ 1, sets, then f (p) + f (q) = 0. In other words,
by induction on n. This is clear for n = 1 since X
X1 = C0 = 1. Given Xk = Ck−1 for k < n, we 2(rA (n) − rB (n)) = (f (p) + f (q))
have p+q=n,p<q
n−1 and it suffices to show that the sum onP

the right is always
X n
Xn = Xk (Cn−k−1 − On−k−1 ) zero. If n is odd, that sum is visibly i=0 f (i) = 0. If
k=0 n is even, the sum equals
n−1 !
X n
= Cn−1 − On−1 + Ck−1 (Cn−k−1 − On−k−1 )
X
f (i) − f (n/2) = f (n) − f (n/2) = 0.
k=1
i=0
= Cn−1 − On−1 + On−1
This yields the desired result.
= Cn−1 ,
Third solution: (by Dan P Bernstein) Put f (x) =
n n
P
as desired. n∈A x and g(x) = n∈B x ; then the value of
rA (n) (resp. rB (n)) is the coefficient of xn in f (x)2 −
Note: Since the problem only asked about the existence f (x2 ) (resp. g(x)2 −g(x2 )). From the evident identities
of a one-to-one correspondence, we believe that any
proof, bijective or not, that the two sets have the same 1
cardinality is an acceptable solution. (Indeed, it would = f (x) + g(x)
1−x
be highly unusual to insist on using or not using a spe- f (x) = f (x2 ) + xg(x2 )
cific proof technique!) The second solution above can
also be phrased in terms of generating functions. Also, g(x) = g(x2 ) + xf (x2 ),
the Cn are well-known to equal the Catalan numbers
1 2n we have
n+1 n ; the problem at hand is part of a famous exer-
cise in Richard Stanley’s Enumerative Combinatorics, f (x) − g(x) = f (x2 ) − g(x2 ) + xg(x2 ) − xf (x2 )
Volume 1 giving 66 combinatorial interpretations of the
Catalan numbers. = (1 − x)(f (x2 ) − g(x2 ))
f (x2 ) − g(x2 )
A6 First solution: Yes, such a partition is possible. To = .
f (x) + g(x)
achieve it, place each integer into A if it has an even
number of 1s in its binary representation, and into B We deduce that f (x)2 − g(x)2 = f (x2 ) − g(x2 ), yield-
if it has an odd number. (One discovers this by simply ing the desired equality.
attempting to place the first few numbers by hand and Note: This partition is actually unique, up to inter-
noticing the resulting pattern.) changing A and B. More precisely, the condition that
To show that rA (n) = rB (n), we exhibit a bijection be- 0 ∈ A and rA (n) = rB (n) for n = 1, . . . , m uniquely
tween the pairs (a1 , a2 ) of distinct elements of A with determines the positions of 0, . . . , m. We see this by
a1 + a2 = n and the pairs (b1 , b2 ) of distinct elements induction on m: given the result for m − 1, switching
of B with b1 + b2 = n. Namely, given a pair (a1 , a2 ) the location of m changes rA (m) by one and does not
with a1 + a2 = n, write both numbers in binary and change rB (m), so it is not possible for both positions to
find the lowest-order place in which they differ (such a work. Robin Chapman points out this problem is solved
place exists because a1 6= a2 ). Change both numbers in D.J. Newman’s Analytic Number Theory (Springer,
in that place and call the resulting numbers b1 , b2 . Then 1998); in that solution, one uses generating functions to
a1 + a2 = b1 + b2 = n, but the parity of the number of find the partition and establish its uniqueness, not just
1s in b1 is opposite that of a1 , and likewise between b2 verify it.
and a2 . This yields the desired bijection.
B1 No, there do not.
Second solution: (by Micah Smukler) Write b(n) for First solution: Suppose the contrary. By setting y =
the number of 1s in the base 2 expansion of n, and −1, 0, 1 in succession, we see that the polynomials
f (n) = (−1)b(n) . Then the desired partition can be 1 − x + x2 , 1, 1 + x + x2 are linear combinations of
described as A = f −1 (1) and B = f −1 (−1). Since a(x) and b(x). But these three polynomials are linearly
f (2n) + f (2n + 1) = 0, we have independent, so cannot all be written as linear combina-
n
( tions of two other polynomials, contradiction.
X 0 n odd Alternate formulation: the given equation expresses a
f (n) =
i=0
f (n) n even. diagonal matrix with 1, 1, 1 and zeroes on the diagonal,
which has rank 3, as the sum of two matrices of rank 1.
If p, q are both in A, then f (p) + f (q) = 2; if p, q are But the rank of a sum of matrices is at most the sum of
both in B, then f (p)+f (q) = −2; if p, q are in different the ranks of the individual matrices.
4
Second solution: It is equivalent (by relabeling and Note: The third solution only works over fields of char-
rescaling) to show that 1 + xy + x2 y 2 cannot
P be written acteristic not equal to 3, whereas the other two work
i
as
P ia(x)d(y) − b(x)c(y). Write a(x) = ai x , b(x) = over arbitrary fields. (In the first solution, one must re-
cj y j , d(y) = dj y j . We now start
P P
bi x , c(y) = place −1 by another value if working in characteristic
comparing coefficients of 1+xy +x2 y 2 . By comparing 2.)
coefficients of 1 + xy + x2 y 2 and a(x)d(y) − b(x)c(y),
B2 It is easy to see by induction that the j-th entry of
we get
the k-th sequence (where the original sequence is k =
Pk
1 = ai di − bi ci (i = 0, 1, 2) 1) is i=1 k−1 i−1 /(2
k−1
(i + j − 1)), and so xn =
1
P n n−1 n−1
n

0 = ai dj − bi cj (i 6= j). 2n−1 i=1 i−1 /i. Now i−1 /i = i /n; hence
n
The first equation says that ai and bi cannot both vanish, 1 X n 2n − 1
xn = n−1 = < 2/n,
and ci and di cannot both vanish. The second equation n2 i=1
i n2n−1
says that ai /bi = cj /dj when i 6= j, where both sides
should be viewed in R ∪ {∞} (and neither is undeter- as desired.
mined if i, j ∈ {0, 1, 2}). But then B3 First solution: It is enough to show that for each prime
p, the exponent of p in the prime factorization of both
a0 /b0 = c1 /d1 = a2 /b2 = c0 /d0 sides is the same. On the left side, it is well-known that
the exponent of p in the prime factorization of n! is
contradicting the equation a0 d0 − b0 c0 = 1. n
X n
Third solution: We work over the complex numbers, .
in which we have a primitive cube root ω of 1. We also i=1
pi
use without further comment unique factorization for (To see this, note that the i-th term counts the multiples
polynomials in two variables over a field. And we keep of pi among 1, . . . , n, so that a number divisible exactly
the relabeling of the second solution. by pi gets counted exactly i times.) This number can be
Suppose the contrary. Since 1 + xy + x2 y 2 = (1 − reinterpreted as the cardinality of the set S of points in
xy/ω)(1 − xy/ω 2 ), the rational function a(ω/y)d(y) − the plane with positive integer coordinates lying on or
b(ω/y)c(y) must vanish identically (that is, coefficient under the curve y = np−x : namely, each summand is
by coefficient). If one of the polynomials, say a, van- the number of points of S with x = i.
ished identically, then one of b or c would also, and the On the right side, the exponent of p in the prime
desired inequality could not hold. So none of them van- factorization of lcm(1, . . . , bn/ic) is blogp bn/icc =
ish identically, and we can write blogp (n/i)c. However, this is precisely the number of
points of S with y = i. Thus
c(y) a(ω/y)
= . n n
d(y) b(ω/y) X X n
blogp bn/icc = ,
i=1 i=1
pi
Likewise,
and the desired result follows.
c(y) a(ω 2 /y)
= . Second solution: We prove the result by induction on
d(y) b(ω 2 /y) n, the case n = 1 being obvious. What we actually
show is that going from n − 1 to n changes both sides
Put f (x) = a(x)/b(x); then we have f (ωx) = f (x) by the same multiplicative factor, that is,
identically. That is, a(x)b(ωx) = b(x)a(ωx). Since a
n−1
and b have no common factor (otherwise 1 + xy + x2 y 2 Y lcm{1, 2, . . . , bn/ic}
would have a factor divisible only by x, which it doesn’t n= .
i=1
lcm{1, 2, . . . , b(n − 1)/ic}
since it doesn’t vanish identically for any particular x),
a(x) divides a(ωx). Since they have the same degree, Note that the i-th term in the product is equal to 1 if n/i
they are equal up to scalars. It follows that one of is not an integer, i.e., if n/i is not a divisor of n. It is
a(x), xa(x), x2 a(x) is a polynomial in x3 alone, and also equal to 1 if n/i is a divisor of n but not a prime
likewise for b (with the same power of x). power, since any composite number divides the lcm of
If xa(x) and xb(x), or x2 a(x) and x2 b(x), are poly- all smaller numbers. However, if n/i is a power of p,
nomials in x3 , then a and b are divisible by x, but we then the i-th term is equal to p.
know a and b have no common factor. Hence a(x) and Since n/i runs over all proper divisors of n, the product
b(x) are polynomials in x3 . Likewise, c(y) and d(y) on the right side includes one factor of the prime p for
are polynomials in y 3 . But then 1 + xy + x2 y 2 = each factor of p in the prime factorization of n. Thus
a(x)d(y) − b(x)c(y) is a polynomial in x3 and y 3 , con- the whole product is indeed equal to n, completing the
tradiction. induction.
5
B4 First solution: Put g = r1 + r2 , h = r3 + r4 , u = r1 r2 , on [0, 1]. Define
v = r3 r4 . We are given that g is rational. The following
are also rational: E+ = {x ∈ [0, 1] : f (x) ≥ 0}
E− = {x ∈ [0, 1] : f (x) < 0};
−b
=g+h then E+ , E− are measurable and µ(E+ ) + µ(E− ) = 1.
a
c Write µ+ and µ− for µ(E+ ) and µ(E− ). Also define
= gh + u + v
a
Z
−d I+ = |f (x)| dx
= gv + hu E+
a Z
I− = |f (x)| dx,
From the first line, h is rational. From the second line, E−
u + v is rational. From the third line, g(u + v) − (gv + R1
hu) = (g − h)u is rational. Since g 6= h, u is rational, so that 0 |f (x)| dx = I+ + I− .
as desired. From the triangle inequality |a + b| ≥ ±(|a| − |b|), we
Second solution: This solution uses some basic Galois have the inequality
theory. We may assume r1 6= r2 , since otherwise they ZZ
are both rational and so then is r1 r2 . |f (x) + f (y)| dx dy
E+ ×E−
Let τ be an automorphism of the field of algebraic num- ZZ
bers; then τ maps each ri to another one, and fixes ≥± (|f (x)| − |f (y)|) dx dy
E+ ×E−
the rational number r1 + r2 . If τ (r1 ) equals one of
r1 or r2 , then τ (r2 ) must equal the other one, and vice = ±(µ− I+ − µ+ I− ),
versa. Thus τ either fixes the set {r1 , r2 } or moves it
and likewise with + and − switched. Adding these in-
to {r3 , r4 }. But if the latter happened, we would have
equalities together and allowing all possible choices of
r1 + r2 = r3 + r4 , contrary to hypothesis. Thus τ fixes
the signs, we get
the set {r1 , r2 } and in particular the number r1 r2 . Since ZZ
this is true for any τ , r1 r2 must be rational.
|f (x) + f (y)| dx dy
Note: The conclusion fails if we allow r1 +r2 = r3 +r4 . (E+ ×E− )∪(E− ×E+ )
For instance, take the polynomial x4 − 2 and √ label ≥ max {0, 2(µ− I+ − µ+ I− ), 2(µ+ I− − µ− I+ )} .
2
its roots so that (x − r1 )(x
√ − r 2 ) = x − 2 and
To this inequality, we add the equalities
(x − r3 )(x − r4 ) = x2 + 2. ZZ
B5 Place the unit circle on the complex plane so that |f (x) + f (y)| dx dy = 2µ+ I+
E+ ×E+
A, B, C correspond to the complex numbers 1, ω, ω 2 , ZZ
where ω = e2πi/3 , and let P correspond to the complex |f (x) + f (y)| dx dy = 2µ− I−
number x. The distances a, b, c are then |x − 1|, |x − E− ×E−
ω|, |x − ω 2 |. Now the identity Z 1
− |f (x)| dx = −(µ+ + µ− )(I+ + I− )
(x − 1) + ω(x − ω) + ω 2 (x − ω 2 ) = 0 0
to obtain
implies that there is a triangle whose sides, as vec- Z 1Z 1 Z 1
tors, correspond to the complex numbers x − 1, ω(x − |f (x) + f (y)| dx dy − |f (x)| dx
ω), ω 2 (x − ω 2 ); this triangle has sides of length a, b, c. 0 0 0
≥ max{(µ+ − µ− )(I+ + I− ) + 2µ− (I− − I+ ),
To calculate the area of this triangle, we first note a more
general formula. If a triangle in the plane has vertices (µ+ − µ− )(I+ − I− ),
at 0, v1 = s1 + it1 , v2 = s2 + it2 , then it is well (µ− − µ+ )(I+ + I− ) + 2µ+ (I+ − I− )}.
known that the area of the triangle is |s1 t2 − s2 t1 |/2 =
|v1 v2 − v2 v1 |/4. In our case, we have v1 = x − 1 and Now simply note that for each of the possible compar-
v2 = ω(x − ω); then isons between µ+ and µ− , and between I+ and I− , one
of the three terms above is manifestly nonnegative. This
√ yields the desired result.
v1 v2 − v2 v1 = (ω 2 − ω)(xx − 1) = i 3(|x|2 − 1).
Second solution: We will show at the end that it is
√
Hence the area of the triangle is 3(1 − |x|2 )/4, which enough to prove a discrete analogue: if x1 , . . . , xn are
depends only on the distance |x| from P to O. real numbers, then
n n
1 X 1X
B6 First solution: (composite of solutions by Feng Xie |xi + xj | ≥ |xi |.
and David Pritchard) Let µ denote Lebesgue measure n2 i,j=1 n i=1
6
In the meantime, we concentrate on this assertion. (x1 , . . . , xn ) runs over [0, 1]n yields
n(n − 1) 1 1
Z Z
Let f (x1 , . . . , xn ) denote the difference between the
two sides. We induct on the number of nonzero values |f (x) + f (y)| dy dx
2 0 0
of |xi |. We leave for later the base case, where there is
n(n − 2) 1
Z
at most one such value. Suppose instead for now that ≥ |f (x)| dx,
there are two or more. Let s be the smallest, and sup- 2 0
pose without loss of generality that x1 = · · · = xa = s, or
xa+1 = · · · = xa+b = −s, and for i > a + b, either Z 1Z 1
n−2 1
Z
xi = 0 or |xi | > s. (One of a, b might be zero.) |f (x) + f (y)| dy dx ≥ |f (x)| dx.
0 0 n−1 0
Now consider Taking the limit as n → ∞ now yields the desired re-
sult.
a terms b terms
z }| { z }| { Third solution: (by David Savitt) We give an argument
f (t, · · · , t, −t, · · · , −t, xa+b+1 , · · · , xn ) which yields the following improved result. Let µp and
µn be the measure of the sets {x : f (x) > 0} and
as a function of t. It is piecewise linear near s; in fact, {x : f (x) < 0} respectively, and let µ ≤ 1/2 be
it is linear between 0 and the smallest nonzero value min(µp , µn ). Then
among |xa+b+1 |, . . . , |xn | (which exists by hypothesis). Z 1Z 1
Thus its minimum is achieved by one (or both) of those |f (x) + f (y)| dx dy
two endpoints. In other words, we can reduce the num- 0 0
ber of distinct nonzero absolute values among the xi Z 1
2
without increasing f . This yields the induction, pend- ≥ (1 + (1 − 2µ) ) |f (x)| dx.
0
ing verification of the base case.
Note that the constant can be seen to be best possible
As for the base case, suppose that x1 = · · · = xa = by considering a sequence of functions tending towards
s > 0, xa+1 = · · · = xa+b = −s, and xa+b+1 = · · · = the step function which is 1 on [0, µ] and −1 on (µ, 1].
xn = 0. (Here one or even both of a, b could be zero, Suppose without loss of generality that µ = µp . As in
though the latter case is trivial.) Then the second solution, it suffices to prove a strengthened
s discrete analogue, namely
f (x1 , . . . , xn ) = (2a2 + 2b2 + (a + b)(n − a − b)) 2 ! n
!
n2

1 X 2p 1X
s |ai +aj | ≥ 1 + 1 − |ai | ,
− (a + b) n2 i,j n n i=1
n
s
= 2 (a2 − 2ab + b2 ) where p ≤ n/2 is the number of a1 , . . . , an which are
n positive. (We need only make sure to choose meshes so
≥ 0. that p/n → µ as n → ∞.) An equivalent inequality is
n
2p2 X

This proves the base case of the induction, completing X
|ai + aj | ≥ n − 1 − 2p + |ai |.
the solution of the discrete analogue. n
1≤i<j≤n i=1
To deduce the original statement from the discrete ana-
logue, approximate both integrals by equally-spaced Write ri = |ai |, and assume without loss of gener-
Riemann sums and take limits. This works because ality that ri ≥ ri+1 for each i. Then for i < j,
given a continuous function on a product of closed in- |ai + aj | = ri + rj if ai and aj have the same sign,
tervals, any sequence of Riemann sums with mesh size and is ri − rj if they have opposite signs. The left-hand
tending to zero converges to the integral. (The domain side is therefore equal to
is compact, so the function is uniformly continuous. n
X n
X
Hence for any > 0 there is a cutoff below which any (n − i)ri + rj Cj ,
mesh size forces the discrepancy between the Riemann i=1 j=1
sum and the integral to be less than .) where
Alternate derivation (based on a solution by Dan Bern- Cj = #{i < j : sgn(ai ) = sgn(aj )}
stein): from the discrete analogue, we have − #{i < j : sgn(ai ) 6= sgn(aj )}.
n Pk
X n−2X Consider the partial sum Pk = j=1 Cj . If exactly pk
|f (xi ) + f (xj )| ≥ |f (xi )|,
2 i=1 of a1 , . . . , ak are positive, then this sum is equal to
1≤i<j≤n

pk k − pk k pk k − pk
+ − − − ,
for all x1 , . . . , xn ∈ [0, 1]. Integrating both sides as 2 2 2 2 2
7
which expands and simplifies to It follows that
n n
k
X X X
−2pk (k − pk ) + . |ai + aj | = (n − i)ri + rj Cj
2 1≤i<j≤n i=1 j=1
2p
For k ≤ 2p even, this partial sum would be mini-
X
≥ (n − i − [i even])ri
mized with pk = k2 , and would then equal − k2 ; for i=1
k < 2p odd, this partial sum would be minimized with n
pk = k±1 k−1
2 , and would then equal − 2 . Either way,
X
+ (n − 1 − 2p)ri
k
Pk ≥ −b 2 c. On the other hand, if k > 2p, then i=2p+1
n
X
= (n − 1 − 2p) ri +

k k
−2pk (k − pk ) + ≥ −2p(k − p) + i=1
2 2
2p
X
since pk is at most p. Define Qk to be −b k2 c
if k ≤ 2p (2p + 1 − i − [i even])ri
i=1
and −2p(k − p) + k2 if k ≥ 2p, so that Pk ≥ Qk . Note

n 2p
that Q1 = 0. X X
≥ (n − 1 − 2p) ri + p ri
Partial summation gives i=1 i=1
n n
X 2p X
n n ≥ (n − 1 − 2p) ri + p ri ,
X X n i=1
rj Cj = rn Pn + (rj−1 − rj )Pj−1 i=1
j=1 j=2
n
as desired. The next-to-last and last inequalities each
≥ rn Qn +
X
(rj−1 − rj )Qj−1 follow from the monotonicity of the ri ’s, the former by
j=2
pairing the ith term with the (2p + 1 − i)th .
n
X Note: Compare the closely related Problem 6 from the
= rj (Qj − Qj−1 ) 2000 USA Mathematical Olympiad: prove that for any
j=2 nonnegative real numbers a1 , . . . , an , b1 , . . . , bn , one
= −r2 − r4 − · · · − r2p has
Xn n
X n
X
+ (j − 1 − 2p)rj . min{ai aj , bi bj } ≤ min{ai bj , aj bi }.
j=2p+1 i,j=1 i,j=1
8
A1 Basketball star Shanille O’Keal’s team statistician B1 Let P (x) = cn xn + cn−1 xn−1 + · · · + c0 be a poly-
keeps track of the number, S(N ), of successful free nomial with integer coefficients. Suppose that r is a
throws she has made in her first N attempts of the sea- rational number such that P (r) = 0. Show that the n
son. Early in the season, S(N ) was less than 80% of numbers
N , but by the end of the season, S(N ) was more than
80% of N . Was there necessarily a moment in between cn r, cn r2 + cn−1 r, cn r3 + cn−1 r2 + cn−2 r,
when S(N ) was exactly 80% of N ? . . . , cn rn + cn−1 rn−1 + · · · + c1 r
A2 For i = 1, 2 let Ti be a triangle with side lengths
ai , bi , ci , and area Ai . Suppose that a1 ≤ a2 , b1 ≤ are integers.
b2 , c1 ≤ c2 , and that T2 is an acute triangle. Does it
follow that A1 ≤ A2 ? B2 Let m and n be positive integers. Show that
A3 Define a sequence {un }∞ n=0 by u0 = u1 = u2 = 1, and

(m + n)! m! n!
< m n.
thereafter by the condition that (m + n)m+n m n

un un+1
det = n! B3 Determine all real numbers a > 0 for which there ex-
un+2 un+3
ists a nonnegative continuous function f (x) defined on
for all n ≥ 0. Show that un is an integer for all n. (By [0, a] with the property that the region
convention, 0! = 1.)
R = {(x, y); 0 ≤ x ≤ a, 0 ≤ y ≤ f (x)}
A4 Show that for any positive integer n, there is an integer
N such that the product x1 x2 · · · xn can be expressed has perimeter k units and area k square units for some
identically in the form real number k.
N
X B4 Let n be a positive integer, n ≥ 2, and put θ = 2π/n.
x1 x2 · · · xn = ci (ai1 x1 + ai2 x2 + · · · + ain xn )n Define points Pk = (k, 0) in the xy-plane, for k =
i=1 1, 2, . . . , n. Let Rk be the map that rotates the plane
counterclockwise by the angle θ about the point Pk . Let
where the ci are rational numbers and each aij is one of
R denote the map obtained by applying, in order, R1 ,
the numbers −1, 0, 1.
then R2 , . . . , then Rn . For an arbitrary point (x, y),
A5 An m × n checkerboard is colored randomly: each find, and simplify, the coordinates of R(x, y).
square is independently assigned red or black with
probability 1/2. We say that two squares, p and q, are in B5 Evaluate
the same connected monochromatic component if there ∞ x n
is a sequence of squares, all of the same color, starting Y 1 + xn+1

lim .
at p and ending at q, in which successive squares in the x→1−
n=0
1 + xn
sequence share a common side. Show that the expected
number of connected monochromatic regions is greater
than mn/8. B6 Let A be a non-empty set of positive integers, and let
N (x) denote the number of elements of A not exceed-
A6 Suppose that f (x, y) is a continuous real-valued func- ing x. Let B denote the set of positive integers b that
tion on the unit square 0 ≤ x ≤ 1, 0 ≤ y ≤ 1. Show can be written in the form b = a − a0 with a ∈ A and
that a0 ∈ A. Let b1 < b2 < · · · be the members of B, listed
Z 1 Z 1 2 Z 1 Z 1 2 in increasing order. Show that if the sequence bi+1 − bi
is unbounded, then
f (x, y)dx dy + f (x, y)dy dx
0 0 0 0
Z 1 Z 1 2 Z 1 Z 1 lim N (x)/x = 0.
2 x→∞
≤ f (x, y)dx dy + (f (x, y)) dx dy.
0 0 0 0
A1 Yes. Suppose otherwise. Then there would be an N is acute), we have sin ∠P1 ≤ sin ∠P2 . By the Law of
such that S(N ) < 80% and S(N + 1) > 80%; that is, Sines,
O’Keal’s free throw percentage is under 80% at some 1 1
point, and after one subsequent free throw (necessarily A1 = b1 c1 sin ∠P1 ≤ b2 c2 sin ∠P2 = A2 .
2 2
made), her percentage is over 80%. If she makes m of
her first N free throws, then m/N < 4/5 and (m + Remark: Many other solutions are possible; for in-
1)/(N + 1) > 4/5. This means that 5m < 4n < stance, one uses Heron’s formula for the area of a tri-
5m + 1, which is impossible since then 4n is an integer angle in terms of its side lengths.
between the consecutive integers 5m and 5m + 1.
A3 Define a sequence vn by vn = (n − 1)(n − 3) · · · (4)(2)
Remark: This same argument works for any fraction if n is odd and vn = (n − 1)(n − 3) · · · (3)(1) if n is
of the form (n − 1)/n for some integer n > 1, but not even; it suffices to prove that un = vn for all n ≥ 2.
for any other real number between 0 and 1. Now vn+3 vn = (n + 2)(n)(n − 1)! and vn+2 vn+1 =
A2 First solution: (partly due to Ravi Vakil) Yes, it does (n + 1)!, and so vn+3 vn − vn+2 vn+1 = n!. Since we
follow. For i = 1, 2, let Pi , Qi , Ri be the vertices of Ti can check that un = vn for n = 2, 3, 4, and un and vn
opposide the sides of length ai , bi , ci , respectively. satisfy the same recurrence, it follows by induction that
un = vn for all n ≥ 2, as desired.
We first check the case where a1 = a2 (or b1 = b2 or
c1 = c2 , by the same argument after relabeling). Imag- A4 It suffices to verify that
ine T2 as being drawn with the base Q2 R2 horizontal x1 · · · xn
and the point P2 above the line Q2 R2 . We may then
position T1 so that Q1 = Q2 , R1 = R2 , and P1 lies 1 X
= n (e1 · · · en )(e1 x1 + · · · + en xn )n .
above the line Q1 R1 = Q2 R2 . Then P1 also lies inside 2 n!
ei ∈{−1,1}
the region bounded by the circles through P2 centered
at Q2 and R2 . Since ∠Q2 and ∠R2 are acute, the part To check this, first note that the right side vanishes iden-
of this region above the line Q2 R2 lies within T2 . In tically for x1 = 0, because each term cancels the corre-
particular, the distance from P1 to the line Q2 R2 is less sponding term with e1 flipped. Hence the right side, as
than or equal to the distance from P2 to the line Q2 R2 ; a polynomial, is divisible by x1 ; similarly it is divisible
hence A1 ≤ A2 . by x2 , . . . , xn . Thus the right side is equal to x1 · · · xn
times a scalar. (Another way to see this: the right side is
To deduce the general case, put
clearly odd as a polynomial in each individual variable,
r = max{a1 /a2 , b1 /b2 , c1 /c2 }. but the only degree n monomial in x1 , . . . , xn with that
property is x1 · · · xn .) Since each summand contributes
1
Let T3 be the triangle with sides ra2 , rb2 , rc2 , which 2n x1 · · · xn to the sum, the scalar factor is 1 and we are
has area r2 A2 . Applying the special case to T1 and T3 , done.
we deduce that A1 ≤ r2 A2 ; since r ≤ 1 by hypothesis, Remark: Several variants on the above construction are
we have A1 ≤ A2 as desired. possible; for instance,
Remark: Another geometric argument in the case a1 = x1 · · · xn
a2 is that since angles ∠Q2 and ∠R2 are acute, the per-
1 X
pendicular to Q2 R2 through P2 separates Q2 from R2 . = (−1)n−e1 −···−en (e1 x1 + · · · + en xn )n
If A1 > A2 , then P1 lies above the parallel to Q2 R2 n!
ei ∈{0,1}
through P2 ; if then it lies on or to the left of the vertical
line through P2 , we have c1 > c2 because the inequality by the same argument as above.
holds for both horizontal and vertical components (pos- Remark: These construction work over any field of
sibly with equality for one, but not both). Similarly, if characteristic greater than n (at least for n > 1). On the
P1 lies to the right of the vertical, then b1 > b2 . other hand, no construction is possible over a field of
Second solution: (attribution unknown) Retain nota- characteristic p ≤ n, since the coefficient of x1 · · · xn
tion as in the first paragraph of the first solution. Since in the expansion of (e1 x1 + · · · + en xn )n is zero for any
the angle measures in any triangle add up to π, some ei .
angle of T1 must have measure less than or equal to its Remark: Richard Stanley asks whether one can use
counterpart in T2 . Without loss of generality assume fewer than 2n terms, and what the smallest possible
that ∠P1 ≤ ∠P2 . Since the latter is acute (because T2 number is.
2
A5 First solution: First recall that any graph with n ver- – With probability 1/4, the i-th square is opposite in
tices and e edges has at least n − e connected com- color from the adjacent squares directly above and
ponents (add each edge one at a time, and note that to the left of it. In this case adding the i-th square
it reduces the number of components by at most 1). adds one component.
Now imagine the squares of the checkerboard as a
– With probability 1/8, the i-th square is the same
graph, whose vertices are connected if the correspond-
in color as the adjacent squares directly above and
ing squares share a side and are the same color. Let A
to the left of it, but opposite in color from its diag-
be the number of edges in the graph, and let B be the
onal neighbor above and to the left. In this case,
number of 4-cycles (formed by monochromatic 2 × 2
adding the i-th square either removes a component
squares). If we remove the bottom edge of each 4-cycle,
or leaves the number unchanged.
the resulting graph has the same number of connected
components as the original one; hence this number is at – In all other cases, the number of components re-
least mains unchanged upon adding the i-th square.
mn − A + B. Hence adding the i-th square increases the expected

number of components by 1/4 − 1/8 = 1/8.
By the linearity of expectation, the expected number of
If the i-th square does abut the left edge of the board,
connected components is at least
the situation is even simpler: if the i-th square differs in
mn − E(A) + E(B). color from the square above it, one component is added,
otherwise the number does not change. Hence adding
Moreover, we may compute E(A) by summing over the i-th square increases the expected number of com-
the individual pairs of adjacent squares, and we may ponents by 1/2; likewise if the i-th square abuts the top
compute E(B) by summing over the individual 2 × 2 edge of the board. Thus the expected number of com-
squares. Thus ponents is at least i/8 by induction, as desired.
Remark: Some solvers attempted to consider adding
1 one row at a time, rather than one square; this must be
E(A) = (m(n − 1) + (m − 1)n),
2 handled with great care, as it is possible that the num-
1 ber of components can drop rather precipitously upon
E(B) = (m − 1)(n − 1),
8 adding an entire row.
and so the expected number of components is at least A6 By approximating each integral with a Riemann sum,
1 1 we may reduce to proving the discrete analogue: for
mn − (m(n − 1) + (m − 1)n) + (m − 1)(n − 1) xij ∈ R for i, j = 1, . . . , n,
2 8
mn + 3m + 3n + 1 mn 2
= > .
 !2
n n n n
8 8 X X X X
n  xij  +n xij
i=1 j=1 j=1 i=1
Remark: A “dual” approach is to consider the graph
2
whose vertices are the corners of the squares of the

n X
X n n X
X n
checkerboard, with two vertices joined if they are ad- ≤ xij  + n2 x2ij .
jacent and the edge between then does not separate two i=1 j=1 i=1 j=1
squares of the same color. In this approach, the 4-cycles
become isolated vertices, and the bound on components The difference between the right side and the left side
is replaced by a call to Euler’s formula relating the ver- is
tices, edges and faces of a planar figure. (One must be
careful, however, to correctly handle faces which are n
1 X
not simply connected.) (xij + xkl − xil − xkj )2 ,
4
i,j,k,l=1
Second solution: (by Noam Elkies) Number the
squares of the checkerboard 1, . . . , mn by numbering which is evidently nonnegative. If you prefer not to dis-
the first row from left to right, then the second row, cretize, you may rewrite the original inequality as
and so on. We prove by induction on i that if we just
consider the figure formed by the first i squares, its Z 1 Z 1 Z 1 Z 1
expected number of monochromatic components is at F (x, y, z, w)2 dx dy dz dw ≥ 0
least i/8. For i = 1, this is clear. 0 0 0 0
Suppose the i-th square does not abut the left edge or for
the top row of the board. Then we may divide into three
cases. F (x, y, z, w) = f (x, y) + f (z, w) − f (x, w) − f (z, y).
3
Remark: (by Po-Ning Chen) The discrete inequality (m + n)!/(m + n)m+n . On the other hand, if p is the
can be arrived at more systematically by repeatedly ap- probability of picking exactly m red balls, then p < 1
plying the following identity: for any real a1 , . . . , an , and the probability of picking each ball exactly once is
!2 p(mm /m!)(nn /n!).
n n
X X X Second solution: (by David Savitt) Define
(xi − xj )2 = n x2i − xi .
1≤i<j≤n i=1 i=1
Sk = {i/k : i = 1, . . . , k}
Remark: (by David Savitt) The discrete inequality can and rewrite the desired inequality as
also be interpreted as follows. For c, d ∈ {1, . . . , n−1}
and ζn = e2πi/n , put
Y Y Y
x y> z.
X x∈Sm y∈Sn z∈Sm+n
zc,d = ζnci+dj xij .
i,j To prove this, it suffices to check that if we sort the
multiplicands on both sides into increasing order, the i-
Then the given inequality is equivalent to th term on the left side is greater than or equal to the i-th
n−1 term on the right side. (The equality is strict already for
i = 1, so you do get a strict inequality above.)
X
|zc,d |2 ≥ 0.
c,d=1 Another way to say this is that for any i, the number of
factors on the left side which are less than i/(m + n) is
B1 Let k be an integer, 0 ≤ k ≤ n−1. Since P (r)/rk = 0, less than i. But since j/m < i/(m + n) is equivalent
we have to j < im/(m + n), that number is

cn rn−k + cn−1 rn−k+1 + · · · + ck+1 r im in
−1+ −1
= −(ck + ck−1 r−1 + · · · + c0 r−k ). m+n m+n
im in
≤ + − 1 = i − 1.
Write r = p/q where p and q are relatively prime. Then m+n m+n
the left hand side of the above equation can be written as
a fraction with denominator q n−k , while the right hand Third solution: Put f (x) = x(log(x+1)−log x); then
side is a fraction with denominator pk . Since p and q for x > 0,
are relatively prime, both sides of the equation must be
an integer, and the result follows. 1
f 0 (x) = log(1 + 1/x) −
Remark: If we write r = a/b in lowest terms, then x+1
P (x) factors as (bx − a)Q(x), where the polynomial 1
f 00 (x) = − .
Q has integer coefficients because you can either do the x(x + 1)2
long division from the left and get denominators divis-
ible only by primes dividing b, or do it from the right Hence f 00 (x) < 0 for all x; since f 0 (x) → 0 as x → ∞,
and get denominators divisible only by primes dividing we have f 0 (x) > 0 for x > 0, so f is strictly increasing.
a. The numbers given in the problem are none other Put g(m) = m log m − log(m!); then g(m + 1) −
than a times the coefficients of Q. More generally, if g(m) = f (m), so g(m + 1) − g(m) increases with
P (x) is divisible, as a polynomial over the rationals, by m. By induction, g(m + n) − g(m) increases with n
a polynomial R(x) with integer coefficients, then P/R for any positive integer n, so in particular
also has integer coefficients; this is known as “Gauss’s
lemma” and holds in any unique factorization domain. g(m + n) − g(m) > g(n) − g(1) + f (m)
≥ g(n)
B2 First solution: We have

m+n
since g(1) = 0. Exponentiating yields the desired in-
m+n
(m + n) > mm n n equality.
m
B3 The answer is {a | a > 2}. If a > 2, then the func-
because the binomial expansion of (m + n)m+n in- tion f (x) = 2a/(a − 2) has the desired property; both
cludes the term on the right as well as some others. Re- perimeter and area of R in this case are 2a2 /(a − 2).
arranging this inequality yields the claim. Now suppose that a ≤ 2, and let f (x) be a nonnegative
Remark: One can also interpret this argument com- continuous function on [0, a]. Let P = (x0 , y0 ) be a
binatorially. Suppose that we choose m + n times point on the graph of f (x) with maximal y-coordinate;
(with replacement) uniformly randomly from a set of then the area of R is at most ay0 since it lies below the
m + n balls, of which m are red and n are blue. Then line y = y0 . On the other hand, the points (0, 0), (a, 0),
the probability of picking each ball exactly once is and P divide the boundary of R into three sections. The
4
length of the section between (0, 0) and P is at least the since limN →∞ (xN ln(1 + xN +1 )) = 0 for 0 < x < 1,
distance between (0, 0) and P , which is at least y0 ; the we conclude that L = − ln 2 + limx→1− f (x), where
length of the section between P and (a, 0) is similarly ∞
at least y0 ; and the length of the section between (0, 0)
X
f (x) = (1/x − 1) xn ln(1 + xn )
and (a, 0) is a. Since a ≤ 2, we have 2y0 + a > ay0 n=1
and hence the perimeter of R is strictly greater than the X∞ X∞
area of R. = (1/x − 1) (−1)m+1 xn+mn /m.
n=1 m=1
B4 First solution: Identify the xy-plane with the complex
plane C, so that Pk is the real number k. If z is sent to This final double sum converges absolutely when 0 <
z 0 by a counterclockwise rotation by θ about Pk , then x < 1, since
z 0 − k = eiθ (z − k); hence the rotation Rk sends z to ∞ X
∞ ∞
ζz + k(1 − ζ), where ζ = e2πi/n . It follows that R1
X X
xn+mn /m = xn (− ln(1 − xn ))
followed by R2 sends z to ζ(ζz + (1 − ζ)) + 2(1 − ζ) = n=1 m=1 n=1
ζ 2 z + (1 − ζ)(ζ + 2), and so forth; an easy induction X∞
shows that R sends z to < xn (− ln(1 − x)),
n=1
ζ n z + (1 − ζ)(ζ n−1 + 2ζ n−2 + · · · + (n − 1)ζ + n).
which converges. (Note that − ln(1 − x) and − ln(1 −
Expanding the product (1 − ζ)(ζ n−1 + 2ζ n−2 + · · · + xn ) are positive.) Hence we may interchange the sum-
(n − 1)ζ + n) yields −ζ n − ζ n−1 − · · · − ζ + n = mations in f (x) to obtain
n. Thus R sends z to z + n; in cartesian coordinates, ∞ X ∞
R(x, y) = (x + n, y).
X (−1)m+1 x(m+1)n
f (x) = (1/x − 1)
m
Second solution: (by Andy Lutomirski, via Ravi Vakil) m=1 n=1
∞
Imagine a regular n-gon of side length 1 placed with its (−1)m+1 xm (1 − x)
X
top edge on the x-axis and the left endpoint of that edge = (1/x − 1) .
m=1
m 1 − xm+1
at the origin. Then the rotations correspond to rolling
this n-gon along the x-axis; after the n rotations, it This last sum converges absolutely uniformly in x, so
clearly ends up in its original rotation and translated n it is legitimate to take limits term by term. Since
units to the right. Hence the whole plane must do so as xm 1−x 1
limx→1− 1−x m+1 = m+1 for fixed m, we have
well.
∞
Third solution: (attribution unknown) Viewing each
X (−1)m+1
lim f (x) =
Rk as a function of a complex number z as in the first x→1−
m=1
m(m + 1)
solution, the function Rn ◦ Rn−1 ◦ · · · ◦ R1 (z) is linear ∞
1 1
in z with slope ζ n = 1. It thus equals z + T for some
X
m+1
= (−1) −
T ∈ C. Since f1 (1) = 1, we can write 1 + T = Rn ◦ m=1
m m+1
· · · ◦ R2 (1). However, we also have ∞
!
X (−1)m+1
=2 −1
Rn ◦ · · · ◦ R2 (1) = Rn−1 ◦ R1 (0) + 1 m=1
m
by the symmetry in how the Ri are defined. Hence = 2 ln 2 − 1,

and hence L = ln 2 − 1 and the desired limit is 2/e.
Rn (1 + T ) = Rn ◦ R1 (0) + Rn (1) = T + Rn (1);
Remark: Note that the last series is not absolutely con-
that is, Rn (T ) = T . Hence T = n, as desired. vergent, so the recombination must be done without re-
arranging terms.
B5 First solution: By taking logarithms, we see
Second solution: (by Greg Price, via Tony Zhang and
desired limit is exp(L), where L
that the P =
∞ Anders Kaseorg) Put tn (x) = ln(1 + xn ); we can then
limx→1− n=0 xn ln(1 + xn+1 ) − ln(1 + xn ) .
write xn = exp(tn (x)) − 1, and
Now
∞
N
X
X L = lim− (tn (x) − tn+1 (x))(1 − exp(tn (x))).
xn ln(1 + xn+1 ) − ln(1 + xn )

x→1
n=0
n=0
N N The expression on the right is a Riemann sum approxi-
R ln 2
mating the integral 0 (1−et ) dt, over the subdivision
X X
n+1 n+1 n n
= 1/x x ln(1 + x )− x ln(1 + x )
n=0 n=0 of [0, ln(2)) given by the tn (x). As x → 1− , the max-
N
X imum difference between consecutive tn (x) tends to 0,
= xN ln(1 + xN +1 ) − ln 2 + (1/x − 1) xn ln(1 + xn ); so the Riemann sum tends to the value of the integral.
R ln 2
n=1 Hence L = 0 (1 − et ) dt = ln 2 − 1, as desired.
5
B6 First solution: (based on a solution of Dan Bernstein) of (b) with n replaced by n + 1 holds for en+1 6= 0; of
Note that for any b, the condition that b ∈ / B already course it holds for en+1 = 0 because (b) was already
forces lim sup N (x)/x to be at most 1/2: pair off 2mb+ known. Since the analogue of (a) holds by construction,
n with (2m + 1)b + n for n = 1, . . . , b, and note that we have completed this step of the construction and the
at most one member of each pair may belong to A. The recursion may continue.
idea of the proof is to do something similar with pairs Since we can construct b0 , . . . , bn satisfying (a) and (b)
replaced by larger clumps, using long runs of excluded for any n, we have lim sup N (x)/x ≤ 1/2n for any n,
elements of B. yielding lim N (x)/x = 0 as desired.
Suppose we have positive integers b0 = 1, b1 , . . . , bn
Second solution: (by Paul Pollack) Let S be the set
with the following properties:
of possible values of lim sup N (x)/x; since S ⊆ [0, 1]
(a) For i = 1, . . . , n, ci = bi /(2bi−1 ) is an integer. is bounded, it has a least upper bound L. Suppose by
way of contradiction that L > 0; we can then choose
(b) For ei ∈ {−1, 0, 1}, |e1 b1 + · · · + en bn | ∈
/ B.
A, B satisfying the conditions of the problem such that
Each nonnegative integer a has a unique “base expan- lim sup N (x)/x > 3L/4.
sion” To begin with, we can certainly find some positive inte-
ger m ∈ / B, so that A is disjoint from A+m = {a+m :
a = a0 b0 + · · · + an−1 bn−1 + mbn (0 ≤ ai < 2ci ); a ∈ A}. Put A0 = A∪(A+m) and let N 0 (x) be the size
of A0 ∩{1, . . . , x}; then lim sup N 0 (x)/x = 3L/2 > L,
if two integers have expansions with the same value
so A0 cannot obey the conditions of the problem state-
of m, and values of ai differing by at most 1 for
ment. That is, if we let B 0 be the set of positive integers
i = 0, . . . , n − 1, then their difference is not in B, so
that occur as differences between elements of A0 , then
at most one of them lies in A. In particular, for any
there exists an integer n such that among any n consec-
di ∈ {0, . . . , ci − 1}, any m0 ∈ {0, 2c0 − 1} and any
utive integers, at least one lies in B 0 . But
mn , the set
B 0 ⊆ {b + em : b ∈ B, e ∈ {−1, 0, 1}},
{m0 b0 + (2d1 + e1 )b0 + · · ·
+ (2dn−1 + en−1 )bn−1 + (2mn + en )bn }, so among any n + 2m consecutive integers, at least one
lies in B. This contradicts the condition of the problem
where each ei runs over {0, 1}, contains at most one statement.
element of A; consequently, lim sup N (x)/x ≤ 1/2n .
We conclude that it is impossible to have L > 0, so
We now produce such bi recursively, starting with b0 = L = 0 and lim N (x)/x = 0 as desired.
1 (and both (a) and (b) holding vacuously). Given
b0 , . . . , bn satisfying (a) and (b), note that b0 + · · · + Remark: A hybrid between these two arguments is
bn−1 < bn by induction on n. By the hypotheses to note that if we can produce c1 , . . . , cn such that
of the problem, we can find a set Sn of 6bn consec- |ci − cj | ∈ / B for i, j = 1, . . . , n, then the translates A +
utive integers, none of which belongs to B. Let bn+1 c1 , . . . , A + cn are disjoint and so lim sup N (x)/x ≤
be the second-smallest multiple of 2bn in Sn ; then 1/n. Given c1 ≤ · · · ≤ cn as above, we can then choose
bn+1 + x ∈ Sn for −2bn ≤ x ≤ 0 clearly, and also cn+1 to be the largest element of a run of cn + 1 con-
for 0 ≤ x ≤ 2bn because there are most 4bn − 1 ele- secutive integers, none of which lie in B.
ments of Sn preceding bn+1 . In particular, the analogue
A1 Show that every positive integer is a sum of one or more B2 Find all positive integers n, k1 , . . . , kn such that k1 +
numbers of the form 2r 3s , where r and s are nonneg- · · · + kn = 5n − 4 and
ative integers and no summand divides another. (For
example, 23 = 9 + 8 + 6.) 1 1
+ ··· + = 1.
k1 kn
A2 Let S = {(a, b)|a = 1, 2, . . . , n, b = 1, 2, 3}. A rook
tour of S is a polygonal path made up of line segments
connecting points p1 , p2 , . . . , p3n in sequence such that B3 Find all differentiable functions f : (0, ∞) → (0, ∞)
for which there is a positive real number a such that
(i) pi ∈ S,
a x
(ii) pi and pi+1 are a unit distance apart, for 1 ≤ i < f0 =
3n, x f (x)
(iii) for each p ∈ S there is a unique i such that pi = p.
for all x > 0.
How many rook tours are there that begin at (1, 1)
B4 For positive integers m and n, let f (m, n) denote the
and end at (n, 1)?
number of n-tuples (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) of integers such
(An example of such a rook tour for n = 5 was depicted that |x1 | + |x2 | + · · · + |xn | ≤ m. Show that f (m, n) =
in the original.) f (n, m).
A3 Let p(z) be a polynomial of degree n, all of whose ze- B5 Let P (x1 , . . . , xn ) denote a polynomial with real coef-
ros have absolute value 1 in the complex plane. Put ficients in the variables x1 , . . . , xn , and suppose that
g(z) = p(z)/z n/2 . Show that all zeros of g 0 (z) = 0
have absolute value 1.
∂2 ∂2

+ · · · + P (x1 , . . . , xn ) = 0 (identically)
A4 Let H be an n × n matrix all of whose entries are ±1 ∂x21 ∂x2n
and whose rows are mutually orthogonal. Suppose H
has an a × b submatrix whose entries are all 1. Show and that
that ab ≤ n.
x21 + · · · + x2n divides P (x1 , . . . , xn ).
A5 Evaluate
Z 1
ln(x + 1) Show that P = 0 identically.
dx.
0 x2 + 1
B6 Let Sn denote the set of all permutations of the numbers
1, 2, . . . , n. For π ∈ Sn , let σ(π) = 1 if π is an even
A6 Let n be given, n ≥ 4, and suppose that P1 , P2 , . . . , Pn
permutation and σ(π) = −1 if π is an odd permutation.
are n randomly, independently and uniformly, chosen
Also, let ν(π) denote the number of fixed points of π.
points on a circle. Consider the convex n-gon whose
Show that
vertices are Pi . What is the probability that at least one
of the vertex angles of this polygon is acute? X σ(π) n
= (−1)n+1 .
B1 Find a nonzero polynomial P (x, y) such that ν(π) + 1 n+1
π∈Sn
P (bac, b2ac) = 0 for all real numbers a. (Note:
bνc is the greatest integer less than or equal to ν.)
A1 We proceed by induction, with base case 1 = 20 30 . segment joining (n − 1, 3) to (n − 1, 2) results in a path

Suppose all integers less than n − 1 can be represented. in An−1 . (This construction is reversible, lengthening
If n is even, then we can take a representation of n/2 any path in An−1 to a path in An .) In the latter case, P
and multiply each term by 2 to obtain a representation contains the subpath P2′ which joins (n − 1, 3), (n, 3),
of n. If n is odd, put m = ⌊log3 n⌋, so that 3m ≤ n < (n, 2), (n, 1) consecutively; deleting P2′ results in a path
3m+1 . If 3m = n, we are done. Otherwise, choose a in Bn−1 , and this construction is also reversible. The
representation (n−3m )/2 = s1 +· · ·+sk in the desired desired bijection follows.
form. Then Similarly, there is a bijection between Bn and An−1 ∪
m Bn−1 for n ≥ 2. It follows by induction that for n ≥ 2,
n = 3 + 2s1 + · · · + 2sk ,
|An | = |Bn | = 2n−2 (|A1 | + |B1 |). But |A1 | = 0 and
and clearly none of the 2si divide each other or 3m . |B1 | = 1, and hence the desired answer is |An | = 2n−2 .
Moreover, since 2si ≤ n − 3m < 3m+1 − 3m , we Remarks: Other bijective arguments are possible: for
have si < 3m , so 3m cannot divide 2si either. Thus instance, Noam Elkies points out that each element
n has a representation of the desired form in all cases, of An ∪ Bn contains a different one of the possi-
completing the induction. ble sets of segments of the form (i, 2), (i + 1, 2) for
Remarks: This problem is originally due to Paul Erdős. i = 1, . . . , n − 1. Richard Stanley provides the refer-
Note that the representations need not be unique: for ence: K.L. Collins and L.B. Krompart, The number of
instance, Hamiltonian paths in a rectangular grid, Discrete Math.
169 (1997), 29–38. This problem is Theorem 1 of that
11 = 2 + 9 = 3 + 8. paper; the cases of 4 × n and 5 × n grids are also
treated. The paper can also be found online at the URL
kcollins.web.wesleyan.edu/vita.htm.
A2 We will assume n ≥ 2 hereafter, since the answer is 0
for n = 1. A3 Note that it is implicit in the problem that p is noncon-
First solution: We show that the set of rook tours from stant, one may take any branch of the square root, and
(1, 1) to (n, 1) is in bijection with the set of subsets of that z = 0 should be ignored.
{1, 2, ..., n} that include n and contain an even number Qn
First solution: Write p(z) = c j=1 (z − rj ), so that
of elements in total. Since the latter set evidently con-
tains 2n−2 elements, so does the former. n
g ′ (z) 1 X z + rj
We now construct the bijection. Given a rook tour P = .
g(z) 2z j=1 z − rj
from (1, 1) to (n, 1), let S = S(P ) denote the set of
all i ∈ {1, 2, . . . , n} for which there is either a directed
edge from (i, 1) to (i, 2) or from (i, 3) to (i, 2). It is Now if z 6= rj for all j,then
clear that this set S includes n and must contain an
even number of elements. Conversely, given a subset z + rj (z + rj )(z − rj ) |z|2 − 1 + 2Im(zrj )
= = ,
S = {a1 , a2 , . . . , a2r = n} ⊂ {1, 2, . . . , n} of this z − rj |z − rj |2 |z − rj |2
type with a1 < a2 < · · · < a2r , we notice that there is
a unique path P containing (ai , 2 + (−1)i ), (a1 , 2) for and so
i = 1, 2, . . . , 2r. This establishes the desired bijection.  
Second solution: Let An denote the set of rook tours zg ′ (z) |z|2 − 1 X 1
Re = .
beginning at (1, 1) and ending at (n, 1), and let Bn de- g(z) 2 j
|z − rj |2
note the set of rook tours beginning at (1, 1) and ending
at (n, 3). Since the quantity in parentheses is positive, g ′ (z)/g(z)
For n ≥ 2, we construct a bijection between An and can be 0 only if |z| = 1. If on the other hand z = rj for
An−1 ∪Bn−1 . Any path P in An contains either the line some j, then |z| = 1 anyway.
segment P1 between (n − 1, 1) and (n, 1), or the line Qn
Second solution: Write p(z) = c j=1 (z − rj ), so that
segment P2 between (n, 2) and (n, 1). In the former
case, P must also contain the subpath P1′ which joins n
g ′ (z) X

1 1
(n − 1, 3), (n, 3), (n, 2), and (n − 1, 2) consecutively; = − .
then deleting P1 and P1′ from P and adding the line g(z) j=1
z − rj 2z
2
We first check that g ′ (z) 6= 0 whenever z is real and On the other hand, the term on the left is the dot product
z > 1. In this case, for rj = eiθj , we have z − rj = of r1 + · · ·+ ra with itself, i.e., its squared length. Since
1 1
(z − cos(θj )) + sin(θj )i, so the real part of z−r j
− 2z this vector has a in each of its first b coordinates, the
is dot product is at least a2 b. Hence an ≥ a2 b, whence
n ≥ ab as desired.
z − cos(θj ) 1
− Second solution: (by Richard Stanley) Suppose with-
z 2 − 2z cos(θj ) + 1 2z out loss of generality that the a × b submatrix occupies
z2 − 1 the first a rows and the first b columns. Let M be the
= > 0. submatrix occupying the first a rows and the last n − b
2z(z 2 − 2z cos(θj ) + 1)
columns. Then the hypothesis implies that the matrix
Hence g ′ (z)/g(z) has positive real part, so g ′ (z)/g(z) M M T has n − b’s on the main diagonal and −b’s else-
and hence g(z) are nonzero. where. Hence the column vector v of length a consist-
ing of all 1’s satisfies M M T v = (n − ab)v, so n − ab is
Applying the same argument after replacing p(z) by an eigenvalue of M M T . But M M T is semidefinite, so
p(eiθ z), we deduce that g ′ cannot have any roots out- its eigenvalues are all nonnegative real numbers. Hence
side the unit circle. Applying the same argument after n − ab ≥ 0.
replacing p(z) by z n p(1/z), we also deduce that g ′ can-
not have any roots inside the unit circle. Hence all roots Remarks: A matrix as in the problem is called
of g ′ have absolute value 1, as desired. a Hadamard matrix, because it meets the equality
condition of Hadamard’s inequality: any n × n matrix
Third solution: Write p(z) = c nj=1 (z − rj ) and put
Q
with ±1 entries has absolute determinant at most nn/2 ,
rj = e2iθj . Note that g(e2iθ ) is equal to a nonzero with equality if and only if the rows are mutually
constant times orthogonal (from the interpretation of the determinant
n as the volume of a paralellepiped whose edges are
Y ei(θ+θj ) − e−i(θ+θj ) parallel to the row vectors). Note that this implies
h(θ) =
j=1
2i that the columns are also mutually orthogonal. A
n generalization of this problem, with a similar proof,
is known as Lindsey’s lemma: the sum of the entries
Y
= sin(θ + θj ).
j=1
in any√a × b submatrix of a Hadamard matrix is at
most abn. Stanley notes that Ryser (1981) asked
Since h has at least 2n roots (counting multiplicity) in for the smallest size of a Hadamard matrix containing
the interval [0, 2π), h′ does also by repeated applica- an r × s submatrix of all 1’s, and refers to the URL
tion of Rolle’s theorem. Since g ′ (e2iθ ) = 2ie2iθ h′ (θ), www3.interscience.wiley.com/cgi-bin/
g ′ (z 2 ) has at least 2n roots on the unit circle. Since abstract/110550861/ABSTRACT for more
g ′ (z 2 ) is equal to z −n−1 times a polynomial of degree information.
2n, g ′ (z 2 ) has all roots on the unit circle, as then does A5 First solution: We make the substitution x = tan θ,
g ′ (z). rewriting the desired integral as
Remarks: The second solution imitates the proof of Z π/4
the Gauss-Lucas theorem: the roots of the derivative of log(tan(θ) + 1) dθ.
a complex polynomial lie in the convex hull of the roots 0
of the original polynomial. The second solution is close
to problem B3 from the 2000 Putnam. A hybrid be- Write
tween the first and third solutions is to check that on the log(tan(θ) + 1)
unit circle, Re(zg ′ (z)/g(z)) = 0 while between any
two roots of p, Im(zg ′ (z)/g(z)) runs from +∞ to −∞ = log(sin(θ) + cos(θ)) − log(cos(θ))
and so must have a zero crossing. (This only works √
when p has distinct roots, but the general case follows and then note that sin(θ) + cos(θ) = 2 cos(π/4 − θ).
by the continuity of the roots of a polynomial as func- We may thus rewrite the integrand as
tions of the coefficients.) One can also construct a solu- 1
tion using Rouché’s theorem. log(2) + log(cos(π/4 − θ)) − log(cos(θ)).
2
A4 First solution: Choose a set of a rows r1 , . . . , ra con- But over the interval [0, π/4], the integrals of
taining an a × b submatrix whose entries are all 1. Then log(cos(θ)) and log(cos(π/4 − θ)) are equal, so their
for i, j ∈ {1, . . . , a}, we have ri · rj = n if i = j and 0 contributions cancel out. The desired integral is then
otherwise. Hence just the integral of 12 log(2) over the interval [0, π/4],
a
which is π log(2)/8.
X
ri · rj = an. Second solution: (by Roger Nelsen) Let I denote the
i,j=1 desired integral. We make the substitution x = (1 −
3
u)/(1 + u) to obtain is an alternating series whose terms strictly decrease to

Z 1 zero, so it converges. Moreover, its partial sums alter-
(1 + u)2 log(2/(1 + u)) 2 du nately bound the previous integral above and below, so
I=
0 2(1 + u2 ) (1 + u)2 the sum of the series coincides with the integral.
Z 1
log(2) − log(1 + u) Put
= du Z 1 n
0 1 + u2 x dx
Z 1 Jn = 2+1
;
du 0 x
= log(2) − I,
0 1 + u2 then J0 = arctan(1) = π4 and J1 = 21 log(2). More-
yielding over,
Z 1
1
1
Z 1
du π log(2) Jn + Jn+2 = xn dx = .
I= log(2) = . 0 n+1
2 0 1 + u2 8
Write
m
Third solution: (attributed to Steven Sivek) Define the X (−1)i−1
function Am =
i=1
2i − 1
Z 1 m
log(xt + 1) (−1)i−1
f (t) = dx
X
x2 + 1 Bm = ;
0
i=1
2i
so that f (0) = 0 and the desired integral is f (1). Then then
by differentiation under the integral,
J2n = (−1)n (J0 − An )
Z 1
x J2n+1 = (−1)n (J1 − Bn ).
f ′ (t) = 2
dx.
0 (xt + 1)(x + 1) Now the 2N -th partial sum of our series equals
By partial fractions, we obtain N
X J2n−1 J2n
x=1 −
′ 2t arctan(x) − 2 log(tx + 1) + log(x + 1) 2
n=1
2n − 1 2n
f (t) =
2(t2 + 1) N
x=0 X (−1)n−1 (−1)n
πt + 2 log(2) − 4 log(t + 1) = (J1 − Bn−1 ) − (J0 − An )
= , n=1
2n − 1 2n
4(t2 + 1)
= AN (J1 − BN −1 ) + BN (J0 − AN ) + AN BN .
whence
As N → ∞, AN → J0 and BN → J1 , so the sum
t
log(2) arctan(t) π log(t2 + 1) log(t + 1) tends to J0 J1 = π log(2)/8.
Z
f (t) = + − dt
2 8 0 t2 + 1 Fifth solution: (suggested by Alin Bostan) Note that
Z 1
and hence x dy
log(1 + x) = ,
π log(2)
Z 1
log(t + 1) 0 1 + xy
f (1) = − dt. so the desired integral I may be written as
4 0 t2 + 1
Z 1Z 1
x dy dx
But the integral on the right is again the desired integral I= .
f (1), so we may move it to the left to obtain 0 0 (1 + xy)(1 + x2 )
We may interchange x and y in this expression, then
π log(2) use Fubini’s theorem to interchange the order of sum-
2f (1) =
4 mation, to obtain
Z 1Z 1
and hence f (1) = π log(2)/8 as desired. y dy dx
I= .
Fourth solution: (by David Rusin) We have 0 0 (1 + xy)(1 + y 2 )
Z 1 Z 1 X ∞
! We then add these expressions to obtain
log(x + 1) (−1)n−1 xn
dx = dx. Z 1Z 1
x y

dy dx
0 x2 + 1 0 n=1
n(x2 + 1) 2I = +
1+x 2 1+y 2 1 + xy
0 0
We next justify moving the sum through the integral Z 1Z 1 2 2
x + y + xy + x y dy dx
sign. Note that =
0 0 (1 + x2 )(1 + y 2 ) 1 + xy
∞ Z 1 Z 1Z 1
X (−1)n−1 xn dx (x + y) dy dx
= .
n(x2 + 1) 0 0 (1 + x2 )(1 + y 2 )
n=1 0
4
By another symmetry argument, we have Second solution: (by Calvin Lin) As in the first solu-
tion, we may compute the probability that for a particu-
1 1
x dy dx
Z Z
lar one of the points Q1 , the angle at Q1 is not acute but
2I = 2 ,
0 0 (1 + x2 )(1 + y 2 ) the following angle is, and then multiply by n. Imagine
picking the points by first choosing Q1 , then picking
so n − 1 pairs of antipodal points and then picking one
Z 1 Z 1 member of each pair. Let R2 , . . . , Rn be the points of
x dx 1 π
I= = log(2) · . the pairs which lie in the semicircle, taken in order away
0 1 + x2 0 1 + y2 8 from Q1 , and let S2 , . . . , Sn be the antipodes of these.
Then to get the desired situation, we must choose from
Remarks: The first two solutions are related by the the pairs to end up with all but one of the Si , and we
fact that if x = tan(θ), then 1 − x/(1 + x) = cannot take Rn and the other Si or else ∠Q1 will be
tan(π/4 − θ). The strategy of the third solution (in- acute. That gives us (n − 2) good choices out of 2n−1 ;
troducing a parameter then differentiating it) was a fa- since we could have chosen Q1 to be any of the n points,
vorite of physics Nobelist (and Putnam Fellow) Richard the probability is again n(n − 2)2−n+1 .
Feynman.R ∞The fifth solution resembles Gauss’s evalua-
tion of −∞ exp(−x2 ) dx. Noam Elkies notes that this B1 Take P (x, y) = (y − 2x)(y − 2x − 1). To see that
integral is number 2.491#8 in Gradshteyn and Ryzhik, this works, first note that if m = ⌊a⌋, then 2m is an
Table of integrals, series, and products. The Mathemat- integer less than or equal to 2a, so 2m ≤ ⌊2a⌋. On
ica computer algebra system (version 5.2) successfully the other hand, m + 1 is an integer strictly greater than
computes this integral, but we do not know how. a, so 2m + 2 is an integer strictly greater than 2a, so
⌊2a⌋ ≤ 2m + 1.
A6 First solution: The angle at a vertex P is acute if and
only if all of the other points lie on an open semicir- B2 By the arithmetic-harmonic mean inequality or the
cle. We first deduce from this that if there are any Cauchy-Schwarz inequality,
two acute angles at all, they must occur consecutively.
Suppose the contrary; label the vertices Q1 , . . . , Qn in 1 1
(k1 + · · · + kn ) + ···+ ≥ n2 .
counterclockwise order (starting anywhere), and sup- k1 kn
pose that the angles at Q1 and Qi are acute for some
i with 3 ≤ i ≤ n − 1. Then the open semicircle starting We must thus have 5n − 4 ≥ n2 , so n ≤ 4. Without
at Q2 and proceeding counterclockwise must contain loss of generality, we may suppose that k1 ≤ · · · ≤ kn .
all of Q3 , . . . , Qn , while the open semicircle starting If n = 1, we must have k1 = 1, which works. Note that
at Qi and proceeding counterclockwise must contain hereafter we cannot have k1 = 1.
Qi+1 , . . . , Qn , Q1 , . . . , Qi−1 . Thus two open semicir-
If n = 2, we have (k1 , k2 ) ∈ {(2, 4), (3, 3)}, neither of
cles cover the entire circle, contradiction.
which work.
It follows that if the polygon has at least one acute an-
If n = 3, we have k1 + k2 + k3 = 11,
gle, then it has either one acute angle or two acute an-
so 2 ≤ k1 ≤ 3. Hence (k1 , k2 , k3 ) ∈
gles occurring consecutively. In particular, there is a
{(2, 2, 7), (2, 3, 6), (2, 4, 5), (3, 3, 5), (3, 4, 4)}, and
unique pair of consecutive vertices Q1 , Q2 in counter-
only (2, 3, 6) works.
clockwise order for which ∠Q2 is acute and ∠Q1 is not
acute. Then the remaining points all lie in the arc from If n = 4, we must have equality in the AM-HM inequal-
the antipode of Q1 to Q1 , but Q2 cannot lie in the arc, ity, which only happens when k1 = k2 = k3 = k4 = 4.
and the remaining points cannot all lie in the arc from Hence the solutions are n = 1 and k1 = 1, n = 3 and
the antipode of Q1 to the antipode of Q2 . Given the (k1 , k2 , k3 ) is a permutation of (2, 3, 6), and n = 4 and
choice of Q1 , Q2 , let x be the measure of the counter- (k1 , k2 , k3 , k4 ) = (4, 4, 4, 4).
clockwise arc from Q1 to Q2 ; then the probability that
the other points fall into position is 2−n+2 − xn−2 if Remark: In the cases n = 2, 3, Greg Kuperberg sug-
x ≤ 1/2 and 0 otherwise. gests the alternate approach of enumerating the solu-
tions of 1/k1 +· · ·+1/kn = 1 with k1 ≤ · · · ≤ kn . This
Hence the probability that the polygon has at least one is easily done by proceeding in lexicographic order: one
acute angle with a given choice of which two points will obtains (2, 2) for n = 2, and (2, 3, 6), (2, 4, 4), (3, 3, 3)
act as Q1 and Q2 is for n = 3, and only (2, 3, 6) contributes to the final an-
1/2
swer.
n − 2 −n+1
Z
(2−n+2 − xn−2 ) dx = 2 .
0 n−1 B3 First solution: The functions are precisely f (x) = cxd
for c, d > 0 arbitrary except that we must take c = 1
Since there are n(n − 1) choices for which two points in case d = 1. To see that these work, note that
act as Q1 and Q2 , the probability of at least one acute f ′ (a/x) = dc(a/x)d−1 and x/f (x) = 1/(cxd−1 ), so
angle is n(n − 2)2−n+1 . the given equation holds if and only if dc2 ad−1 = 1.
5
If d 6= 1, we may solve for a no matter what c is; if choose such a tuple, we may choose the k nonzero posi-
d = 1, we must have c = 1. (Thanks to Brad Rodgers tions, the signs of those k numbers, and then an ordered
for pointing out the d = 1 restriction.) k-tuple of positive integers with sum ≤ m. There are
n k

To check that these are all solutions, put b = log(a) and m
and 2 for the second.
k options for the first choice,
y = log(a/x); rewrite the given equation as As for the third, we have k options by a “stars and
bars” argument: depict the k-tuple by drawing a num-
f (eb−y )f ′ (ey ) = eb−y . ber of stars for each term, separated by bars, and adding
stars at the end to get a total of m stars. Then each tu-
Put ple corresponds to placing k bars, each in a different
position behind one of the m fixed stars.
g(y) = log f (ey );
then the given equation rewrites as We conclude that
g(b − y) + log g ′ (y) + g(y) − y = b − y,

m n
k
or f (m, n, k) = 2 = f (n, m, k);
k k
log g ′ (y) = b − g(y) − g(b − y).
By the symmetry of the right side, we have g ′ (b − y) = summing over k gives f (m, n) = f (n, m). (One may
g ′ (y). Hence the function g(y) + g(b − y) has zero also extract easily a bijective interpretation of the equal-
derivative and so is constant, as then is g ′ (y). From ity.)
this we deduce that f (x) = cxd for some c, d, both
necessarily positive since f ′ (x) > 0 for all x.
Second solution: (by Greg Kuperberg) It will be con-
Second solution: (suggested by several people) Substi- venient to extend the definition of f (m, n) to m, n ≥ 0,
tute a/x for x in the given equation: in which case we have f (0, m) = f (n, 0) = 1.
a
f ′ (x) = .
xf (a/x) Let Sm,n be the set of n-tuples (x1 , . . . , xn ) of inte-
gers such that |x1 | + · · · + |xn | ≤ m. Then elements
Differentiate: of Sm,n can be classified into three types. Tuples with
a a2 f ′ (a/x) |x1 | + · · · + |xn | < m also belong to Sm−1,n . Tuples
f ′′ (x) = − + . with |x1 | + · · · + |xn | = m and xn ≥ 0 correspond
x2 f (a/x) x3 f (a/x)2
to elements of Sm,n−1 by dropping xn . Tuples with
Now substitute to eliminate evaluations at a/x: |x1 | + · · · + |xn | = m and xn < 0 correspond to ele-
ments of Sm−1,n−1 by dropping xn . It follows that
f ′ (x) f ′ (x)2
f ′′ (x) = − + .
x f (x)
f (m, n)
Clear denominators: = f (m − 1, n) + f (m, n − 1) + f (m − 1, n − 1),
xf (x)f ′′ (x) + f (x)f ′ (x) = xf ′ (x)2 .
Divide through by f (x)2 and rearrange: so f satisfies a symmetric recurrence with symmetric
boundary conditions f (0, m) = f (n, 0) = 1. Hence f
f ′ (x) xf ′′ (x) xf ′ (x)2 is symmetric.
0= + − .
f (x) f (x) f (x)2
The right side is the derivative of xf ′ (x)/f (x), so that Third solution: (by Greg Martin) As in the second so-
quantity is constant. That is, for some d, lution, it is convenient to allow f (m, 0) = f (0, n) = 1.
Define the generating function
f ′ (x) d
= .
f (x) x
∞ X
X ∞
d
Integrating yields f (x) = cx , as desired. G(x, y) = f (m, n)xm y n .
m=0 n=0
B4 First solution: Define f (m, n, k) as the number of n-
tuples (x1 , x2 , . . . , xn ) of integers such that |x1 |+· · ·+
|xn | ≤ m and exactly k of x1 , . . . , xn are nonzero. To As equalities of formal power series (or convergent se-
6
ries on, say, the region |x|, |y| < 13 ), we have Consequently, Qj Hd−2j is contained in the eigenspace
XX X of Q∇2 on Pd of eigenvalue
G(x, y) = xm y n 1
m≥0 n≥0 k1 , ..., kn ∈Z (2n + 4(d − 2j)) + · · · + (2n + 4(d − 2)).
|k1 |+···+|kn |≤m
In particular, the Qj H d−2j lie in distinct eigenspaces,
X X X
= yn xm
n≥0 k1 , ..., kn ∈Z m≥|k1 |+···+|kn |
so are linearly independent within Pd . But by dimen-
sion counting, their total dimension is at least that of Pd .
X X x|k1 |+···+|kn | Hence they exhaust Pd , and the zero eigenspace cannot
= yn
1−x have dimension greater than dim(Pd ) − dim(Pd−2 ), as
n≥0 k1 , ..., kn ∈Z
n desired.
1 X
n
X
|k|
= y x Third solution: (by Richard Stanley) Write x =
1−x ∂
n≥0 k∈Z (x1 , . . . , xn ) and ∇ = ( ∂x 1
, . . . , ∂x∂ n ). Suppose that
n 2 2
P (x) = Q(x)(x1 + · · · + xn ). Then

1 X n 1+x
= y
1−x 1−x
n≥0 P (∇)P (x) = Q(∇)(∇2 )P (x) = 0.
1 1
= · On the other hand, if P (x) =
P α
1 − x 1 − y(1 + x)/(1 − x) α cα x (where α =
α α1 αn
1 (α1 , . . . , αn ) and x = x1 · · · xP
n ), then the constant
= . term of P (∇)P (x) is seen to be α c2α . Hence cα = 0
1 − x − y − xy
for all α.
Since G(x, y) = G(y, x), it follows that f (m, n) = Remarks: The first two solutions apply directly over
f (n, m) for all m, n ≥ 0. any field of characteristic zero. (The result fails in char-
B5 First solution: Put Q = x21 + · · · + x2n . Since Q is acteristic p > 0 because we may take P = (x21 +
homogeneous, P is divisible by Q if and only if each of · · · + x2n )p = x2p 2p
1 + · · · + xn .) The third solution
the homogeneous components of P is divisible by Q. It can be extended to complex coefficients by replacing
is thus sufficient to solve the problem in case P itself is P (∇) by its complex conjugate, and again the result
homogeneous, say of degree d. may be deduced for any field of characteristic zero.
Suppose that we have a factorization P = Qm R for Stanley also suggests Section 5 of the arXiv e-print
some m > 0, where R is homogeneous of degree d and math.CO/0502363 for some algebraic background
not divisible by Q; note that the homogeneity implies for this problem.
that B6 First solution: Let I be the identity matrix, and let
n
X ∂R Jx be the matrix with x’s on the diagonal and 1’s else-
xi = dR. where. Note that Jx − (x − 1)I, being the all 1’s matrix,
i=1
∂x i
has rank 1 and trace n, so has n − 1 eigenvalues equal
Write ∇2 as shorthand for ∂2
+ ···+ ∂2 to 0 and one equal to n. Hence Jx has n− 1 eigenvalues
∂x21 ∂x2n ; then
equal to x − 1 and one equal to x + n − 1, implying
0 = ∇2 P
det Jx = (x + n − 1)(x − 1)n−1 .
n
X ∂R
= 2mnQm−1 R + Qm ∇2 R + 2 2mxi Qm−1 On the other hand, we may expand the determinant as a
i=1
∂xi
sum indexed by permutations, in which case we get
= Qm ∇2 R + (2mn + 4md)Q m−1
R. X
Since m > 0, this forces R to be divisible by Q, con- det Jx = sgn(π)xν(π) .
π∈Sn
tradiction.
Second solution: (by Noam Elkies) Retain notation as Integrating both sides from 0 to 1 (and substituting y =
in the first solution. Let Pd be the set of homogeneous 1 − x) yields
polynomials of degree d, and let Hd be the subset of Z 1
Pd of polynomials killed by ∇2 , which has dimension X sgn(π)
≥ dim(Pd ) − dim(Pd−2 ); the given problem amounts = (x + n − 1)(x − 1)n−1 dx
ν(π) + 1 0
π∈Sn
to showing that this inequality is actually an equality. Z 1
Consider the operator Q∇2 (i.e., apply ∇2 then multi- = (−1)n+1 (n − y)y n−1 dy
ply by Q) on Pd ; its zero eigenspace is precisely Hd . 0
By the calculation from the first solution, if R ∈ Pd , n
= (−1)n+1 ,
then n+1
∇2 (QR) − Q∇2 R = (2n + 4d)R. as desired.
7
Second solution: We start by recalling a form of the yielding

principle of inclusion-exclusion: if f is a function on
the power set of {1, . . . , n}, then
∞ 1
tn t2 t3
X Z
f (n) = exp xt − + − · · · dx
X X
f (S) = (−1)|T |−|S| f (U ). n! 2 3
n=0 0
T ⊇S U⊇T Z 1
In this case we take f (S) to be the sum of σ(π) over all = e(x−1)t+log(1+t) dx
0
permutations
P π whose fixed points are exactly S. Then Z 1
U⊇T f (U ) = 1 if |T | ≥ n − 1 and 0 otherwise (since = (1 + t)e(x−1)t dx
a permutation group on 2 or more symbols has as many 0
even and odd permutations), so 1
= (1 − e−t )(1 + t).
t
f (S) = (−1)n−|S| (1 − n + |S|). Expanding the right side as a Taylor series and compar-
ing coefficients yields the desired result.
The desired sum can thus be written, by grouping over
fixed point sets, as
Fourth solution (sketch): (by David Savitt) We prove
n the identity of rational functions
X n 1−n+i
(−1)n−i
i=0
i i+1
n n
σ(π) (−1)n+1 n!(x + n − 1)

n−i n n−i n n
X X X
= (−1) − (−1) =
i i+1 i ν(π) + x x(x + 1) · · · (x + n)
i=0 i=0 π∈Sn
n
X n n+1
=0− (−1)n−i
i=0
n+1 i+1 by induction on n, which for x = 1 implies the desired
n result. (This can also be deduced as in the other solu-
= (−1)n+1 .
n+1 tions, but in this argument it is necessary to formulate
the strong induction hypothesis.)
Third solution: (by Richard Stanley) The cycle indica-
tor of the symmetric group Sn is defined by Let R(n, x) be the right hand side of the above equa-
X c (π) tion. It is easy to verify that
Zn (x1 , . . . , xn ) = x11 · · · xncn (π) ,
π∈Sn
(−1)n+1
where ci (π) is the number of cycles of π of length i. R(x, n) = R(x + 1, n − 1) + (n − 1)!
Put x
n−1
X (n − 1)!
+ (−1)l−1 R(x, n − l),
X
Fn = σ(π)xν(π) = Zn (x, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . . ) (n − l)!
π∈Sn l=2
and
since the sum telescopes. To prove the desired equality,
1
σ(π)
Z
X it suffices to show that the left hand side satisfies the
f (n) = = Fn (x) dx.
ν(π) + 1 0 same recurrence. This follows because we can classify
π∈Sn
each π ∈ Sn as either fixing n, being an n-cycle, or hav-
A standard argument in enumerative combinatorics (the ing n in an l-cycle for one of l = 2, . . . , n − 1; writing
Exponential Formula) gives the sum over these classes gives the desired recurrence.
∞ ∞
X tn X tk
Zn (x1 , . . . , xn ) = exp xk ,
n=0
n! k
k=1
A1 Find the volume of the region of points (x, y, z) such B1 Show that the curve x3 + 3xy + y 3 = 1 contains only
that one set of three distinct points, A, B, and C, which are
vertices of an equilateral triangle, and find its area.
(x2 + y 2 + z 2 + 8)2 ≤ 36(x2 + y 2 ).
B2 Prove that, for every set X = {x1 , x2 , . . . , xn } of n
A2 Alice and Bob play a game in which they take turns real numbers, there exists a non-empty subset S of X
removing stones from a heap that initially has n stones. and an integer m such that
The number of stones removed at each turn must be one
less than a prime number. The winner is the player who
X 1
m + s ≤ .

takes the last stone. Alice plays first. Prove that there n+1
s∈S
are infinitely many n such that Bob has a winning strat-
egy. (For example, if n = 17, then Alice might take B3 Let S be a finite set of points in the plane. A linear
6 leaving 11; then Bob might take 1 leaving 10; then partition of S is an unordered pair {A, B} of subsets of
Alice can take the remaining stones to win.) S such that A ∪ B = S, A ∩ B = ∅, and A and B
lie on opposite sides of some straight line disjoint from
A3 Let 1, 2, 3, . . . , 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012, 2016, . . . S (A or B may be empty). Let LS be the number of
be a sequence defined by xk = k for k = 1, 2, . . . , 2006 linear partitions of S. For each positive integer n, find
and xk+1 = xk + xk−2005 for k ≥ 2006. Show that the the maximum of LS over all sets S of n points.
sequence has 2005 consecutive terms each divisible by
2006. B4 Let Z denote the set of points in Rn whose coordinates
are 0 or 1. (Thus Z has 2n elements, which are the
A4 Let S = {1, 2, . . . , n} for some integer n > 1. Say a vertices of a unit hypercube in Rn .) Given a vector sub-
permutation π of S has a local maximum at k ∈ S if space V of Rn , let Z(V ) denote the number of members
of Z that lie in V . Let k be given, 0 ≤ k ≤ n. Find the
(i) π(k) > π(k + 1) for k = 1; maximum, over all vector subspaces V ⊆ Rn of dimen-
(ii) π(k − 1) < π(k) and π(k) > π(k + 1) for 1 < sion k, of the number of points in V ∩Z. [Editorial note:
k < n; the proposers probably intended to write Z(V ) instead
(iii) π(k − 1) < π(k) for k = n. of “the number of points in V ∩ Z”, but this changes
nothing.]
(For example, if n = 5 and π takes values at 1, 2, 3, 4, 5
of 2, 1, 4, 5, 3, then π has a local maximum of 2 at k = B5 For each continuous function f : [0, 1] → R, let I(f ) =
R1 2 R1 2
1, and a local maximum of 5 at k = 4.) What is the 0
x f (x) dx and J(x) = 0 x (f (x)) dx. Find the
average number of local maxima of a permutation of S, maximum value of I(f ) − J(f ) over all such functions
averaging over all permutations of S? f.
A5 Let n be a positive odd integer and let θ be a real number B6 Let k be an integer greater than 1. Suppose a0 > 0, and
such that θ/π is irrational. Set ak = tan(θ + kπ/n), define
k = 1, 2, . . . , n. Prove that
1
a1 + a2 + · · · + an an+1 = an + √
k a
n
a1 a2 · · · an
for n > 0. Evaluate
is an integer, and determine its value.
ak+1
n
A6 Four points are chosen uniformly and independently at lim .
n→∞ nk
random in the interior of a given circle. Find the proba-
bility that they are the vertices of a convex quadrilateral.
We change to cylindrical coordinates, i.e., we put r =

A1 p where n is fixed and f is a fixed polynomial of n vari-
x2 + y 2 . Then the given inequality is equivalent to ables with integer coefficients, for any positive integer
N , the sequence modulo N is eventually periodic. This
r2 + z 2 + 8 ≤ 6r, is simply because there are only finitely many possible
sequences of n consecutive values modulo N , and once
or
such a sequence is repeated, every subsequent value is
(r − 3)2 + z 2 ≤ 1. repeated as well.
We next observe that if one can rewrite the same recur-
This defines a solid of revolution (a solid torus); the sion as
area being rotated is the disc (x − 3)2 + z 2 ≤ 1 in
the xz-plane. By Pappus’s theorem, the volume of this xk−n = g(xk−n+1 , . . . , xk ) (k > n),
equals the area of this disc, which is π, times the dis-
tance through which the center of mass is being rotated, where g is also a polynomial with integer coefficients,
which is (2π)3. That is, the total volume is 6π 2 . then the sequence extends uniquely to a doubly infinite
sequence . . . , x−1 , x0 , x1 , . . . which is fully periodic
A2 Suppose on the contrary that the set B of values of modulo any N . That is the case in the situation at hand,
n for which Bob has a winning strategy is finite; for because we can rewrite the given recursion as
convenience, we include n = 0 in B, and write B =
{b1 , . . . , bm }. Then for every nonnegative integer n not xk−2005 = xk+1 − xk .
in B, Alice must have some move on a heap of n stones
leading to a position in which the second player wins. It thus suffices to find 2005 consecutive terms divisible
That is, every nonnegative integer not in B can be writ- by N in the doubly infinite sequence, for any fixed N
ten as b+p−1 for some b ∈ B and some prime p. How- (so in particular for N = 2006). Running the recursion
ever, there are numerous ways to show that this cannot backwards, we easily find
happen.
First solution: Let t be any integer bigger than all of x1 = x0 = · · · = x−2004 = 1
the b ∈ B. Then it is easy to write down t consecutive x−2005 = · · · = x−4009 = 0,
composite integers, e.g., (t+1)!+2, . . . , (t+1)!+t+1.
Take n = (t + 1)! + t; then for each b ∈ B, n − b + 1 yielding the desired result.
is one of the composite integers we just wrote down. A4 First solution: By the linearity of expectation, the av-
Second solution: Let p1 , . . . , p2m be any prime num- erage number of local maxima is equal to the sum of
bers; then by the Chinese remainder theorem, there ex- the probability of having a local maximum at k over
ists a positive integer x such that k = 1, . . . , n. For k = 1, this probability is 1/2: given
the pair {π(1), π(2)}, it is equally likely that π(1) or
x − b1 ≡ −1 (mod p1 pm+1 ) π(2) is bigger. Similarly, for k = n, the probability is
... 1/2. For 1 < k < n, the probability is 1/3: given the
x − bn ≡ −1 (mod pm p2m ). pair {π(k − 1), π(k), π(k + 1)}, it is equally likely that
any of the three is the largest. Thus the average number
For each b ∈ B, the unique integer p such that x = of local maxima is
b + p − 1 is divisible by at least two primes, and so
cannot itself be prime. 1 1 n+1
2· + (n − 2) · = .
2 3 3
Third solution: (by Catalin Zara) Put b1 = 0, and take
n = (b2 − 1) · · · (bm − 1); then n is composite because Second solution: Another way to apply the linear-
3, 8 ∈ B, and for any nonzero b ∈ B, n − bi + 1 is ity of expectation is to compute the probability that
divisible by but not equal to bi − 1. (One could also i ∈ {1, . . . , n} occurs as a local maximum. The most
take n = b2 · · · bm − 1, so that n − bi + 1 is divisible by efficient way to do this is to imagine the permutation as
bi .) consisting of the symbols 1, . . . , n, ∗ written in a circle
A3 We first observe that given any sequence of integers in some order. The number i occurs as a local maxi-
x1 , x2 , . . . satisfying a recursion mum if the two symbols it is adjacent to both belong to
the set {∗, 1, . . . , i − 1}. There are i(i − 1) pairs of such
xk = f (xk−1 , . . . , xk−n ) (k > n), symbols and n(n−1) pairs in total, so the probability of
2
i occurring as a local maximum is i(i − 1)/(n(n − 1)), expected value of a random variable over all choices of
and the average number of local maxima is P, Q, R. Write [XY Z] for the area of triangle XY Z.
n n If P, Q, R, S are the four points, we may ignore the case
X i(i − 1) 2 X i
= where three of them are collinear, as this occurs with
i=1
n(n − 1) n(n − 1) i=1 2 probability zero. Then the only way they can fail to
2

n+1
form the vertices of a convex quadrilateral is if one of
= them lies inside the triangle formed by the other three.
n(n − 1) 3
There are four such configurations, depending on which
n+1 point lies inside the triangle, and they are mutually ex-
= .
3 clusive. Hence the desired probability is 1 minus four
One can obtain a similar (if slightly more intricate) so- times the probability that S lies inside triangle P QR.
lution inductively, by removing the known local maxi- That latter probability is simply E([P QR]) divided by
mum n and splitting into two shorter sequences. the area of the disc.
Remark: The usual term for a local maximum in this Let O denote the center of the circle, and let P ′ , Q′ , R′
sense is a peak. The complete distribution for the num- be the projections of P, Q, R onto the circle from O.
ber of peaks is known; Richard Stanley suggests the ref- We can write
erence: F. N. David and D. E. Barton, Combinatorial
[P QR] = ±[OP Q] ± [OQR] ± [ORP ]
Chance, Hafner, New York, 1962, p. 162 and subse-
quent. for a suitable choice of signs, determined as follows. If
A5 Since the desired expression involves symmetric func- the points P ′ , Q′ , R′ lie on no semicircle, then all of the
tions of a1 , . . . , an , we start by finding a polynomial signs are positive. If P ′ , Q′ , R′ lie on a semicircle in
with a1 , . . . , an as roots. Note that that order and Q lies inside the triangle OP R, then the
sign on [OP R] is positive and the others are negative.
1 ± i tan θ = e±iθ sec θ If P ′ , Q′ , R′ lie on a semicircle in that order and Q lies
outside the triangle OP R, then the sign on [OP R] is
so that negative and the others are positive.
1 + i tan θ = e2iθ (1 − i tan θ). We first calculate
Consequently, if we put ω = e2inθ , then the polynomial E([OP Q] + [OQR] + [ORP ]) = 3E([OP Q]).
Qn (x) = (1 + ix)n − ω(1 − ix)n Write r1 = OP, r2 = OQ, θ = ∠P OQ, so that

1
has among its roots a1 , . . . , an . Since these are distinct [OP Q] = r1 r2 (sin θ).
and Qn has degree n, these must be exactly the roots. 2
If we write The distribution of r1 is given by 2r1 on [0, 1] (e.g.,
by the change of variable formula to polar coordinates),
Qn (x) = cn xn + · · · + c1 x + c0 , and similarly for r2 . The distribution of θ is uniform on
[0, π]. These three distributions are independent; hence
then a1 + · · · + an = −cn−1 /cn and a1 · · · an =
−c0 /cn , so the ratio we are seeking is cn−1 /c0 . By E([OP Q])
inspection, Z 1 2 Z π
1 2 1
cn−1 = nin−1 − ωn(−i)n−1 = nin−1 (1 − ω) = 2r dr sin(θ) dθ
2 0 π 0
c0 = 1 − ω 4
= ,
9π
so
( and
a1 + · · · + an n n ≡ 1 (mod 4)
= 4
a1 · · · an −n n ≡ 3 (mod 4). E([OP Q] + [OQR] + [ORP ]) = .
3π
Remark: The same argument shows that the ratio be- We now treat the case where P ′ , Q′ , R′ lie on a semicir-
tween any two odd elementary symmetric functions of cle in that order. Put θ1 = ∠P OQ and θ2 = ∠QOR;
a1 , . . . , an is independent of θ. then the distribution of θ1 , θ2 is uniform on the region
A6 First solution: (by Daniel Kane) The probability is 0 ≤ θ1 , 0 ≤ θ2 , θ1 + θ2 ≤ π.
35
1 − 12π 2 . We start with some notation and simplifi-
cations. For simplicity, we assume without loss of gen- In particular, the distribution on θ = θ1 + θ2 is π2θ2 on
erality that the circle has radius 1. Let E denote the [0, π]. Put rP = OP, rQ = OQ, rR = OR. Again, the
3
distribution on rP is given by 2rP on [0, 1], and simi- the lines P Q, QR, RP , which with probability 1 di-
larly for rQ , rR ; these are independent from each other vide the interior of the circle into seven regions. Put
and from the joint distribution of θ1 , θ2 . Write E ′ (X) a = [P QR], let b1 , b2 , b3 denote the areas of the three
for the expectation of a random variable X restricted to other regions sharing a side with the triangle, and let
this part of the domain. c1 , c2 , c3 denote the areas of the other three regions.
Let χ be the random variable with value 1 if Q is inside Put A = E(a), B = E(b1 ), C = E(c1 ), so that
triangle OP R and 0 otherwise. We now compute A + 3B + 3C = π.
Note that c1 + c2 + c3 + a is the area of the region
E ′ ([OP R]) in which we can choose a fourth point S so that the
Z 1 2 Z π quadrilateral P QRS fails to be convex. By comparing
1 2 2θ
= 2r dr 2
sin(θ) dθ expectations, we have 3C + A = 4A, so A = C and
2 0 0 π 4A + 3B = π.
4
= We will compute B + 2A = B + 2C, which is the ex-
9π pected area of the part of the circle cut off by a chord
E ′ (χ[OP R]) through two random points D, E, on the side of the
= E ′ (2[OP R]2 /θ) chord not containing a third random point F . Let h be
Z 1 2 Z π the distance from the center O of the circle to the line
1 2θ −1 2 DE. We now determine the distribution of h.
= 2r3 dr 2
θ sin (θ) dθ
2 0 0 π Put r = OD; the distribution of r is 2r on [0, 1]. With-
1 out loss of generality, suppose O is the origin and D
= .
8π lies on the positive x-axis. For fixed r, the distribution
Also recall that given any triangle XY Z, if T is chosen of h runs over [0, r], and can be computed as the area
uniformly at random inside XY Z, the expectation of of the infinitesimal region in which E can be chosen so
[T XY ] is the area of triangle bounded by XY and the the chord through DE has distance to O between h and
centroid of XY Z, namely 31 [XY Z]. h + dh, divided by π. This region splits into two sym-
metric pieces, one of which lies between chords making
Let χ be the random variable with value 1 if Q is inside angles of arcsin(h/r) and arcsin((h + dh)/r) with the
triangle OP R and 0 otherwise. Then x-axis. The angle between these is dθ = dh/(r2 − h2 ).
Draw the chord through D at distance h to O, and let
E ′ ([OP Q] + [OQR] + [ORP ] − [P QR]) L1 , L2 be the lengths of the parts on opposite sides of
= 2E ′ (χ([OP Q] + [OQR]) + 2E ′ ((1 − χ)[OP R]) D; then the area we are looking for is 21 (L21 + L22 )dθ.
2 Since
= 2E ′ ( χ[OP R]) + 2E ′ ([OP R]) − 2E ′ (χ[OP R])
3
p p
{L1 , L2 } = 1 − h2 ± r2 − h2 ,
2 29
= 2E ([OP R]) − E ′ (χ[OP R]) =
′
. the area we are seeking (after doubling) is
3 36π
Finally, note that the case when P ′ , Q′ , R′ lie on a semi- 1 + r2 − 2h2
2 √ .
circle in some order occurs with probability 3/4. (The r 2 − h2
case where they lie on a semicircle proceeding clock-
Dividing by π, then integrating over r, we compute the
wise from P ′ to its antipode has probability 1/4; this
distribution of h to be
case and its two analogues are exclusive and exhaus-
1 1 1 + r2 − 2h2
Z
tive.) Hence
2 √ 2r dr
π h r 2 − h2
E([P QR])
16
= E([OP Q] + [OQR] + [ORP ]) = (1 − h2 )3/2 .
3π
3
− E ′ ([OP Q] + [OQR] + [ORP ] − [P QR]) We now return to computing B + 2A. Let A(h) de-
4
4 29 35 note the smaller of the two areas of the disc cut off by
= − = , a chord at distance h. The chance that the third point
3π 48π 48π
is in the smaller (resp. larger) portion is A(h)/π (resp.
so the original probability is 1−A(h)/π), and then the area we are trying to compute
is π − A(h) (resp. A(h)). Using the distribution on h,
4E([P QR]) 35 and the fact that
1− =1− .
π 12π 2 Z 1p
A(h) = 2 1 − h2 dh
Second solution: (by David Savitt) As in the first so- h
lution, it suffices to check that for P, Q, R chosen uni- π p
35 = − arcsin(h) − h 1 − h2 ,
formly at random in the disc, E([P QR]) = 48π . Draw 2
4
we find length of the altitude from (−1,

√ −1) is the distance from
(−1, −1) to (1/2, 1/2), or 3 2/2.√The area of an equi-
B + 2A lateral triangle of height h is h2 3/3, so the desired
√
2 1 16 area is 3 3/2.
Z
= A(h)(π − A(h)) (1 − h2 )3/2 dh
π 0 3π Remark: The factorization used above is a special case
35 + 24π 2 of the fact that
= .
72π
x3 + y 3 + z 3 − 3xyz
35
Since 4A + 3B = π, we solve to obtain A = 48π as in = (x + y + z)(x + ωy + ω 2 z)(x + ω 2 y + ωz),
the first solution.
Third solution: (by Noam Elkies) Again, we reduce where ω denotes a primitive cube root of unity. That
to computing the average area of a triangle formed fact in turn follows from the evaluation of the determi-
by three random points A, B, C inside a unit cir- nant of the circulant matrix
cle. Let O be the center of the circle, and put c =  
max{OA, OB, OC}; then the probability that c ≤ r x y z
z x y 
is (r2 )3 , so the distribution of c is 6c5 dc on [0, 1].
y z x
Given c, the expectation of [ABC] is equal to c2 times
X, the expected area of a triangle formed by two ran- by reading off the eigenvalues of the eigenvectors
dom points P, Q in a circle and a fixed point R on (1, ω i , ω 2i ) for i = 0, 1, 2.
the boundary. We introduce polar coordinates centered
at R, in which the circle is given by r = 2 sin θ for B2 Let {x} = x − ⌊x⌋ denote the fractional part of x. For
θ ∈ [0, π]. The distribution of a random point in that i = 0, . . . , n, put si = x1 + · · · + xi (so that s0 = 0).
circle is π1 r dr dθ over θ ∈ [0, π] and r ∈ [0, 2 sin θ]. Sort the numbers {s0 }, . . . , {sn } into ascending order,
If (r, θ) and (r′ , θ′ ) are the two random points, then the and call the result t0 , . . . , tn . Since 0 = t0 ≤ · · · ≤
area is 21 rr′ sin |θ − θ′ |. tn < 1, the differences
Performing the integrals over r and r′ first, we find
t1 − t0 , . . . , tn − tn−1 , 1 − tn
Z πZ π
32
X= 2 sin3 θ sin3 θ′ sin |θ − θ′ | dθ′ dθ are nonnegative and add up to 1. Hence (as in the pi-
9π 0 0
Z πZ θ geonhole principle) one of these differences is no more
64 than 1/(n + 1); if it is anything other than 1 − tn , it
= 2 sin3 θ sin3 θ′ sin(θ − θ′ ) dθ′ dθ.
9π 0 0 equals ±({si } − {sj }) for some 0 ≤ i < j ≤ n. Put
S = {xi+1 , . . . , xj } and m = ⌊si ⌋ − ⌊sj ⌋; then
This integral is unpleasant but straightforward; it yields
R1
X = 35/(36π), and E([P QR]) = 0 6c7 X dc =

X
m + s = |m + sj − si |

35/(48π), giving the desired result.
s∈S
Remark: This is one of the oldest problems in geo-
metric probability; it is an instance of Sylvester’s four- = |{sj } − {si }|
point problem, which nowadays is usually solved us- 1
≤ ,
ing a device known as Crofton’s formula. We defer to n+1
http://mathworld.wolfram.com/ for further
discussion. as desired. In case 1 − tn ≤ 1/(n + 1), we take S =
{x1 , . . . , xn } and m = −⌈sn ⌉, and again obtain the
B1 The “curve” x3 +3xy+y 3 −1 = 0 is actually reducible, desired conclusion.
because the left side factors as
B3 The maximum is n2 + 1, achieved for instance by a

(x + y − 1)(x2 − xy + y 2 + x + y + 1). convex n-gon: besides the trivial partition (in which all
of the points are in one part), each linear partition oc-
Moreover, the second factor is curs by drawing a line crossing a unique pair of edges.
First solution: We will prove that LS = n2 + 1 in any

1
((x + 1)2 + (y + 1)2 + (x − y)2 ), configuration in which no two of the lines joining points
2
of S are parallel. This suffices to imply the maximum
so it only vanishes at (−1, −1). Thus the curve in ques- in all configurations: given a maximal configuration,
tion consists of the single point (−1, −1) together with we may vary the points slightly to get another maximal
the line x + y = 1. To form a triangle with three points configuration in which our hypothesis is satisfied. For
on this curve, one of its vertices must be (−1, −1). The convenience, we assume n ≥ 3, as the cases n = 1, 2
other two vertices lie on the line x + y = 1, so the are easy.
5
Let P be the line at infinity in the real projective plane; the segment O′ P . If we consider the dual affine plane
i.e., P is the set of possible directions of lines in the as being divided into regions by the lines of S ′ , then the
plane, viewed as a circle. Remove the directions corre- lines of S ′ crossing the segment O′ P are determined by
sponding to lines through two points of S; this leaves which region P lies in.
behind n2 intervals. Thus our original maximum is equal to the maximum
Given a direction in one of the intervals, consider the number of regions into which n−1 lines divide an affine
set of linear partitions achieved by lines parallel to that plane. Byinduction on n, this number is easily seen to
direction. Note that the resulting collection of partitions be 1 + n2 .
depends only on the interval. Then note that the collec- Remark: Given a finite set S of points in Rn , a non-
tions associated to adjacent intervals differ in only one Radon partition of S is a pair (A, B) of complementary
element. subsets that can be separated by a hyperplane. Radon’s
The trivial partition that puts all of S on one side is theorem states that if #S ≥ n+2, then not every (A, B)
in every such collection. We now observe that for any is a non-Radon partition. The result of this problem has
other linear partition {A, B}, the set of intervals to been greatly extended, especially within the context of
which {A, B} is: matroid theory and oriented matroid theory. Richard
Stanley suggests the following references: T. H. Bry-
(a) a consecutive block of intervals, but lawski, A combinatorial perspective on the Radon con-
(b) not all of them. vexity theorem, Geom. Ded. 5 (1976), 459-466; and T.
Zaslavsky, Extremal arrangements of hyperplanes, Ann.
For (a), note that if ℓ1 , ℓ2 are nonparallel lines achieving N. Y. Acad. Sci. 440 (1985), 69-87.
the same partition, then we can rotate around their point
of intersection to achieve all of the intermediate direc- B4 The maximum is 2k , achieved for instance by the sub-
tions on one side or the other. For (b), the case n = 3 space
is evident; to reduce the general case to this case, take
points P, Q, R such that P lies on the opposite side of {(x1 , . . . , xn ) ∈ Rn : x1 = · · · = xn−k = 0}.
the partition from Q and R.
First solution: More generally, we show that any affine
It follows now that that each linear partition, except for
k-dimensional plane in Rn can contain at most 2k
the trivial one, occurs in exactly one place as the parti-
points in Z. The proof is by induction on k + n; the
tion associated to some interval but not to its immediate
case k = n = 0 is clearly true.
counterclockwise neighbor. In other words, the num-
ber of linear partitions is one more than the number of Suppose that V is a k-plane in Rn . Denote the hyper-
intervals, or n2 + 1 as desired. planes {xn = 0} and {xn = 1} by V0 and V1 , respec-

tively. If V ∩ V0 and V ∩ V1 are each at most (k − 1)-
Second solution: We prove the upper bound by induc-
dimensional, then V ∩ V0 ∩ Z and V ∩ V1 ∩ Z each have
tion on n. Choose a point P in the convex hull of S. cardinality at most 2k−1 by the induction assumption,
Put S ′ = S \ {P }; by the induction hypothesis, there
and hence V ∩ Z has at most 2k elements. Otherwise,
are at most n−12 + 1 linear partitions of S ′ . Note that if V ∩ V0 or V ∩ V1 is k-dimensional, then V ⊂ V0
each linear partition of S restricts to a linear partition
or V ⊂ V1 ; now apply the induction hypothesis on V ,
of S ′ . Moreover, if two linear partitions of S restrict to viewed as a subset of Rn−1 by dropping the last coor-
the same linear partition of S ′ , then that partition of S ′
dinate.
is achieved by a line through P .
Second solution: Let S be a subset of Z contained in
By rotating a line through P , we see that there are at a k-dimensional subspace of V . This is equivalent to
most n − 1 partitions of S ′ achieved by lines through asking that any t1 , . . . , tk+1 ∈ S satisfy a nontrivial
P : namely, the partition only changes when the rotating linear dependence c1 t1 + · · · + ck+1 tk+1 = 0 with
line passes through one of the points of S. This yields c1 , . . . , ck+1 ∈ R. Since t1 , . . . , tk+1 ∈ Qn , given
the desired result. such a dependence we can always find another one with
Third solution: (by Noam Elkies) We enlarge the plane c1 , . . . , ck+1 ∈ Q; then by clearing denominators, we
to a projective plane by adding a line at infinity, then can find one with c1 , . . . , ck+1 ∈ Z and not all having a
apply the polar duality map centered at one of the points common factor.
O ∈ S. This turns the rest of S into a set S ′ of n − 1 Let F2 denote the field of two elements, and let S ⊆ Fn2
lines in the dual projective plane. Let O′ be the point be the reductions modulo 2 of the points of S. Then any
in the dual plane corresponding to the original line at t1 , . . . , tk+1 ∈ S satisfy a nontrivial linear dependence,
infinity; it does not lie on any of the lines in S ′ . because we can take the dependence from the end of
Let ℓ be a line in the original plane, corresponding to a the previous paragraph and reduce modulo 2. Hence S
point P in the dual plane. If we form the linear partition is contained in a k-dimensional subspace of F2n , and
induced by ℓ, then the points of S \ {O} lying in the the latter has cardinality exactly 2k . Thus S has at most
same part as O correspond to the lines of S ′ which cross 2k elements, as does S.
6
Variant (suggested by David Savitt): if S contained k + In general, if xn is a sequence with limn→∞ xn = c,

1 linearly independent elements, the (k + 1) × n matrix then also
formed by these would have a nonvanishing maximal n
minor. The lift of that minor back to R would also not 1X
lim xi = c
vanish, so S would contain k + 1 linearly independent n→∞ n
i=1
elements.
Third solution: (by Catalin Zara) Let V be a k- by Cesaro’s lemma. Explicitly, for any ǫ > 0, we can
dimensional subspace. Form the matrix whose rows are find N such that |xn − c| ≤ ǫ/2 for n ≥ N , and then
the elements of V ∩ Z; by construction, it has row rank
n N
at most k. It thus also has column rank at most k; in 1 X n − N ǫ N X
c − xi ≤ + (c − xi ) ;

particular, we can choose k coordinates such that each n n 2 n
point of V ∩ Z is determined by those k of its coordi- i=1 i=1
nates. Since each coordinate of a point in Z can only for n large, the right side is smaller than ǫ.
take two values, V ∩ Z can have at most 2k elements.
In our case, we deduce that
Remark: The proposers probably did not
realize that this problem appeared online (k+1)/k
an k+1
about three months before the exam, at lim =
http://www.artofproblemsolving.com/ n→∞ n k
Forum/viewtopic.php?t=105991. (It may and so
very well have also appeared even earlier.)
k
ak+1

n k+1
B5 The answer is 1/16. We have lim = ,
n→∞ nk k
Z 1 Z 1
2
x f (x) dx − xf (x)2 dx as desired.
0 0
Z 1 Remark: The use of Cesaro’s lemma above is the spe-
= (x3 /4 − x(f (x) − x/2)2 ) dx cial case bn = n of the Cesaro-Stolz theorem: if an , bn
0 are sequences such that bn is positive, strictly increas-
Z 1
≤ x3 /4 dx = 1/16, ing, and unbounded, and
0
an+1 − an
with equality when f (x) = x/2. lim = L,
n→∞ bn+1 − bn
B6 First solution: We start with some easy upper and then
lower bounds on an . We write O(f (n)) and Ω(f (n))
for functions g(n) such that f (n)/g(n) and g(n)/f (n), an
lim = L.
respectively, are bounded above. Since an is a non- n→∞ bn
decreasing sequence, an+1 − an is bounded above, so
−1/k Second solution: In this solution, rather than applying
an = O(n). That means an = Ω(n−1/k ), so
Taylor’s theorem with remainder to (1 + x)m for 1 <
n
!
X m < 2 and x > 0, we only apply convexity to deduce
an = Ω i−1/k = Ω(n(k−1)/k ). that (1 + x)m ≥ 1 + mx. This gives
i=1
In fact, all we will need is that an → ∞ as n → ∞. (k+1)/k k+1

an+1 − an(k+1)/k ≥ ,
k
By Taylor’s theorem with remainder, for 1 < m < 2
and x > 0, and so
m(m − 1) 2 k+1
|(1 + x)m − 1 − mx| ≤ x . an(k+1)/k ≥ n+c
2 k
Taking m = (k + 1)/k and x = an+1 /an = 1 + for some c ∈ R. In particular,
−(k+1)/k
an , we obtain
(k+1)/k
an k+1
(k+1)/k
a (k+1)/k k + 1 k + 1 −(k+1)/k lim inf ≥
− a n − ≤ a . n→∞ n k
n+1 k 2k 2 n
and so
In particular,
k/(k+1)
(k+1)/k k+1 an k+1
lim a − an(k+1)/k = . lim inf ≥ .
n→∞ n+1 k n→∞ nk/(k+1) k
7
But turning this around, the fact that Note that both bounds have sign opposite to bn ; more-
over, by the bound an = Ω(n(k−1)/k ), both bounds
an+1 − an have absolutely value strictly less than that of bn for n
= a−1/k sufficiently large. Consequently, for n large,
n
−1/(k+1)
k+1 |e1 | ≤ |bn |.
≤ n−1/(k+1) (1 + o(1)),
k We now work on e2 . By Taylor’s theorem with remain-
der applied to (1 + x)m for x > 0 and 0 < m < 1,
where o(1) denotes a function tending to 0 as n → ∞,
yields 1 + mx ≥ (1 + x)m
m(m − 1) 2
an ≥ 1 + mx + x .
2
−1/(k+1) Xn
k+1
≤ i−1/(k+1) (1 + o(1)) The “main term” of L((n + 1)k/(k+1) − nk/(k+1) )
k k
i=1 is L k+1 n−1/(k+1) . To make this coincide with
−1/(k+1) −1/k −1/(k+1)
k+1 k+1 L n , we take
= nk/(k+1) (1 + o(1))
k k k/(k+1)
k/(k+1) k+1
k+1 L= .
= nk/(k+1) (1 + o(1)), k
k
so We then find that
an

k+1
k/(k+1) |e2 | = O(n−2 ),
lim sup ≤
n→∞ nk/(k+1) k
and because bn+1 = e1 + e2 , we have |bn+1 | ≤ |bn | +
and this completes the proof. |e2 |. Hence
Third solution: We argue that an → ∞ as in the first n
!
solution. Write bn = an − Lnk/(k+1) , for a value of L
X
−2
|bn | = O i = O(1),
to be determined later. We have i=1
bn+1 and so
k/(k+1) k/(k+1)
= bn + a−1/k
n − L((n + 1) −n ) ak+1

k+1
k
n
= e1 + e2 , lim = Lk+1 = .
n→∞ nk k
where
Remark: The case k = 2 appeared on the 2004 Roma-
e1 = bn + a−1/k
n − L−1/k n−1/(k+1) nian Olympiad (district level).
e2 = L((n + 1)k/(k+1) − nk/(k+1) ) Remark: One can make a similar argument for any se-
quence given by an+1 = an + f (an ), when f is a de-
− L−1/k n−1/(k+1) . creasing function.
We first estimate e1 . For −1 < m < 0, by the convexity Remark: Richard Stanley suggests a heuristic for de-
of (1 + x)m and (1 + x)1−m , we have termining the asymptotic behavior of sequences of this
type: replace the given recursion
1 + mx ≤ (1 + x)m
≤ 1 + mx(1 + x)m−1 . an+1 − an = a−1/k
n
Hence by the differential equation
1 y ′ = y −1/k
− L−(k+1)/k n−1 bn ≤ e1 − bn
k
1 and determine the asymptotics of the latter.
≤ − bn an−(k+1)/k .
k
A1 Find all values of α for which the curves y = αx2 + f (f (n) + 1) if and only if n = 1. [Editor’s note: one
1 1
αx + 24 and x = αy 2 + αy + 24 are tangent to each must assume f is nonconstant.]
other.
B2 Suppose that f : [0, 1] → R has a continuous derivative
A2 Find the least possible area of a convex set in the plane R1
and that 0 f (x) dx = 0. Prove that for every α ∈
that intersects both branches of the hyperbola xy = 1 (0, 1),
and both branches of the hyperbola xy = −1. (A set S
Z α
in the plane is called convex if for any two points in S

1
max |f ′ (x)|.

the line segment connecting them is contained in S.)
f (x) dx ≤

0 8 0≤x≤1
A3 Let k be a positive integer. Suppose that the integers √
1, 2, 3, . . . , 3k + 1 are written down in random order. B3 Let x0 = 1 and for n ≥ 0, let xn+1 = 3xn + ⌊xn 5⌋.
What is the probability that at no time during this pro- In particular, x1 = 5, x2 = 26, x3 = 136, x4 = 712.
cess, the sum of the integers that have been written up Find a closed-form expression for x2007 . (⌊a⌋ means
to that time is a positive integer divisible by 3? Your the largest integer ≤ a.)
answer should be in closed form, but may include fac- B4 Let n be a positive integer. Find the number of pairs
torials. P, Q of polynomials with real coefficients such that
A4 A repunit is a positive integer whose digits in base 10 (P (X))2 + (Q(X))2 = X 2n + 1
are all ones. Find all polynomials f with real coeffi-
cients such that if n is a repunit, then so is f (n). and deg P > deg Q.
A5 Suppose that a finite group has exactly n elements of B5 Let k be a positive integer. Prove that there exist poly-
order p, where p is a prime. Prove that either n = 0 or nomials P0 (n), P1 (n), . . . , Pk−1 (n) (which may de-
p divides n + 1. pend on k) such that for any integer n,
A6 A triangulation T of a polygon P is a finite collection j n kk jnk j n kk−1
of triangles whose union is P , and such that the inter- = P0 (n) + P1 (n) + · · · + Pk−1 (n) .
section of any two triangles is either empty, or a shared k k k
vertex, or a shared side. Moreover, each side is a side (⌊a⌋ means the largest integer ≤ a.)
of exactly one triangle in T . Say that T is admissible
if every internal vertex is shared by 6 or more triangles. B6 For each positive integer n, let f (n) be the number of
For example, [figure omitted.] Prove that there is an ways to make n! cents using an unordered collection of
integer Mn , depending only on n, such that any admis- coins, each worth k! cents for some k, 1 ≤ k ≤ n.
sible triangulation of a polygon P with n sides has at Prove that for some constant C, independent of n,
most Mn triangles.
2
/2−Cn −n2 /4 2
/2+Cn −n2 /4
nn e ≤ f (n) ≤ nn e .
B1 Let f be a polynomial with positive integer coefficients.
Prove that if n is a positive integer, then f (n) divides
√
A1 The only such α are 2/3, 3/2, (13 ± 601)/12. Second solution: For any nonzero value of α, the two
First solution: Let C1 and C2 be the curves y = αx2 + conics will intersect in four points in the complex pro-
αx + 241 1
and x = αy 2 + αy + 24 , respectively, and let jective plane P2 (C). To determine the y-coordinates of
L be the line y = x. We consider three cases. these intersection points, subtract the two equations to
obtain
If C1 is tangent to L, then the point of tangency (x, x)
satisfies (y − x) = α(x − y)(x + y) + α(x − y).
1 Therefore, at a point of intersection we have either
2αx + α = 1, x = αx2 + αx + ;
24 x = y, or x = −1/α − (y + 1). Substituting these
two possible linear conditions into the second equation
by symmetry, C2 is tangent to L there, so C1 and C2 are shows that the y-coordinate of a point of intersection is
tangent. Writing α = 1/(2x + 1) in the first equation a root of either Q1 (y) = αy 2 + (α − 1)y + 1/24 or
and substituting into the second, we must have Q2 (y) = αy 2 + (α + 1)y + 25/24 + 1/α.
x2 + x 1 If two curves are tangent, then the y-coordinates of at
x= + , least two of the intersection points will coincide; the
2x + 1 24
converse is also true because one of the curves is the
which simplifies to 0 = 24x2 − 2x− 1 = (6x+ 1)(4x− graph of a function in x. The coincidence occurs pre-
1), or x ∈ {1/4, −1/6}. This yields α = 1/(2x + 1) ∈ cisely when either the discriminant of at least one of
{2/3, 3/2}. Q1 or Q2 is zero, or there is a common root of Q1 and
Q2 . Computing the discriminants of Q1 and Q2 yields
If C1 does not intersect L, then C1 and C2 are separated
(up to constant factors) f1 (α) = 6α2 − 13α + 6 and
by L and so cannot be tangent.
f2 (α) = 6α2 − 13α − 18, respectively. If on the other
If C1 intersects L in two distinct points P1 , P2 , then it hand Q1 and Q2 have a common root, it must be also
is not tangent to L at either point. Suppose at one of a root of Q2 (y) − Q1 (y) = 2y + 1 + 1/α, yielding
these points, say P1 , the tangent to C1 is perpendicular y = −(1 + α)/(2α) and 0 = Q1 (y) = −f2 (α)/(24α).
to L; then by symmetry, the same will be true of C2 , so Thus the values of α for which the two curves are tan-
C1 and C2 will be tangent at P1 . In this case, the point gent must be contained in the√set of zeros of f1 and f2 ,
P1 = (x, x) satisfies namely 2/3, 3/2, and (13 ± 601)/12.
1 Remark: The fact that the two conics in P2 (C) meet in
2αx + α = −1, x = αx2 + αx + ; four points, counted with multiplicities, is a special case
24
of Bézout’s theorem: two curves in P2 (C) of degrees
writing α = −1/(2x + 1) in the first equation and sub- m, n and not sharing any common component meet in
stituting into the second, we have exactly mn points when counted with multiplicity.
Many solvers were surprised that the proposers chose
x2 + x 1
x=− + , the parameter 1/24 to give two rational roots and two
2x + 1 24 nonrational roots. In fact, they had no choice in the
√ matter: attempting to make all four roots rational by
or x = (−23√± 601)/72. This yields α = −1/(2x +
replacing 1/24 by β amounts to asking for β 2 + β and
1) = (13 ± 601)/12. β 2 + β + 1 to be perfect squares. This cannot happen
If instead the tangents to C1 at P1 , P2 are not perpen- outside of trivial cases (β = 0, −1) ultimately because
dicular to L, then we claim there cannot be any point the elliptic curve 24A1 (in Cremona’s notation) over Q
where C1 and C2 are tangent. Indeed, if we count inter- has rank 0. (Thanks to Noam Elkies for providing this
sections of C1 and C2 (by using C1 to substitute for y computation.)
in C2 , then solving for y), we get at most four solutions However, there are choices that make the radical milder,
counting multiplicity. Two of these are P1 and P2 , and e.g., β = 1/3 gives β 2 + β = 4/9 and β 2 + β + 1 =
any point of tangency counts for two more. However, 13/9, while β = 3/5 gives β 2 + β = 24/25 and β 2 +
off of L, any point of tangency would have a mirror im- β + 1 = 49/25.
age which is also a point of tangency, and there cannot
be six solutions. Hence we have now found all possible A2 The minimum is 4, achieved by the square with vertices
α. (±1, ±1).
2
First solution: To prove that 4 is a lower bound, mod 3 than to −1, the sequence mod 3 must look like
let S be a convex set of the desired form. Choose 1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . ..
A, B, C, D ∈ S lying on the branches of the two hyper- It follows that the ordering satisfies the given condition
bolas, with A in the upper right quadrant, B in the upper if and only if the following two conditions hold: the
left, C in the lower left, D in the lower right. Then the first element in the ordering is not divisible by 3, and
area of the quadrilateral ABCD is a lower bound for the sequence mod 3 (ignoring zeroes) is of the form
the area of S. 1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . .. The two conditions are indepen-
Write A = (a, 1/a), B = (b, −1/b), C = (−c, −1/c), dent, and the probability of the first is (2k +1)/(3k
+1)
D = (−d, 1/d) with a, b, c, d > 0. Then the area of the while the probability of the second is 1/ 2k+1 k , since
quadrilateral ABCD is 2k+1

there are k ways to order (k + 1) 1’s and k −1’s.
1 Hence the desired probability is the product of these
(a/b + b/c + c/d + d/a + b/a + c/b + d/c + a/d), k!(k+1)!
2 two, or (3k+1)(2k)! .
which by the arithmetic-geometric mean inequality is at A4 Note that n is a repunit if and only if 9n + 1 = 10m for
least 4. some power of 10 greater than 1. Consequently, if we
put
Second solution: Choose A, B, C, D as in the first so-
lution. Note that both the hyperbolas and the area of
n−1
the convex hull of ABCD are invariant under the trans- g(n) = 9f + 1,
formation (x, y) 7→ (xm, y/m) for any m > 0. For 9
m small, the counterclockwise angle from the line AC
then f takes repunits to repunits if and only if g takes
to the line BD approaches 0; for m large, this angle
powers of 10 greater than 1 to powers of 10 greater than
approaches π. By continuity, for some m this angle be-
1. We will show that the only such functions g are those
comes π/2, that is, AC and BD become perpendicular.
of the form g(n) = 10cnd for d ≥ 0, c ≥ 1 − d (all of
The area of ABCD is then AC · BD.
√ which clearly work), which will mean that the desired
It thus suffices to note that AC ≥ 2 2 (and similarly polynomials f are those of the form
for BD). This holds because if we draw the tangent
lines to the hyperbola xy = 1 at the points (1, 1) and 1
f (n) = (10c (9n + 1)d − 1)
(−1, −1), then A and C lie outside the region between 9
these lines. If we project the segment AC orthogonally
onto the line x √ = y = 1, the resulting projection has for the same c, d.
length at least 2 2, so AC must as well. It is convenient to allow “powers of 10” to be of the
Third solution: (by Richard Stanley) Choose form 10k for any integer k. With this convention, it
A, B, C, D as in the first solution. Now fixing A and suffices to check that the polynomials g taking powers
C, move B and D to the points at which the tangents of 10 greater than 1 to powers of 10 are of the form
to the curve are parallel to the line AC. This does not 10c nd for any integers c, d with d ≥ 0.
increase the area of the quadrilateral ABCD (even if First solution: Suppose that the leading term of g(x)
this quadrilateral is not convex). is axd , and note that a > 0. As x → ∞, we have
Note that B and D are now diametrically opposite; g(x)/xd → a; however, for x a power of 10 greater
write B = (−x, 1/x) and D = (x, −1/x). If we thus than 1, g(x)/xd is a power of 10. The set of powers of
repeat the procedure, fixing B and D and moving A and 10 has no positive limit point, so g(x)/xd must be equal
C to the points where the tangents are parallel to BD, to a for x = 10k with k sufficiently large, and we must
then A and C must move to (x, 1/x) and (−x, −1/x), have a = 10c for some c. The polynomial g(x) − 10c xd
respectively, forming a rectangle of area 4. has infinitely many roots, so must be identically zero.
Remark: Many geometric solutions are possible. An Second solution: We proceed by induction on d =
example suggested by David Savitt (due to Chris deg(g). If d = 0, we have g(n) = 10c for some c.
Brewer): note that AD and BC cross the positive and Otherwise, g has rational coefficients by Lagrange’s in-
negative x-axes, respectively, so the convex hull of terpolation formula (this applies to any polynomial of
ABCD contains O. Then check that the area of tri- degree d taking at least d + 1 different rational numbers
angle OAB is at least 1, et cetera. to rational numbers), so g(0) = t is rational. More-
over, g takes each value only finitely many times, so the
A3 Assume that we have an ordering of 1, 2, . . . , 3k + sequence g(100 ), g(101 ), . . . includes arbitrarily large
1 such that no initial subsequence sums to 0 mod powers of 10. Suppose that t 6= 0; then we can choose
3. If we omit the multiples of 3 from this order- a positive integer h such that the numerator of t is not
ing, then the remaining sequence mod 3 must look divisible by 10h . But for c large enough, g(10c) − t has
like 1, 1, −1, 1, −1, . . . or −1, −1, 1, −1, 1, . . .. Since numerator divisible by 10b for some b > h, contradic-
there is one more integer in the ordering congruent to 1 tion.
3
Consequently, t = 0, and we may apply the induction We first claim that a1 + · · · + an ≤ 4n − 6. Let V, E, F
hypothesis to g(n)/n to deduce the claim. denote the number of vertices, edges, and faces in T .
Remark: The second solution amounts to the fact that By Euler’s Formula, (F +1)−E+V = 2 (one must add
g, being a polynomial with rational coefficients, is con- 1 to the face count for the region exterior to P ). Each
tinuous for the 2-adic and 5-adic topologies on Q. By face has three edges, and each edge but the n outside
contrast, the first solution uses the “∞-adic” topology, edges belongs to two faces; hence F = 2E − n. On the
i.e., the usual real topology. other hand, each edge has two endpoints, and each of
the V − n internal vertices is an endpoint of at least 6
A5 In all solutions, let G be a finite group of order m. edges; hence a1 +· · ·+an +6(V −n) ≤ 2E. Combining
this inequality with the previous two equations gives
First solution: By Lagrange’s theorem, if m is not
divisible by p, then n = 0. Otherwise, let S be
the set of p-tuples (a0 , . . . , ap−1 ) ∈ Gp such that a1 + · · · + an ≤ 2E + 6n − 6(1 − F + E)
a0 · · · ap−1 = e; then S has cardinality mp−1 , which = 4n − 6,
is divisible by p. Note that this set is invariant under
cyclic permutation, that is, if (a0 , . . . , ap−1 ) ∈ S, then
as claimed.
(a1 , . . . , ap−1 , a0 ) ∈ S also. The fixed points under
this operation are the tuples (a, . . . , a) with ap = e; all Now set A3 = 1 and An = An−1 + 2n − 3 for n ≥ 4;
other tuples can be grouped into orbits under cyclic per- we will prove by induction on n that T has at most An
mutation, each of which has size p. Consequently, the triangles. For n = 3, since a1 + a2 + a3 = 6, a1 =
number of a ∈ G with ap = e is divisible by p; since a2 = a3 = 2 and hence T consists of just one triangle.
that number is n + 1 (only e has order 1), this proves
the claim. Next assume that an admissible triangulation of an
Second solution: (by Anand Deopurkar) Assume that (n − 1)-gon has at most An−1 triangles, and let T
n > 0, and let H be any subgroup of G of order p. Let be an admissible triangulation of an n-gon. If any
S be the set of all elements of G\H of order dividing p, ai = 2, then we can remove the triangle of T contain-
and let H act on G by conjugation. Each orbit has size ing vertex vi to obtain an admissible triangulation of an
p except for those which consist of individual elements (n−1)-gon; then the number of triangles in T is at most
g which commute with H. For each such g, g and H An−1 + 1 < An by induction. Otherwise, all ai ≥ 3.
generate an elementary abelian subgroup of G of order Now the average of a1 , . . . , an is less than 4, and thus
p2 . However, we can group these g into sets of size there are more ai = 3 than ai ≥ 5. It follows that
p2 − p based on which subgroup they generate together there is a sequence of k consecutive vertices in P whose
with H. Hence the cardinality of S is divisible by p; degrees are 3, 4, 4, . . . , 4, 3 in order, for some k with
adding the p− 1 nontrivial elements of H gives n ≡ −1 2 ≤ k ≤ n − 1 (possibly k = 2, in which case there are
(mod p) as desired. no degree 4 vertices separating the degree 3 vertices). If
we remove from T the 2k − 1 triangles which contain at
Third solution: Let S be the set of elements in G hav-
least one of these vertices, then we are left with an ad-
ing order dividing p, and let H be an elementary abelian
missible triangulation of an (n − 1)-gon. It follows that
p-group of maximal order in G. If |H| = 1, then we
there are at most An−1 +2k−1 ≤ An−1 +2n−3 = An
are done. So assume |H| = pk for some k ≥ 1, and
triangles in T . This completes the induction step and
let H act on S by conjugation. Let T ⊂ S denote
the proof.
the set of fixed points of this action. Then the size
of every H-orbit on S divides pk , and so |S| ≡ |T | Remark: We can refine the bound An somewhat. Sup-
(mod p). On the other hand, H ⊂ T , and if T con- posing that ai ≥ 3 for all i, the fact that a1 + · · · + an ≤
tained an element not in H, then that would contradict 4n − 6 implies that there are at least six more indices
the maximality of H. It follows that H = T , and so i with ai = 3 than with ai ≥ 5. Thus there exist six
|S| ≡ |T | = |H| = pk ≡ 0 (mod p), i.e., |S| = n + 1 sequences with degrees 3, 4, . . . , 4, 3, of total length at
is a multiple of p. most n + 6. We may thus choose a sequence of length
Remark: This result is a theorem of Cauchy; the first k ≤ ⌊ n6 ⌋ + 1, so we may improve the upper bound to
solution above is due to McKay. A more general (and An = An−1 + 2⌊ n6 ⌋ + 1, or asymptotically 61 n2 .
more difficult) result was proved by Frobenius: for any
positive integer m, if G is a finite group of order divis- However (as noted by Noam Elkies), a hexagonal
ible by m, then the number of elements of G of order swatch of a triangular lattice, with the boundary as close
dividing m is a multiple of m. to regular as possible, achieves asymptotically 16 n2 tri-
angles.
A6 For an admissible triangulation T , number the vertices
of P consecutively v1 , . . . , vn , and let ai be the number
of edges in T emanating from vi ; note that ai ≥ 2 for B1 The problem fails if f is allowed to be constant, e.g.,
all i. take f (n) = 1. We thus assume that f is nonconstant.
4
Pd √ √
Write f (n) = i=0 ai ni with ai > 0. Then Since 0 < 3 − 5 < 1, this yields ⌊xn+1 5⌋ =
3xn+1 −4xn , so we can rewrite the recursion as xn+1 =
d
X 6xn − 4xn−1 for n ≥ 2. It is routine to solve this recur-
f (f (n) + 1) = ai (f (n) + 1)i
sion to obtain the same solution as above.
i=0
≡ f (1) (mod f (n)). Remark: With an initial 1 prepended, this
becomes sequence A018903 in Sloane’s On-
If n = 1, then this implies that f (f (n) + 1) is divisible Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences:
by f (n). Otherwise, 0 < f (1) < f (n) since f is non- (http://www.research.att.com/ñjas/
constant and has positive coefficients, so f (f (n) + 1) sequences/). Therein, the sequence is described
cannot be divisible by f (n). as the case S(1, 5) of the sequence S(a0 , a1 )
Rx in which an+2 is the least integer for which
B2 Put B = max0≤x≤1 |f ′ (x)| and g(x) = 0 f (y) dy.
an+2 /an+1 > an+1 /an . Sloane cites D. W. Boyd,
Since g(0) = g(1) = 0, the maximum value of |g(x)|
Linear recurrence relations for some generalized Pisot
must occur at a critical point y ∈ (0, 1) satisfying
sequences, Advances in Number Theory (Kingston,
g ′ (y) = f (y) = 0. We may thus take α = y hereafter.
Rα R 1−α ON, 1991), Oxford Univ. Press, New York, 1993, p.
Since 0 f (x) dx = − 0 f (1 − x) dx, we may as- 333–340.
sume that α ≤ 1/2. By then substituting R α −f (x) for
f (x) if needed, we may assume that 0 f (x) dx ≥ 0. B4 The number of pairs is 2n+1 . The degree condition
From the inequality f ′ (x) ≥ −B, we deduce f (x) ≤ forces P to have degree n and leading coefficient ±1;
B(α − x) for 0 ≤ x ≤ α, so we may count pairs in which P has leading coefficient
Z α Z α 1 as long as we multiply by 2 afterward.
f (x) dx ≤ B(α − x) dx Factor both sides:
0 0
α
1 2
(P (X) + Q(X)i)(P (X) − Q(X)i)
= − B(α − x)
2 0 n−1
Y
α2 1 = (X − exp(2πi(2j + 1)/(4n)))
= B≤ B j=0
2 8
n−1
as desired. Y
· (X + exp(2πi(2j + 1)/(4n))).
B3 First solution: Observing that x2 /2 = 13, x3 /4 = 34, j=0
x4 /8 = 89, we guess that xn = 2n−1 F2n+3 , where
Fk is the k-th Fibonacci number. Thus we claim Then each choice of P, Q corresponds to equating
√ that
xn = 2√5 (α2n+3 − α−(2n+3) ), where α = 1+2 5 , to
n−1
P (X) + Q(X)i with the product of some n factors on
2006 the right, in which we choose exactly of the two factors
2√
make the answer x2007 = 5
(α3997 − α−3997 ). for each j = 0, . . . , n − 1. (We must take exactly n fac-
We prove the claim by induction; the base case x0 = tors because as a polynomial in X with complex coeffi-
1 is true, and so it √
suffices to show that the recursion cients, P (X) + Q(X)i has degree exactly n. We must
xn+1 = 3xn + ⌊xn 5⌋ is √satisfied for our formula for choose one for each j to ensure that P (X)+Q(X)i and
P (X) − Q(X)i are complex conjugates, so that P, Q
xn . Indeed, since α2 = 3+2 5 , we have
have real coefficients.) Thus there are 2n such pairs;
√ 2n−1 multiplying by 2 to allow P to have leading coefficient
xn+1 − (3 + 5)xn = √ (2(α2n+5 − α−(2n+5) ) −1 yields the desired result.
5
√ Remark: If we allow P and Q to have complex co-
− (3 + 5)(α2n+3 − α−(2n+3) ))
efficients but still require deg(P ) > deg(Q), then the
= 2n α−(2n+3) . number of pairs increases to 2 2n n , as we may choose
√ √ any n of the 2n factors of X 2n + 1 to use to form
Now 2n α−(2n+3) = ( 1−2 5 )3 (3 − 5)n is between −1 P (X) + Q(X)i.
and 0; the recursion follows since xn , xn+1 are integers.
B5 For n an integer, we have nk = n−j

Second solution:√(by Catalin√ Zara) Since xn is rational, k for j the unique
we have 0 < xn 5 − ⌊xn 5⌋ < 1. We now have the integer in {0, . . . , k − 1} congruent to n modulo k;
inequalities hence
√
xn+1 − 3xn < xn 5 < xn+1 − 3xn + 1 k−1
Y j nk n − j

√ √ − = 0.
(3 + 5)xn − 1 < xn+1 < (3 + 5)xn k k
√ √ j=0
4xn − (3 − 5) < (3 − 5)xn+1 < 4xn
√ √ By expanding this out, we obtain the desired polynomi-
3xn+1 − 4xn < xn+1 5 < 3xn+1 − 4xn + (3 − 5). als P0 (n), . . . , Pk−1 (n).
5
Remark: Variants of this solution are possible that con- For an upper bound on f (n), we use the inequalities
struct the Pi less explicitly, using Lagrange interpola- 0 ≤ ai ≤ n!/i! to deduce that there are at most n!/i! +
tion or Vandermonde determinants. 1 ≤ 2(n!/i!) choices for ai . Hence
B6 (Suggested by Oleg Golberg) Assume n ≥ 2, or else n! n!
the problem is trivially false. Throughout this proof, f (n) ≤ 2n ···
1! n!
any Ci will be a positive constant whose exact value is
= 2n 21 32 · · · nn−1
immaterial. As in the proof of Stirling’s approximation, 2
/2+C3 n −n2 /4
we estimate for any fixed c ∈ R, ≤ nn e .
n
X 1 2 1 For a lower bound on f (n), we note that if 0 ≤ ai <
(i + c) log i = n log n − n2 + O(n log n)
2 4 (n − 1)!/i! for i = 2, . . . , n − 1 and an = 0, then 0 ≤
i=1
a2 2!+· · ·+an n! ≤ n!, so there is a unique choice of a1
by comparing the sum to an integral. This gives to complete this to a solution of a1 1! + · · · + an n! = n!.
Hence
2
/2−C1 n −n2 /4
nn e ≤ 11+c 22+c · · · nn+c
(n − 1)! (n − 1)!
2
/2+C2 n −n2 /4 f (n) ≥ ···
≤ nn e . 2! (n − 1)!
We now interpret f (n) as counting the number of n- = 31 42 · · · (n − 1)n−3
2
/2+C4 n −n2 /4
tuples (a1 , . . . , an ) of nonnegative integers such that ≥ nn e .
a1 1! + · · · + an n! = n!.
A1 Let f : R2 → R be a function such that f (x, y) + (The elements of G in the sequence are not required to
f (y, z) + f (z, x) = 0 for all real numbers x, y, and z. be distinct. A subsequence of a sequence is obtained
Prove that there exists a function g : R → R such that by selecting some of the terms, not necessarily consec-
f (x, y) = g(x) − g(y) for all real numbers x and y. utive, without reordering them; for example, 4, 4, 2 is a
subsequence of 2, 4, 6, 4, 2, but 2, 2, 4 is not.)
A2 Alan and Barbara play a game in which they take turns
filling entries of an initially empty 2008 × 2008 array. B1 What is the maximum number of rational points that can
Alan plays first. At each turn, a player chooses a real lie on a circle in R2 whose center is not a rational point?
number and places it in a vacant entry. The game ends (A rational point is a point both of whose coordinates
when all the entries are filled. Alan wins if the determi- are rational numbers.)
nant of the resulting matrix is nonzero; Barbara wins if
it is zero. Which player has a winning strategy? B2 RLet F0 (x) = ln x. For n ≥ 0 and x > 0, let Fn+1 (x) =
x
0
Fn (t) dt. Evaluate
A3 Start with a finite sequence a1 , a2 , . . . , an of positive
integers. If possible, choose two indices j < k such
n!Fn (1)
that aj does not divide ak , and replace aj and ak by lim .
gcd(aj , ak ) and lcm(aj , ak ), respectively. Prove that if n→∞ ln n
this process is repeated, it must eventually stop and the B3 What is the largest possible radius of a circle contained
final sequence does not depend on the choices made. in a 4-dimensional hypercube of side length 1?
(Note: gcd means greatest common divisor and lcm
means least common multiple.) B4 Let p be a prime number. Let h(x) be a
polynomial with integer coefficients such that
A4 Define f : R → R by h(0), h(1), . . . , h(p2 − 1) are distinct modulo p2 .
( Show that h(0), h(1), . . . , h(p3 − 1) are distinct
x if x ≤ e modulo p3 .
f (x) =
xf (ln x) if x > e.
B5 Find all continuously differentiable functions f : R →
P∞ 1 R such that for every rational number q, the number
Does converge?
n=1 f (n) f (q) is rational and has the same denominator as q.
(The denominator of a rational number q is the unique
A5 Let n ≥ 3 be an integer. Let f (x) and g(x) be
positive integer b such that q = a/b for some integer a
polynomials with real coefficients such that the points
with gcd(a, b) = 1.) (Note: gcd means greatest com-
(f (1), g(1)), (f (2), g(2)), . . . , (f (n), g(n)) in R2 are
mon divisor.)
the vertices of a regular n-gon in counterclockwise or-
der. Prove that at least one of f (x) and g(x) has degree
B6 Let n and k be positive integers. Say that a permutation
greater than or equal to n − 1.
σ of {1, 2, . . . , n} is k-limited if |σ(i) − i| ≤ k for all
A6 Prove that there exists a constant c > 0 such that in ev- i. Prove that the number of k-limited permutations of
ery nontrivial finite group G there exists a sequence of {1, 2, . . . , n} is odd if and only if n ≡ 0 or 1 (mod
length at most c ln |G| with the property that each el- 2k + 1).
ement of G equals the product of some subsequence.
A1 The function g(x) = f (x, 0) works. Substituting bers a′h+1 , . . . , a′n are divisible by pm while the num-
(x, y, z) = (0, 0, 0) into the given functional equation bers a′1 , . . . , a′h are not. Repeating this argument for
yields f (0, 0) = 0, whence substituting (x, y, z) = each pair (p, m) such that pm divides the initial product
(x, 0, 0) yields f (x, 0) + f (0, x) = 0. Finally, substi- a1 , . . . , an , we can determine the exact prime factoriza-
tuting (x, y, z) = (x, y, 0) yields f (x, y) = −f (y, 0) − tion of each of a′1 , . . . , a′n . This proves that the final
f (0, x) = g(x) − g(y). sequence is unique.
Remark: A similar argument shows that the possible Remark: (by David Savitt and Noam Elkies) Here are
functions g are precisely those of the form f (x, 0) + c two other ways to prove the termination. One is to ob-
for some c. serve that j ajj is strictly increasing at each step, and
Q
A2 Barbara wins using one of the following strategies. bounded above by (a1 · · · an )n . The other is to notice
that a1 is nonincreasing but always positive, so even-
First solution: Pair each entry of the first row with the
tually becomes constant; then a2 is nonincreasing but
entry directly below it in the second row. If Alan ever
always positive, and so on.
writes a number in one of the first two rows, Barbara
writes the same number in the other entry in the pair. If Reinterpretation: For each p, consider the sequence
Alan writes a number anywhere other than the first two consisting of the exponents of p in the prime factoriza-
rows, Barbara does likewise. At the end, the resulting tions of a1 , . . . , an . At each step, we pick two positions
matrix will have two identical rows, so its determinant i and j such that the exponents of some prime p are in
will be zero. the wrong order at positions i and j. We then sort these
Second solution: (by Manjul Bhargava) Whenever two position into the correct order for every prime p si-
Alan writes a number x in an entry in some row, Bar- multaneously.
bara writes −x in some other entry in the same row. At It is clear that this can only terminate with all se-
the end, the resulting matrix will have all rows summing quences being sorted into the correct order. We must
to zero, so it cannot have full rank. still check that the process terminates; however, since
all but finitely many of the exponent sequences consist
A3 We first prove that the process stops. Note first that
of all zeroes, and each step makes a nontrivial switch
the product a1 · · · an remains constant, because aj ak =
in at least one of the other exponent sequences, it is
gcd(aj , ak ) lcm(aj , ak ). Moreover, the last number in
enough to check the case of a single exponent sequence.
the sequence can never decrease, because it is always
This can be done as in the first solution.
replaced by its least common multiple with another
number. Since it is bounded above (by the product of Remark: Abhinav Kumar suggests the following proof
all of the numbers), the last number must eventually that the process always terminates in at most n2 steps.
reach its maximum value, after which it remains con- (This is a variant of the worst-case analysis of the bub-
stant throughout. After this happens, the next-to-last ble sort algorithm.)
number will never decrease, so it eventually becomes Consider the number of pairs (k, l) with 1 ≤ k < l ≤ n
constant, and so on. After finitely many steps, all of the such that ak does not divide al (call these bad pairs). At
numbers will achieve their final values, so no more steps each step, we find one bad pair (i, j) and eliminate it,
will be possible. This only happens when aj divides ak and we do not touch any pairs that do not involve either
for all pairs j < k. i or j. If i < k < j, then neither of the pairs (i, k)
We next check that there is only one possible final and (k, j) can become bad, because ai is replaced by a
sequence. For p a prime and m a nonnegative in- divisor of itself, while aj is replaced by a multiple of
teger, we claim that the number of integers in the itself. If k < i, then (k, i) can only become a bad pair
list divisible by pm never changes. To see this, sup- if ak divided ai but not aj , in which case (k, j) stops
pose we replace aj , ak by gcd(aj , ak ), lcm(aj , ak ). If being bad. Similarly, if k > j, then (i, k) and (j, k)
neither of aj , ak is divisible by pm , then neither of either stay the same or switch status. Hence the number
gcd(aj , ak ), lcm(aj , ak ) is either. If exactly one aj , ak of bad pairs goes down by at least 1 each time; since it
is divisible by pm , then lcm(aj , ak ) is divisible by pm is at most n2 to begin with, this is an upper bound for

but gcd(aj , ak ) is not. the number of steps.
gcd(aj , ak ), lcm(aj , ak ) are as well. Remark: This problem is closely related to the classi-
If we started out with exactly h numbers not divisible fication theorem for finite abelian groups. Namely, if
by pm , then in the final sequence a′1 , . . . , a′n , the num- a1 , . . . , an and a′1 , . . . , a′n are the sequences obtained
at two different steps in the process, then the abelian of these examples, the initial sequence a, b, c fails to
groups Z/a1 Z×· · ·×Z/an Z and Z/a′1 Z×· · ·×Z/a′n Z determine the final sequence; for the diamond, we can
are isomorphic. The final sequence gives a canonical end up with 0, ∗, 1 for any of ∗ = a, b, c, whereas for the
presentation of this group; the terms of this sequence pentagon we can end up with 0, ∗, 1 for any of ∗ = a, b.
are called the elementary divisors or invariant factors Consequently, the final sequence is determined by the
of the group. initial sequence if and only if L is distributive.
Remark: (by Tom Belulovich) A lattice is a partially
ordered set L in which for any two x, y ∈ L, there is a A4 The sum diverges. From the definition, f (x)e = x on
[1, e], x ln x on (e, ee ], x ln x ln ln x on (ee , ee ], and so
unique minimal element z with z ≥ x and z ≥ y, called
the join and denoted x ∧ y, and there is a unique max- forth. It follows that on [1,P ∞), f is positive, continu-
1
ous, and increasing. Thus ∞ , if it converges,
imal element z with z ≤ x and z ≤ y, called the meet R ∞ dx n=1 f (n)
and denoted x ∨ y. In terms of a lattice L, one can pose is bounded below by 1 f (x) ; it suffices to prove that
the following generalization of the given problem. Start the integral diverges.
with a1 , . . . , an ∈ L. If i < j but ai 6≤ aj , it is per- Write ln1 x = ln x and lnk x = ln(lnk−1 x) for
mitted to replace ai , aj by ai ∨ aj , ai ∧ aj , respectively. k ≥ 2; similarly write exp1 x = ex and expk x =
The same argument as above shows that this always ter- k−1
eexp x . If we write y = lnk x, then x =
minates in at most n2 steps. The question is, under
expk y and dx = (expk y)(expk−1 y) · · · (exp1 y)dy =
what conditions on the lattice L is the final sequence
uniquely determined by the initial sequence? x(ln1 x) · · · (lnk−1 x)dy. Now on [expk−1 1, expk 1],
we have f (x) = x(ln1 x) · · · (lnk−1 x), and thus sub-
It turns out that this holds if and only if L is distributive,
stituting y = lnk x yields
i.e., for any x, y, z ∈ L,
Z expk 1 Z 1
dx
x ∧ (y ∨ z) = (x ∧ y) ∨ (x ∧ z). = dy = 1.
expk−1 1 f (x) 0
(This is equivalent to the same axiom with the oper- R∞ P∞ R expk 1
dx dx
ations interchanged.) For example, if L is a Boolean It follows that 1 f (x) = k=1 expk−1 1 f (x) di-
algebra, i.e., the set of subsets of a given set S under verges, as desired.
inclusion, then ∧ is union, ∨ is intersection, and the dis-
tributive law holds. Conversely, any finite distributive A5 Form the polynomial P (z) = f (z) + ig(z) with com-
lattice is contained in a Boolean algebra by a theorem plex coefficients. It suffices to prove that P has degree
of Birkhoff. The correspondence takes each x ∈ L to at least n − 1, as then one of f, g must have degree at
the set of y ∈ L such that x ≥ y and y cannot be written least n − 1.
as a join of two elements of L \ {y}. (See for instance By replacing P (z) with aP (z) + b for suitable a, b ∈
Birkhoff, Lattice Theory, Amer. Math. Soc., 1967.) C, we can force the regular n-gon to have vertices
On one hand, if L is distributive, it can be shown that ζn , ζn2 , . . . , ζnn for ζn = exp(2πi/n). It thus suffices to
the j-th term of the final sequence is equal to the meet of check that there cannot exist a polynomial P (z) of de-
ai1 ∧· · ·∧aij over all sequences 1 ≤ i1 < · · · < ij ≤ n. gree at most n−2 such that P (i) = ζni for i = 1, . . . , n.
For instance, this can be checked by forming the small- We will prove more generally that for any complex
est subset L′ of L containing a1 , . . . , an and closed un- number t ∈ / {0, 1}, and any integer m ≥ 1, any poly-
der meet and join, then embedding L′ into a Boolean nomial Q(z) for which Q(i) = ti for i = 1, . . . , m has
algebra using Birkhoff’s theorem, then checking the degree at least m − 1. There are several ways to do this.
claim for all Boolean algebras. It can also be checked First solution: If Q(z) has degree d and leading coef-
directly (as suggested by Nghi Nguyen) by showing that ficient c, then R(z) = Q(z + 1) − tQ(z) has degree d
for j = 1, . . . , n, the meet of all joins of j-element sub- and leading coefficient (1 − t)c. However, by hypoth-
sets of a1 , . . . , an is invariant at each step. esis, R(z) has the distinct roots 1, 2, . . . , m − 1, so we
On the other hand, a lattice fails to be distributive if must have d ≥ m − 1.
and only if it contains five elements a, b, c, 0, 1 such that Second solution: We proceed by induction on m. For
either the only relations among them are implied by the base case m = 1, we have Q(1) = t1 6= 0, so Q
must be nonzero, and so its degree is at least 0. Given
1 ≥ a, b, c ≥ 0 the assertion for m − 1, if Q(i) = ti for i = 1, . . . , m,
then the polynomial R(z) = (t−1)−1 (Q(z+1)−Q(z))
(this lattice is sometimes called the diamond), or the has degree one less than that of Q, and satisfies R(i) =
only relations among them are implied by ti for i = 1, . . . , m − 1. Since R must have degree at
least m − 2 by the induction hypothesis, Q must have
1 ≥ a ≥ b ≥ 0, 1≥c≥0
degree at least m − 1.
(this lattice is sometimes called the pentagon). (For a Third solution: We use the method of finite differ-
proof, see the Birkhoff reference given above.) For each ences (as in the second solution) but without induction.
Namely, the (m − 1)-st finite difference of P evaluated the fraction of elements of G not generated by S) by a
at 1 equals quantity no greater than
m−1
X
m−1
1 − (2m − m2 /n)/n = s2 .
j
(−1) Q(m − j) = t(1 − t)m−1 6= 0,
j=0
j We start out with k = 0 and s = 1 − 1/n; after k steps,
k
we have s ≤ (1 − 1/n)2 . It is enough to prove that for
which is impossible if Q has degree less than m − 1. some c > 0, we can always find an integer k ≤ c ln n
Remark: One can also establish the claim by comput- such that
ing a Vandermonde-type determinant, or by using the 2k
Lagrange interpolation formula to compute the leading 1 1
1− < ,
coefficient of Q. n n
A6 For notational convenience, we will interpret the prob- as then we have n − m < 1 and hence H = G.
lem as allowing the empty subsequence, whose product To obtain this last inequality, put
is the identity element of the group. To solve the prob-
lem in the interpretation where the empty subsequence k = ⌊2 log2 n⌋ < (2/ ln 2) ln n,
is not allowed, simply append the identity element to
so that 2k+1 ≥ n2 . From the facts that ln n ≤ ln 2 +
the sequence given by one of the following solutions.
(n − 2)/2 ≤ n/2 and ln(1 − 1/n) < −1/n for all
First solution: Put n = |G|. We will say that a se- n ≥ 2, we have
quence S produces an element g ∈ G if g occurs as the
n2

product of some subsequence of S. Let H be the set of 1 n
2k ln 1 − <− = − < − ln n,
elements produced by the sequence S. n 2n 2
Start with S equal to the empty sequence. If at any point yielding the desired inequality.
the set H −1 H = {h1 h2 : h−11 , h2 ∈ H} fails to be all
Remark: An alternate approach in the second solution
of G, extend S by appending an element g of G not
is to distinguish betwen the cases of H small (i.e., m <
in H −1 H. Then Hg ∩ H must be empty, otherwise
n1/2 , in which case m can be replaced by a value no
there would be an equation of the form h1 g = h2 with
less than 2m − 1) and H large. This strategy is used in
h1 , h2 ∈ G, or g = h−1 1 h2 , a contradiction. Thus we
a number of recent results of Bourgain, Tao, Helfgott,
can extend S by one element and double the size of H.
and others on small doubling or small tripling of subsets
After k ≤ log2 n steps, we must obtain a sequence of finite groups.
S = a1 , . . . , ak for which H −1 H = G. Then the se-
In the second solution, if we avoid the rather weak in-
quence a−1 −1
k , . . . , a1 , a1 , . . . , ak produces all of G and equality ln n ≤ n/2, we instead get sequences of length
has length at most (2/ ln 2) ln n.
log2 (n ln n) = log2 (n) + log2 (ln n). This is close to
Second solution: optimal: one cannot use fewer than log2 n terms be-
Put m = |H|. We will show that we can append one cause the number of subsequences must be at least n.
element g to S so that the resulting sequence of k + 1
B1 There are at most two such points. For example,
elements will produce at least 2m − m2 /n elements of
the points (0, 0) and (1, 0) lie on a circle with center
G. To see this, we compute
(1/2, x) for any real number x, not necessarily rational.
On the other hand, suppose P = (a, b), Q =
X X
|H ∪ Hg| = (|H| + |Hg| − |H ∩ Hg|)
g∈G g∈G (c, d), R = (e, f ) are three rational points that lie on
X a circle. The midpoint M of the side P Q is ((a +
= 2mn − |H ∩ Hg| c)/2, (b + d)/2), which is again rational. Moreover, the
g∈G slope of the line P Q is (d−b)/(c−a), so the slope of the
= 2mn − |{(g, h) ∈ G2 : h ∈ H ∩ Hg}| line through M perpendicular to P Q is (a − c)/(b − d),
X which is rational or infinite.
= 2mn − |{g ∈ G : h ∈ Hg}|
h∈H
Similarly, if N is the midpoint of QR, then N is a ratio-
X nal point and the line through N perpendicular to QR
= 2mn − |H −1 h| has rational slope. The center of the circle lies on both
h∈H of these lines, so its coordinates (g, h) satisfy two linear
2 equations with rational coefficients, say Ag + Bh = C
= 2mn − m .
and Dg + Eh = F . Moreover, these equations have a
By the pigeonhole principle, we have |H ∪Hg| ≥ 2m− unique solution. That solution must then be
m2 /n for some choice of g, as claimed.
g = (CE − BD)/(AE − BD)
In other words, by extending the sequence by one el-
ement, we can replace the ratio s = 1 − m/n (i.e., h = (AF − BC)/(AE − BD)
(by elementary algebra, or Cramer’s rule), so the center In geometric terms, the vector (v1i , v2i ) in R2 has
of the circle is rational. This proves the desired result. dot product at most 1 with every unit vector. Since
this holds for the unit vector in the same direction as
Remark: The above solution is deliberately more ver-
(v1i , v2i ), we must have
bose than is really necessary. A shorter way to say this
is that any two distinct rational points determine a ra- 2
v1i 2
+ v2i ≤1 (i = 1, . . . , 4).
tional line (a line of the form ax + by + c = 0 with
a, b, c rational), while any two nonparallel rational lines Conversely, if this holds, then the Cauchy-Schwarz in-
intersect at a rational point. A similar statement holds equality and the above analysis imply that C lies in H.
with the rational numbers replaced by any field.
If r is the radius of C, then
Remark: A more explicit argument is to show that
4 4
the equation of the circle through the rational points X X
2r2 = 2
v1i + 2
v2i
(x1 , y1 ), (x2 , y2 ), (x3 , y3 ) is
i=1 i=1
4
x21 + y12 x1 y1 1
  X
2 2
= (v1i + v2i )
x2 + y22 x2 y2 1
0= det  22 i=1
x3 + y32 x3 y3 1
2
x +y 2
x y 1 ≤ 4,
√
which has the form a(x2 + y 2 ) + dx + ey + f = so r ≤ 2. Since this is achieved by the circle through
0 for a, d, e, f rational. The center of this circle is (1, 1, 0, 0) and (0, 0, 1, 1), it is the desired maximum.
(−d/(2a), −e/(2a)), which is again a rational point. Remark: One may similarly ask for the radius of the
largest k-dimensional ball inside an n-dimensional unit
n
Pnclaim that Fn (x) = (ln x − an )x /n!, where an =
B2 We hypercube; the given problem is the case (n, k) =
k=1 1/k. Indeed, temporarily write Gn (x) = (ln x − (4, 2). Daniel Kane gives the following argument p to
an )xn /n! for x > 0 and n ≥ 1; then limx→0 Gn (x) = show that the maximum radius in this case is 21 nk .
0 and G′n (x) = (ln x − an + 1/n)xn−1 /(n − 1)! = (Thanks for Noam Elkies for passing this along.)
Gn−1 (x), and the claim follows by the Fundamental We again scale up by a factor of 2, so that we are trying
Theorem of Calculus and induction on n. to show that the maximum radius r of a k-dimensional
ball contained in the hypercube [−1, 1]n is nk . Again,
p
Given the claim, we have Fn (1) = −an /n! and so we
need to evaluate − limn→∞ lnann . But sincePthe function there is no loss of generality in centering the ball at the
n
1/x is strictly decreasing for x positive, k=2 1/k = origin. Let T : Rk → Rn be a similitude carrying the
Rn
an − 1 is bounded below by 2 dx/x = ln n − unit ball to this embedded k-ball. Then there exists a
Rn
ln 2 and above by 1 dx/x = ln n. It follows that vector vi ∈ Rk such that for e1 , . . . , en the standard ba-
an
limn→∞ ln n = 1, and the desired limit is −1. sis of Rn , x·vi = T (x)·ei for all x ∈ Rk . The condition
of the problem is equivalent to requiring |vi | ≤ 1 for all
√
i, while the radius r of the embedded ball is determined
B3 The largest possible radius is 22 . It will be convenient
by the fact that for all x ∈ Rk ,
to solve the problem for a hypercube of side length 2
instead, in which√ case we are trying to show that the n
X
largest radius is 2. r2 (x · x) = T (x) · T (x) = x · vi .
i=1
Choose coordinates so that the interior of the hypercube
is the set H = [−1, 1]4 in R4 . Let C be a circle centered Let M be the matrix with columns v1 , . . . , vk ; then
at the point P . Then C is contained both in H and M M T = r2 Ik , for Ik the k × k identity matrix. We
its reflection across P ; these intersect in a rectangular then have
paralellepiped each of whose pairs of opposite faces are
at most 2 unit apart. Consequently, if we translate C so kr2 = Trace(r2 Ik ) = Trace(M M T )
that its center moves to the point O = (0, 0, 0, 0) at the Xn
center of H, then it remains entirely inside H. = Trace(M T M ) = |vi |2
i=1
This means that the answer we seek equals the largest
possible radius of a circle C contained in H and cen- ≤ n,
tered at O. Let v1 = (v11 , . . . , v14 ) and v2 = pn
(v21 , . . . , v24 ) be two points on C lying on radii per- yielding the upper bound r ≤ k.
pendicular to each other. Then the points of the circle To show that this bound is optimal, it is enough to show
can be expressed as v1 cos θ + v2 sin θ for 0 ≤ θ < 2π. that one can find an orthogonal projection of Rn onto
Then C lies in H if and only if for each i, we have Rk so that the projections of the ei all have the same
norm (one can then rescale to get the desired configura-
|v1i cos θ + v2i sin θ| ≤ 1 (0 ≤ θ < 2π). tion of v1 , . . . , vn ). We construct such a configuration
by a “smoothing” argument. Startw with any projec- is an integer by the property of f . Since f is differen-
tion. Let w1 , . . . , wn be the projections of e1 , . . . , en . tiable at a/b, the left hand side has a limit. It follows
If the desired condition is not achieved, we can choose that for sufficiently large n, both sides must be equal to
i, j such that some integer c = f ′ ( ab ): f ( an+1 a c
bn ) = f ( b ) + bn . Now
c cannot be 0, since otherwise f ( bn ) = f ( ab ) for
an+1
1
|wi |2 < (|w1 |2 + · · · + |wn |2 ) < |wj |2 . sufficiently large n has denominator b rather than bn.
n Similarly, |c| cannot be greater than 1: otherwise if we
By precomposing with a suitable rotation that fixes eh take n = k|c| for k a sufficiently large positive integer,
for h 6= i, j, we can vary |wi |, |wj | without varying then f ( ab ) + bn
c
has denominator bk, contradicting the
an+1
|wi |2 + |wj |2 or |wh | for h 6= i, j. We can thus choose fact that f ( bn ) has denominator bn. It follows that
such a rotation to force one of |wi |2 , |wj |2 to become c = f ′ ( ab ) = ±1.
equal to n1 (|w1 |2 + · · · + |wn |2 ). Repeating at most Thus the derivative of f at any rational number is ±1.
n − 1 times gives the desired configuration. Since f is continuously differentiable, we conclude that
B4 We use the identity given by Taylor’s theorem: f ′ (x) = 1 for all real x or f ′ (x) = −1 for all real x.
Since f (0) must be an integer (a rational number with
deg(h)
X h(i) (x) denominator 1), f (x) = x + n or f (x) = −x + n for
h(x + y) = yi. some integer n.
i=0
i!
Remark: After showing that f ′ (q) is an integer for
each q, one can instead argue that f ′ is a continuous
In this expression, h(i) (x)/i! is a polynomial in x with
function from the rationals to the integers, so must be
integer coefficients, so its value at an integer x is an
constant. One can then write f (x) = ax + b and check
integer.
that b ∈ Z by evaluation at a = 0, and that a = ±1 by
For x = 0, . . . , p − 1, we deduce that evaluation at x = 1/a.
h(x + p) ≡ h(x) + ph′ (x) (mod p2 ). B6 In all solutions, let Fn,k be the number of k-limited per-
mutations of {1, . . . , n}.
(This can also be deduced more directly using the bino-
mial theorem.) Since we assumed h(x) and h(x + p) First solution: (by Jacob Tsimerman) Note that any
are distinct modulo p2 , we conclude that h′ (x) 6≡ 0 permutation is k-limited if and only if its inverse is k-
(mod p). Since h′ is a polynomial with integer coeffi- limited. Consequently, the number of k-limited per-
cients, we have h′ (x) ≡ h′ (x + mp) (mod p) for any mutations of {1, . . . , n} is the same as the number of
integer m, and so h′ (x) 6≡ 0 (mod p) for all integers k-limited involutions (permutations equal to their in-
x. verses) of {1, . . . , n}.
Now for x = 0, . . . , p2 − 1 and y = 0, . . . , p − 1, we We use the following fact several times: the number
write of involutions of {1, . . . , n} is odd if n = 0, 1 and
even otherwise. This follows from the fact that non-
h(x + yp2 ) ≡ h(x) + p2 yh′ (x) (mod p3 ). involutions come in pairs, so the number of involu-
tions has the same parity as the number of permutations,
Thus h(x), h(x + p2 ), . . . , h(x + (p − 1)p2 ) run over namely n!.
all of the residue classes modulo p3 congruent to
h(x) modulo p2 . Since the h(x) themselves cover For n ≤ k + 1, all involutions are k-limited. By the
all the residue classes modulo p2 , this proves that previous paragraph, Fn,k is odd for n = 0, 1 and even
h(0), . . . , h(p3 − 1) are distinct modulo p3 . for n = 2, . . . , k + 1.
Remark: More generally, the same proof shows that For n > k + 1, group the k-limited involutions into
for any integers d, e > 1, h permutes the residue classes classes based on their actions on k + 2, . . . , n. Note
modulo pd if and only if it permutes the residue classes that for C a class and σ ∈ C, the set of elements of
modulo pe . The argument used in the proof is related A = {1, . . . , k + 1} which map into A under σ de-
to a general result in number theory known as Hensel’s pends only on C, not on σ. Call this set S(C); then the
lemma. size of C is exactly the number of involutions of S(C).
Consequently, |C| is even unless S(C) has at most one
B5 The functions f (x) = x+n and f (x) = −x+n for any element. However, the element 1 cannot map out of A
integer n clearly satisfy the condition of the problem; because we are looking at k-limited involutions. Hence
we claim that these are the only possible f . if S(C) has one element and σ ∈ C, we must have
Let q = a/b be any rational number with gcd(a, b) = 1 σ(1) = 1. Since σ is k-limited and σ(2) cannot belong
and b > 0. For n any positive integer, we have to A, we must have σ(2) = k + 2. By induction, for
i = 3, . . . , k + 1, we must have σ(i) = k + i.
f ( an+1 a
bn ) − f ( b )

an + 1 a
If n < 2k + 1, this shows that no class C of odd cardi-
1 = bnf − nbf
bn
bn b nality can exist, so Fn,k must be even. If n ≥ 2k + 1,
the classes of odd cardinality are in bijection with k- We next add column 1 to each of columns 2, . . . , k + 1.
limited involutions of {2k + 2, . . . , n}, so Fn,k has the  
same parity as Fn−2k−1,k . By induction on n, we de- 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ∅
duce the desired result. 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∅
 
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 ∅
 
Second solution: (by Yufei Zhao) Let Mn,k be the n ×  
n matrix with 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 ∅
 
( 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 ?
1 |i − j| ≤ k  
(Mn,k )ij = 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 ?
 
0 otherwise.  
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 ?
Write det(Mn,k ) as the sum over permutations σ of ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ? ? ? ∗
{1, . . . , n} of (Mn,k )1σ(1) · · · (Mn,k )nσ(n) times the
signature of σ. Then σ contributes ±1 to det(Mn,k ) For i = 2, for each of j = i + 1, . . . , 2k + 1 for which
if σ is k-limited and 0 otherwise. We conclude that the (j, k + i)-entry is nonzero, add row i to row j.
 
det(Mn,k ) ≡ Fn,k (mod 2). 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ∅
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∅
 
For the rest of the solution, we interpret Mn,k as a ma- 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ∅
 
trix over the field of two elements. We compute its de- 
0 0 0 0 0 1 1 ∅

terminant using linear algebra modulo 2.  
0 1 1 1 0 1 1 ?
We first show that for n ≥ 2k + 1,  
0 0 1 1 0 1 1 ?
 
Fn,k ≡ Fn−2k−1,k (mod 2),
 
0 0 0 1 0 1 1 ?
provided that we interpret F0,k = 1. We do this by com- ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ? ? ∗
puting det(Mn,k ) using row and column operations. Repeat the previous step for i = 3, . . . , k + 1 in succes-
We will verbally describe these operations for general sion.
k, while illustrating with the example k = 3.  
To begin with, Mn,k has the following form. 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ∅
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∅
 
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 ∅
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ∅
 
1 1 1 1 1 0 0 ∅ 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ∅

1 1 1 1 1 1 0 ∅  

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 ∅
 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 ?
   
0 0 1 1 0 0 0 ?
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 ?  
 
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 ? 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 ?

 
0 0 0 1 1 1 1 ?
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∗
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ? ? ? ∗
Repeat the two previous steps with the roles of the rows
In this presentation, the first 2k + 1 rows and columns and columns reversed. That is, for i = 2, . . . , k + 1, for
are shown explicitly; the remaining rows and columns each of j = i + 1, . . . , 2k + 1 for which the (j, k + i)-
are shown in a compressed format. The symbol ∅ in- entry is nonzero, add row i to row j.
dicates that the unseen entries are all zeroes, while the  
symbol ? indicates that they are not. The symbol ∗ in 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 ∅
the lower right corner represents the matrix Fn−2k−1,k . 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∅
 
We will preserve the unseen structure of the matrix by 0 0 0 0 0 1 0 ∅
 
only adding the first k + 1 rows or columns to any of 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 ∅

the others. 
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 ∅

 
We first add row 1 to each of rows 2, . . . , k + 1. 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 ∅
 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 ∅
   
1 1 1 1 0 0 0 ∅
0 0 0 0 1 0 0 ∅
  ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ∗
0 0 0 0 1 1 0 ∅
 
  We now have a block diagonal matrix in which the top
0 0 0 0 1 1 1 ∅ left block is a (2k + 1) × (2k + 1) matrix with nonzero
 
0 1 1 1 1 1 1 ?
  determinant (it results from reordering the rows of the
0 0 1 1 1 1 1 ?
  identity matrix), the bottom right block is Mn−2k−1,k ,

0 0 0 1 1 1 1 ?
 and the other two blocks are zero. We conclude that
∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ ? ? ? ∗ det(Mn,k ) ≡ det(Mn−2k−1,k ) (mod 2),
proving the desired congruence. such that a1 r1 + · · · + an rn is the zero vector. The m-
To prove the desired result, we must now check that th coordinate of this vector equals am−k + · · · + am+k ,
F0,k , F1,k are odd and F2,k , . . . , F2k,k are even. For where we regard ai as zero if i ∈ / {1, . . . , n}. By com-
n = 0, . . . , k + 1, the matrix Mn,k consists of all ones, paring consecutive coordinates, we obtain
so its determinant is 1 if n = 0, 1 and 0 otherwise. (Al-
ternatively, we have Fn,k = n! for n = 0, . . . , k + 1, am−k = am+k+1 (1 ≤ m < n).
since every permutation of {1, . . . , n} is k-limited.) For
n = k + 2, . . . , 2k, observe that rows k and k + 1 of In particular, the ai repeat with period 2k + 1. Taking
Mn,k both consist of all ones, so det(Mn,k ) = 0 as m = 1, . . . , k further yields that
desired.
ak+2 = · · · = a2k+1 = 0
Third solution: (by Tom Belulovich) Define Mn,k as
in the second solution. We prove det(Mn,k ) is odd for while taking m = n − k, . . . , n − 1 yields
n ≡ 0, 1 (mod 2k + 1) and even otherwise, by directly
determining whether or not Mn,k is invertible as a ma- an−2k = · · · = an−1−k = 0.
trix over the field of two elements.
Let ri denote row i of Mn,k . We first check that if n ≡ For n ≡ 0 (mod 2k + 1), the latter can be rewritten as
2, . . . , 2k (mod 2k + 1), then Mn,k is not invertible.
In this case, we can find integers 0 ≤ a < b ≤ k such a1 = · · · = ak = 0
that n + a + b ≡ 0 (mod 2k + 1). Put j = (n + a +
b)/(2k + 1). We can then write the all-ones vector both whereas for n ≡ 1 (mod 2k + 1), it can be rewritten as
as
j−1
a2 = · · · = ak+1 = 0.
X
rk+1−a+(2k+1)i
In either case, since we also have
i=0
and as a1 + · · · + a2k+1 = 0
from the (k + 1)-st coordinate, we deduce that all of the
j−1
X ai must be zero, and so Mn,k must be invertible.
rk+1−b+(2k+1)i .
i=0 Remark: The matrices Mn,k are examples of banded
matrices, which occur frequently in numerical appli-
Hence Mn,k is not invertible. cations of linear algebra. They are also examples of
We next check that if n ≡ 0, 1 (mod 2k + 1), then Toeplitz matrices.
Mn,k is invertible. Suppose that a1 , . . . , an are scalars
A1 Let f be a real-valued function on the plane such that B1 Show that every positive rational number can be written
for every square ABCD in the plane, f (A) + f (B) + as a quotient of products of factorials of (not necessarily
f (C) + f (D) = 0. Does it follow that f (P ) = 0 for all distinct) primes. For example,
points P in the plane?
10 2! · 5!
A2 Functions f, g, h are differentiable on some open inter- = .
val around 0 and satisfy the equations and initial condi- 9 3! · 3! · 3!
tions
1 B2 A game involves jumping to the right on the real number
f 0 = 2f 2 gh + , f (0) = 1, line. If a and b are real numbers and b > a, the cost of
gh
4 jumping from a to b is b3 − ab2 . For what real numbers
g0 = f g2 h + , g(0) = 1, c can one travel from 0 to 1 in a finite number of jumps
fh
with total cost exactly c?
1
h0 = 3f gh2 + , h(0) = 1.
fg
B3 Call a subset S of {1, 2, . . . , n} mediocre if it has the
Find an explicit formula for f (x), valid in some open following property: Whenever a and b are elements of
interval around 0. S whose average is an integer, that average is also an
element of S. Let A(n) be the number of mediocre
A3 Let dn be the determinant of the n × n matrix whose
subests of {1, 2, . . . , n}. [For instance, every subset of
entries, from left to right and then from top to bottom,
{1, 2, 3} except {1, 3} is mediocre, so A(3) = 7.] Find
are cos 1, cos 2, . . . , cos n2 . (For example,
all positive integers n such that A(n + 2) − 2A(n + 1) +

cos 1 cos 2 cos 3
A(n) = 1.

d3 = cos 4 cos 5 cos 6 .
cos 7 cos 8 cos 9 B4 Say that a polynomial with real coefficients in two vari-
ables, x, y, is balanced if the average value of the poly-
The argument of cos is always in radians, not degrees.) nomial on each circle centered at the origin is 0. The
Evaluate limn→∞ dn . balanced polynomials of degree at most 2009 form a
A4 Let S be a set of rational numbers such that vector space V over R. Find the dimension of V .
(a) 0 ∈ S;
B5 Let f : (1, ∞) → R be a differentiable function such
(b) If x ∈ S then x + 1 ∈ S and x − 1 ∈ S; and that
(c) If x ∈ S and x 6∈ {0, 1}, then 1/(x(x − 1)) ∈ S.
x2 − (f (x))2
Must S contain all rational numbers? f 0 (x) = for all x > 1.
x2 ((f (x))2 + 1)
A5 Is there a finite abelian group G such that the product of
the orders of all its elements is 22009 ? Prove that limx→∞ f (x) = ∞.
A6 Let f : [0, 1]2 → R be a continuous function on
the closed unit square such that ∂f ∂f
∂x and ∂y exist B6 Prove that for every positive integer n, there is a se-
2
and are continuous on the interior (0, 1) . Let a = quence of integers a0 , a1 , . . . , a2009 with a0 = 0 and
R1 R1 R1
f (0, y) dy, b = 0 f (1, y) dy, c = 0 f (x, 0) dx, a2009 = n such that each term after a0 is either an ear-
0 R
1 lier term plus 2k for some nonnegative integer k, or of
d = 0 f (x, 1) dx. Prove or disprove: There must be a the form b mod c for some earlier positive terms b and c.
point (x0 , y0 ) in (0, 1)2 such that [Here b mod c denotes the remainder when b is divided
by c, so 0 ≤ (b mod c) < c.]
∂f ∂f
(x0 , y0 ) = b − a and (x0 , y0 ) = d − c.
∂x ∂y
A1 Yes, it does follow. Let P be any point in the plane. Let A3 The limit is 0; we will show this by checking that dn =
ABCD be any square with center P . Let E, F, G, H 0 for all n ≥ 3. Starting from the given matrix, add the
be the midpoints of the segments AB, BC, CD, DA, third column to the first column; this does not change
respectively. The function f must satisfy the equations the determinant. However, thanks to the identity cos x+
cos y = 2 cos x+y x−y
2 cos 2 , the resulting matrix has the
0 = f (A) + f (B) + f (C) + f (D) form
0 = f (E) + f (F ) + f (G) + f (H) 
2 cos 2 cos 1 cos 2 ···

0 = f (A) + f (E) + f (P ) + f (H)  2 cos(n + 2) cos 1 cos(n + 2) · · ·
2 cos(2n + 2) cos 1 2 cos(2n + 2) · · ·
0 = f (B) + f (F ) + f (P ) + f (E)  
.. .. ..
0 = f (C) + f (G) + f (P ) + f (F ) . . .
0 = f (D) + f (H) + f (P ) + f (G).
with the first column being a multiple of the second.
If we add the last four equations, then subtract the first Hence dn = 0.
equation and twice the second equation, we obtain 0 = Remark. Another way to draw the same conclusion is
4f (P ), whence f (P ) = 0. to observe that the given matrix is the sum of the two
Remark. Problem 1 of the 1996 Romanian IMO team rank 1 matrices Ajk = cos(j − 1)n cos k and Bjk =
selection exam asks the same question with squares re- − sin(j − 1)n sin k, and so has rank at most 2. One
placed by regular polygons of any (fixed) number of can also use the matrices Ajk = ei((j−1)n+k) , Bjk =
vertices. e−i(j−1)n+k .
A2 Multiplying the first differential equation by gh, the A4 The answer is no; indeed, S = Q \ {n + 2/5 | n ∈ Z}
second by f h, and the third by f g, and summing gives satisfies the given conditions. Clearly S satisfies (a) and
(b); we need only check that it satisfies (c). It suffices
(f gh)0 = 6(f gh)2 + 6. to show that if x = p/q is a fraction with (p, q) = 1 and
p > 0, then we cannot have 1/(x(x − 1)) = n + 2/5
Write k(x) = f (x)g(x)h(x); then k 0 = 6k 2 + 6 and for an integer n. Suppose otherwise; then
k(0) = 1. One solution for this differential equation
(5n + 2)p(p − q) = 5q 2 .
with this initial condition is k(x) = tan(6x + π/4);
by standard uniqueness, this must necessarily hold for Since p and q are relatively prime, and p divides 5q 2 ,
x in some open interval around 0. Now the first given we must have p | 5, so p = 1 or p = 5. On the
equation becomes other hand, p − q and q are also relatively prime, so
p − q divides 5 as well, and p − q must be ±1 or
f 0 /f = 2k(x) + 1/k(x) ±5. This leads to eight possibilities for (p, q): (1, 0),
= 2 tan(6x + π/4) + cot(6x + π/4); (5, 0), (5, 10), (1, −4), (1, 2), (1, 6), (5, 4), (5, 6). The
first three are impossible, while the final five lead to
integrating both sides gives 5n + 2 = 16, −20, −36, 16, −36 respectively, none of
which holds for integral n.
−2 ln cos(6x + π/4) + ln sin(6x + π/4)
ln(f (x)) = + c, Remark. More generally, no rational number of the
6
form m/n, where m, n are relatively prime and neither

sin(6x+π/4)
1/6 of ±m is a quadratic residue mod n, need be in S. If
whence f (x) = ec cos2 (6x+π/4) . Substituting x = p/q is in lowest terms and 1/(x(x−1)) = m/n+k
f (0) = 1 gives e = 2 c −1/12
and thus f (x) = for some integer k, then p(p − q) is relatively prime to

sin(6x+π/4)
1/6 q 2 ; q 2 /(p(p − q)) = (m + kn)/n then implies that
2−1/12 cos 2 (6x+π/4) . m + kn = ±q 2 and so ±m must be a quadratic residue
mod n.
Remark. The answer can be put in alternate forms
using trigonometric identities. One particularly simple A5 No, there is no such group. By the structure theorem
one is for finitely generated abelian groups, G can be written
as a product of cyclic groups. If any of these factors has
f (x) = (sec 12x)1/12 (sec 12x + tan 12x)1/4 . odd order, then G has an element of odd order, so the
2
product of the orders of all of its elements cannot be a Moreover, the partial derivatives
power of 2. ∂f
We may thus consider only abelian 2-groups hereafter. (x0 , y0 ) = 3(1 + y0 )(8x0 − 4)
∂x
For such a group G, the product of the orders of all of ∂f
its elements has the form 2k(G) for some nonnegative (x0 , y0 ) = 3(2x0 − 1)2 − 1.
∂y
integer G, and we must show that it is impossible to
achieve k(G) = 2009. Again by the structure theorem, have no common zero in (0, 1)2 . Namely, for the first
we may write partial to vanish, we must have x0 = 1/2 since 1 + y0
∞
is nowhere zero, but for x0 = 1/2 the second partial
G∼
Y
(Z/2i Z)ei cannot vanish.
=
i=1 Remark. This problem amounts to refuting a potential
generalization of the Mean Value Theorem to bivariate
for some nonnegative integers e1 , e2 , . . . , all but finitely
functions. Many counterexamples are possible. Kent
many of which are 0.
Merryfield suggests y sin(2πx), for which all four of
For any nonnegative integer m, the elements of G of the boundary integrals vanish; here the partial deriva-
order at most 2m form a subgroup isomorphic to tives are 2πy cos(2πx) and sin(2πx). Catalin Zara sug-
∞
Y gests x1/3 y 2/3 . Qingchun Ren suggests xy(1 − y).
(Z/2min{i,m} Z)ei ,
B1 Every positive rational number can be uniquely written
i=1
P∞ in lowest terms as a/b for a, b positive integers. We
which has 2sm elements for sm = i=1 min{i, m}ei . prove the statement in the problem by induction on the
Hence largest prime dividing either a or b (where this is con-
X∞ sidered to be 1 if a = b = 1). For the base case, we can
k(G) = i(2si − 2si−1 ). write 1/1 = 2!/2!. For a general a/b, let p be the largest
i=1 prime dividing either a or b; then a/b = pk a0 /b0 for
some k 6= 0 and positive integers a0 , b0 whose largest
Since s1 ≤ s2 ≤ · · · , k(G) + 1 is always divisible by prime factors are strictly less than p. We now have
2s1 . In particular, k(G) = 2009 forces s1 ≤ 1. a0 0
a/b = (p!)k (p−1)! k b0 , and all prime factors of a and
However, the only cases where s1 ≤ 1 are where all of
(p − 1)!k b0 are strictly less than p. By the induction as-
the ei are 0, in which case k(G) = 0, or where ei = 1 a0
for some i and ej = 0 for j 6= i, in which case k(G) = sumption, (p−1)! k b0 can be written as a quotient of prod-
0
(i − 1)2i + 1. The right side is a strictly increasing a
ucts of prime factorials, and so a/b = (p!)k (p−1)!k b0
function of i which equals 1793 for i = 8 and 4097 for can as well. This completes the induction.
i = 9, so it can never equal 2009. This proves the claim.
Remark. Noam Elkies points out that the representa-
Remark. One can also arrive at the key congruence tions are unique up to rearranging and canceling com-
by dividing G into equivalence classes, by declaring mon factors.
two elements to be equivalent if they generate the same
cyclic subgroup of G. For h > 0, an element of order B2 The desired real numbers c are precisely those for which
2h belongs to an equivalence class of size 2h−1 , so the 1/3 < c ≤ 1. For any positive integer m and any se-
products of the orders of the elements of this equiva- quence 0 = x0 < x1 < · · · <Pxm = 1, the cost
m
lence class is 2j for j = h2h−1 . This quantity is di- of jumping along this sequence is i=1 (xi − xi−1 )x2i .
visible by 4 as long as h > 1; thus to have k(G) ≡ 1 Since
m m
(mod 4), the number of elements of G of order 2 must X X
be congruent to 1 modulo 4. However, there are exactly 1= (xi − xi−1 ) ≥ (xi − xi−1 )x2i
2e − 1 such elements, for e the number of cyclic factors i=1 i=1
m Z xi−1
of G. Hence e = 1, and one concludes as in the given X
solution. > t2 dt
i=1 xi
A6 We disprove the assertion using the example Z 1
1
2
= t2 dt = ,
f (x, y) = 3(1 + y)(2x − 1) − y. 0 3
We have b − a = d − c = 0 because the identity we can only achieve costs c for which 1/3 < c ≤ 1.
f (x, y) = f (1 − x, y) forces a = b, and because It remains to check that any such c can be achieved.
Z 1 Suppose 0 = x0 < · · · < xm = 1 is a sequence with
c= 3(2x − 1)2 dx = 1, m ≥ 1. For i = 1, . . . , m, let ci be the cost of the
0 sequence 0, xi , xi+1 , . . . , xm . For i > 1 and 0 < y ≤
Z 1 xi−1 , the cost of the sequence 0, y, xi , . . . , xm is
d= (6(2x − 1)2 − 1) dx = 1.
0 ci + y 3 + (xi − y)x2i − x3i = ci − y(x2i − y 2 ),
3
which is less than ci but approaches ci as y → 0. By a mediocre subset of {1, . . . , 2k−1 + 1} containing the
continuity, for i = 2, . . . , m, every value in the inter- endpoints by subtracting 2k−1 from each element. By
val [ci−1 , ci ) can be achieved, as can cm = 1 by the the induction assumption again, it follows that S must
sequence 0, 1. contain all integers between 2k−1 + 1 and 2k + 1. Thus
To show that all costs c with 1/3 < c ≤ 1 can be S = {1, . . . , 2k + 1} and the induction is complete.
achieved, it now suffices to check that for every > 0, Remark. One can also proceed by checking that a
there exists a sequence with cost at most 1/3 + . For nonempty subset of {1, . . . , n} is mediocre if and only
instance, if we take xi = i/m for i = 0, . . . , m, the if it is an arithmetic progression with odd common dif-
cost becomes ference. Given this fact, the number of mediocre sub-
sets of {1, . . . , n + 2} containing the endpoints is seen
1 2 (m + 1)(2m + 1) to be the number of odd prime factors of n + 1, from
(1 + · · · + m2 ) = ,
m3 6m2 which the desired result is evident. (The sequence A(n)
appears as sequence A124197 in the Encyclopedia of
which converges to 1/3 as m → +∞.
Integer Sequences.)
Reinterpretation. The cost of jumping along a partic-
ular sequence is an upper Riemann sum of the function B4 Any polynomial P (x, y) of degree at most 2009 can
P2009
t2 . The fact that this function admits a Riemann inte- be written uniquely as a sum i=0 Pi (x, y) in which
gral implies that for any > 0, there exists δ0 such that Pi (x, y) is a homogeneous polynomial of degree i. For
the cost of the sequence x0 , . . . , xm is at most 1/3 + H path (r cos θ, r sin θ) for 0 ≤ θ ≤
r > 0, let Cr be the
as long as maxi {xi − xi−1 } < . (The computation of 2π. Put λ(Pi ) = C1 P ; then for r > 0,
the integral using the sequence xi = i/m was already
2009
known to Archimedes.)
I X
P = ri λ(Pi ).
B3 The answer is n = 2k −1 for some integer k ≥ 1. There Cr i=0
is a bijection between mediocre subsets of {1, . . . , n}
For fixed P , the right side is a polynomial in r, which
and mediocre subsets of {2, . . . , n+1} given by adding
vanishes for all r > 0 if and only if its coefficients
1 to each element of the subset; thus A(n+1)−A(n) is
vanish. In other words, P is balanced if and only if
the number of mediocre subsets of {1, . . . , n + 1} that
λ(Pi ) = 0 for i = 0, . . . , 2009.
contain 1. It follows that A(n + 2) − 2A(n + 1) + An =
(A(n + 2) − A(n + 1)) − (A(n + 1) − A(n)) is the For i odd, we have Pi (−x, −y) = −Pi (x, y). Hence
difference between the number of mediocre subsets of λ(Pi ) = 0, e.g., because the contributions to the inte-
{1, . . . , n+2} containing 1 and the number of mediocre gral from θ and θ + π cancel.
subsets of {1, . . . , n + 1} containing 1. This differ- For i even, λ(Pi ) is a linear function of the coefficients
ence is precisely the number of mediocre subsets of of Pi . This function is not identically zero, e.g., because
{1, . . . , n + 2} containing both 1 and n + 2, which for Pi = (x2 + y 2 )i/2 , the integrand is always positive
we term “mediocre subsets containing the endpoints.” and so λ(P ) > 0. The kernel of λ on the space of ho-
Since {1, . . . , n + 2} itself is a mediocre subset of itself mogeneous polynomials of degree i is thus a subspace
containing the endpoints, it suffices to prove that this is of codimension 1.
the only mediocre subset of {1, . . . , n + 2} containing
It follows that the dimension of V is
the endpoints if and only if n = 2k − 1 for some k.
If n is not of the form 2k − 1, then we can write n + (1 + · · · + 2010) − 1005 = (2011 − 1) × 1005 = 2020050.
1 = 2a b for odd b > 1. In this case, the set {1 +
mb | 0 ≤ m ≤ 2a } is a mediocre subset of {1, . . . , n + B5 First solution. If f (x) ≥ x for all x > 1, then the
2} containing the endpoints: the average of 1+m1 b and desired conclusion clearly holds. We may thus assume
1 + m2 b, namely 1 + m1 +m
2
2
b, is an integer if and only hereafter that there exists x0 > 1 for which f (x0 ) <
if m1 + m2 is even, in which case this average lies in x0 .
the set. Rewrite the original differential equation as
It remains to show that if n = 2k − 1, then the only
x2 + 1 f (x)2
mediocre subset of {1, . . . , n + 2} containing the end- f 0 (x) = 1 − .
points is itself. This is readily seen by induction on k. x2 1 + f (x)2
For k = 1, the statement is obvious. For general k, Put c0 = min{0, f (x0 ) − 1/x0 }. For all x ≥ x0 , we
any mediocre subset S of {1, . . . , n + 2 = 2k + 1} have f 0 (x) > −1/x2 and so
containing 1 and 2k + 1 must also contain their aver-
age, 2k−1 + 1. By the induction assumption, the only
Z x
mediocre subset of {1, . . . , 2k−1 + 1} containing the f (x) ≥ f (x0 ) − dt/t2 > c0 .
x0
endpoints is itself, and so S must contain all integers
between 1 and 2k−1 + 1. Similarly, a mediocre subset In the other direction, we claim that f (x) < x for all
of {2k−1 +1, . . . , 2k +1} containing the endpoints gives x ≥ x0 . To see this, suppose the contrary; then by
4
continuity, there is a least x ≥ x0 for which f (x) ≥ x, solution) forces this limit to be 1/(1 + L2 ) > 0. Hence
and this least value satisfies f (x) = x. However, this f (x) → +∞ as x → ∞, as desired.
forces f 0 (x) = 0 < 1 and so f (x − ) > x − for > 0 Third solution. (by Noam Elkies) Consider the func-
small, contradicting the choice of x. tion g(x) = f (x) + 13 f (x)3 , for which
Put x1 = max{x0 , −c0 }. For x ≥ x1 , we have
|f (x)| < x and so f 0 (x) > 0. In particular, the limit f (x)2
g 0 (x) = f 0 (x)(1 + f (x)2 ) = 1 −
limx→+∞ f (x) = L exists. x2
Suppose that L < +∞; then limx→+∞ f 0 (x) = 1/(1+ for x > 1. Since evidently g 0 (x) < 1, g(x) − x is
L2 ) > 0. Hence for any sufficiently small > 0, we bounded above for x large. As in the first solution, f (x)
can choose x2 ≥ x1 so that f 0 (x) ≥ for x ≥ x2 . is bounded below for x large, so 31 f (x)3 − x is bounded
But then f (x) ≥ f (x2 ) + (x − x2 ), which contradicts above by some c > 0. For x ≥ c, we obtain f (x) ≤
L < +∞. Hence L = +∞, as desired. (6x)1/3 .
Variant. (by Leonid Shteyman) One obtains a similar Since f (x)/x → 0 as x → +∞, g 0 (x) → 1 and so
argument by writing g(x)/x → 1. Since g(x) tends to +∞, so does f (x).
(With a tiny bit of extra work, one shows that in fact
1 f (x)2 f (x)/(3x)1/3 → 1 as x → +∞.)
f 0 (x) = − ,
1 + f (x)2 x2 (1 + f (x)2 )
B6 First solution. (based on work of Yufei Zhao) Since
so that any sequence of the desired form remains of the desired
1 1 form upon multiplying each term by 2, we may reduce
− ≤ f 0 (x) − ≤ 0. to the case where n is odd. In this case, take x = 2h for
x2 1 + f (x)2
some positive integer h for which x ≥ n, and set
Hence f 0 (x)−1/(1+f (x)2 ) tends to 0 as x → +∞, so
a0 = 0
f (x) is bounded below,R and tends to +∞ if and only if
the improper integral dx/(1 + f (x)2 ) diverges. How- a1 = 1
ever, if the integral were to converge, then as x → +∞ a2 = 2x + 1 = a1 + 2x
we would have 1/(1 + f (x)2 ) → 0; however, since f is
a3 = (x + 1)2 = a2 + x2
bounded below, this again forces f (x) → +∞.
a4 = xn + 1 = a1 + xn
Second solution. (by Catalin Zara) The function
g(x) = f (x) + x satisfies the differential equation a5 = n(x + 1) = a4 mod a3
a6 =x
1 − (g(x)/x − 1)2 a7 = n = a5 mod a6 .
g 0 (x) = 1 + .
1 + x2 (g(x)/x − 1)2
We may pad the sequence to the desired length by tak-
This implies that g 0 (x) > 0 for all x > 1, so ing a8 = · · · = a2009 = n.
the limit L1 = limx→+∞ g(x) exists. In addition,
Second solution. (by James Merryfield) Suppose first
we cannot have L1 < +∞, or else we would have
that n is not divisible by 3. Recall that since 2 is a prim-
limx→+∞ g 0 (x) = 0 whereas the differential equa-
itive root modulo 32 , it is also a primitive root modulo
tion forces this limit to be 1. Hence g(x) → +∞ as
3h for any positive integer h. In particular, if we choose
x → +∞.
h so that 32h > n, then there exists a positive integer
Similarly, the function h(x) = −f (x) + x satisfies the c for which 2c mod 32h = n. We now take b to be a
differential equation positive integer for which 2b > 32h , and then put
1 − (h(x)/x − 1)2 a0 = 0
h0 (x) = 1 − .
1 + x2 (h(x)/x − 1)2 a1 = 1
This implies that h0 (x) ≥ 0 for all x, so the limit L2 = a2 = 3 = a1 + 2
limx→+∞ h(x) exists. In addition, we cannot have a3 = 3 + 2b
L2 < +∞, or else we would have limx→+∞ h0 (x) = 0
whereas the differential equation forces this limit to be a4 = 22hb
1. Hence h(x) → +∞ as x → +∞. a5 = 32h = a4 mod a3
For some x1 > 1, we must have g(x), h(x) > 0 for a6 = 2c
all x ≥ x1 . For x ≥ x1 , we have |f (x)| < x and a7 = n = a6 mod a5 .
hence f 0 (x) > 0, so the limit L = limx→+∞ f (x) ex-
ists. Once again, we cannot have L < +∞, or else we If n is divisible by 3, we can force a7 = n − 1 as in the
would have limx→+∞ f 0 (x) = 0 whereas the original above construction, then put a8 = a7 + 1 = n. In both
differential equation (e.g., in the form given in the first cases, we then pad the sequence as in the first solution.
5
Remark. Hendrik Lenstra, Ronald van Luijk, and It seems unlikely that a shorter solution can be con-
Gabriele Della Torre suggest the following variant of structed without relying on any deep number-theoretic
the first solution requiring only 6 steps. For n odd and conjectures.
x as in the first solution, set
a0 =0
a1 =1
a2 = x + 1 = a1 + x
a3 = xn + x + 1 = a 2 + xn
a4 = x(n−1)(φ(a3 )−1)
xn + 1
a5 = = a4 mod a3
x+1
a6 = n = a5 mod a2 .
The 71st William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A1 Given a positive integer n, what is the largest k such B1 Is there an infinite sequence of real numbers
that the numbers 1, 2, . . . , n can be put into k boxes so a1 , a2 , a3 , . . . such that
that the sum of the numbers in each box is the same?
[When n = 8, the example {1, 2, 3, 6}, {4, 8}, {5, 7} am m m
1 + a2 + a3 + · · · = m
shows that the largest k is at least 3.]
for every positive integer m?
A2 Find all differentiable functions f : R → R such that
f (x + n) − f (x) B2 Given that A, B, and C are noncollinear points in the

f ′ (x) = plane with integer coordinates such that the distances
n
AB, AC, and BC are integers, what is the smallest
for all real numbers x and all positive integers n. possible value of AB?
A3 Suppose that the function h : R2 → R has continuous
partial derivatives and satisfies the equation B3 There are 2010 boxes labeled B1 , B2 , . . . , B2010 , and
2010n balls have been distributed among them, for
∂h ∂h some positive integer n. You may redistribute the balls
h(x, y) = a (x, y) + b (x, y) by a sequence of moves, each of which consists of
∂x ∂y
choosing an i and moving exactly i balls from box Bi
for some constants a, b. Prove that if there is a constant into any one other box. For which values of n is it possi-
M such that |h(x, y)| ≤ M for all (x, y) ∈ R2 , then h ble to reach the distribution with exactly n balls in each
is identically zero. box, regardless of the initial distribution of balls?
A4 Prove that for each positive integer n, the number B4 Find all pairs of polynomials p(x) and q(x) with real
10n
1010 + 1010 + 10n − 1 is not prime.
n
coefficients for which
A5 Let G be a group, with operation ∗. Suppose that p(x)q(x + 1) − p(x + 1)q(x) = 1.
3
(i) G is a subset of R (but ∗ need not be related to
addition of vectors); B5 Is there a strictly increasing function f : R → R such
(ii) For each a, b ∈ G, either a×b = a∗b or a×b = that f ′ (x) = f (f (x)) for all x?
0 (or both), where × is the usual cross product in
R3 . B6 Let A be an n × n matrix of real numbers for some
n ≥ 1. For each positive integer k, let A[k] be the matrix
Prove that a × b = 0 for all a, b ∈ G.
obtained by raising each entry to the k th power. Show
A6 Let f : [0, ∞) → R be a strictly decreasing continu- that if Ak = A[k] for k = 1, 2, . . . , n + 1, then Ak =
ous function such that limx→∞ f (x) = 0. Prove that A[k] for all k ≥ 1.
R ∞ f (x)−f (x+1)
0 f (x) dx diverges.
Solutions to the 71st William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition
A1 The largest such k is ⌊ n+1 n

2 ⌋ = ⌈ 2 ⌉. For n even, this Write n = 2m k with m a nonnegative integer and k a
value is achieved by the partition positive odd integer. For any nonnegative integer j,
102 j
≡ (−1)j (mod 102 + 1).
m m
{1, n}, {2, n − 1}, . . . ;
for n odd, it is achieved by the partition Since 10n ≥ n ≥ 2m ≥ m + 1, 10n isndivisible by 2n

andnhence by 2m+1 , and similarly 1010 is divisible by
{n}, {1, n − 1}, {2, n − 2}, . . . . 210 and hence by 2m+1 . It follows that
(mod 102 + 1).

m
One way to see that this is optimal is to note that the N ≡ 1 + 1 + (−1) + (−1) ≡ 0
common sum can never be less than n, since n itself
Since N ≥ 1010 > 10n + 1 ≥ 102 + 1, it follows
n m
belongs to one of the boxes. This implies that k ≤ (1 +
· · · + n)/n = (n + 1)/2. Another argument is that if that N is composite.
k > (n + 1)/2, then there would have to be two boxes
with one number each (by the pigeonhole principle), but A5 We start with three lemmas.
such boxes could not have the same sum.
Lemma 1. If x, y ∈ G are nonzero orthogonal vectors, then
Remark. A much subtler question would be to find x ∗ x is parallel to y.
the smallest k (as a function of n) for which no such
arrangement exists.
Proof. Put z = x × y 6= 0, so that x, y, and z = x ∗ y are
A2 The only such functions are those of the form f (x) = nonzero and mutually orthogonal. Then w = x × z 6= 0, so
cx + d for some real numbers c, d (for which the prop- w = x ∗ z is nonzero and orthogonal to x and z. However, if
erty is obviously satisfied). To see this, suppose that f (x∗x)×y 6= 0, then w = x∗(x∗y) = (x∗x)∗y = (x∗x)×y
has the desired property. Then for any x ∈ R, is also orthogonal to y, a contradiction.
2f ′ (x) = f (x + 2) − f (x) Lemma 2. If x ∈ G is nonzero, and there exists y ∈ G

= (f (x + 2) − f (x + 1)) + (f (x + 1) − f (x)) nonzero and orthogonal to x, then x ∗ x = 0.
= f ′ (x + 1) + f ′ (x).
Proof. Lemma 1 implies that x ∗ x is parallel to both y and
′
Consequently, f (x + 1) = f (x). ′ x × y, so it must be zero.
Define the function g : R → R by g(x) = f (x + 1) − Lemma 3. If x, y ∈ G commute, then x × y = 0.
f (x), and put c = g(0), d = f (0). For all x ∈ R,
g ′ (x) = f ′ (x + 1) − f ′ (x) = 0, so g(x) = c identically,
and f ′ (x) = f (x + 1) − f (x) = g(x) = c, so f (x) = Proof. If x × y 6= 0, then x ∗ y = x × y = −y × x = −y ∗ x,
cx + d identically as desired. so x ∗ y 6= y ∗ x.
A3 If a = b = 0, then the desired result holds trivially,

We proceed now to the proof. Assume by way of con-
so we assume that at least one of a, b is nonzero. Pick
tradiction that there exist a, b ∈ G with a × b 6= 0. Put
any point (a0 , b0 ) ∈ R2 , and let L be the line given
c = a × b = a ∗ b, so that a, b, c are nonzero and lin-
by the parametric equation L(t) = (a0 , b0 ) + (a, b)t
early independent. Let e be the identity element of G.
for t ∈ R. By the chain rule and the given equation, we
d Since e commutes with a, b, c, by Lemma 3 we have
have dt (h◦ L) = h◦ L. If we write f = h◦ L : R → R,
e × a = e × b = e × c = 0. Since a, b, c span R3 ,
then f ′ (t) = f (t) for all t. It follows that f (t) = Cet
e × x = 0 for all x ∈ R3 , so e = 0.
for some constant C. Since |f (t)| ≤ M for all t, we
must have C = 0. It follows that h(a0 , b0 ) = 0; since Since b, c, and b × c = b ∗ c are nonzero and mutually
(a0 , b0 ) was an arbitrary point, h is identically 0 over orthogonal, Lemma 2 implies
all of R2 .
b ∗ b = c ∗ c = (b ∗ c) ∗ (b ∗ c) = 0 = e.
A4 Put
10n
Hence b ∗ c = c ∗ b, contradicting Lemma 3 because
N = 1010 + 1010 + 10n − 1.
n
b × c 6= 0. The desired result follows.
2
A6 First solution. Note that the hypotheses on f imply converges absolutely. The additional measure-theoretic
that f (x) > 0 for all x ∈ [0, +∞), so the integrand is a argument at the beginning is needed because one cannot
continuous function of f and the integral makes sense. bound − log(1 − t) by a fixed multiple of t uniformly
Rewrite the integral as for all t ∈ [0, 1).
Z ∞
f (x + 1)
Second solution. (Communicated by Paul Allen.) Let
1− dx, b > a be nonnegative integers. Then
0 f (x)
b b−1 Z 1
f (x) − f (x + 1) f (x + k) − f (x + k + 1)
Z
and suppose by way of contradiction that it converges
X
dx = dx
to a finite limit L. For n ≥ 0, define the Lebesgue a f (x) f (x + k)
k=a 0
measurable set Z 1Xb−1
f (x + k) − f (x + k + 1)
f (x + n + 1) = dx
In = {x ∈ [0, 1] : 1 − ≤ 1/2}. 0 k=a f (x + k)
f (x + n)
Z 1Xb−1
1
f (x + k) − f (x + k + 1)
Then L ≥ ∞ ≥ dx
P
n=0 2 (1 − µ(In )), so the latter sum con- f (x + a)
verges. In particular, there exists a nonnegative integer 0 k=a
N for which ∞
P Z 1
n=N (1 − µ(In )) < 1; the intersection f (x + a) − f (x + b)
= dx.
∞ ∞ 0 f (x + a)
[ \
I= In = [0, 1] − ([0, 1] − In )
Now since f (x) → 0, given a, we can choose an in-
n=N n=N
teger l(a) > a for which f (l(a)) < f (a + 1)/2; then
f (x+a)−f (x+l(a))
then has positive Lebesgue measure. f (x+a) ≥ 1− ff(a+1)
(l(a))
> 1/2 for all x ∈ [0, 1].
By Taylor’s theorem with remainder, for t ∈ [0, 1/2], Thus if we define a sequence of integers an by a0 = 0,
an+1 = l(an ), then
1
− log(1 − t) ≤ t + t2 sup ∞ ∞ Z an+1
f (x) − f (x + 1) f (x) − f (x + 1)
2
Z
t∈[0,1/2] (1 − t)
X
dx = dx
4 5 0 f (x) n=0 an
f (x)
= t + t2 ≤ t.
3 3 X∞ Z 1
> (1/2)dx,
For each nonnegative integer n ≥ N , we then have n=0 0
Z n
f (x + 1) and the final sum clearly diverges.
L≥ 1− dx
N f (x) Third solution. (By Joshua Rosenberg, communicated
n−1
XZ 1 by Catalin Zara.) If the original integral converges, then

f (x + i + 1)
= 1− dx on one hand the integrand (f (x) − f (x + 1))/f (x) =
f (x + i)
i=N 0 1 − f (x + 1)/f (x) cannot tend to 1 as x → ∞. On the
n−1
XZ
other hand, for any a ≥ 0,
f (x + i + 1)
≥ 1− dx
f (x + i)
i=N I f (a + 1)
n−1 Z
0<
3X f (x + i) f (a)
≥ log dx Z a+1
5 f (x + i + 1) 1
i=N I < f (x) dx
Z n−1 ! f (a) a
3 X f (x + i) 1
Z ∞
= log dx = (f (x) − f (x + 1)) dx
5 I f (x + i + 1) f (a) a
i=N
3 f (x + N )
Z Z ∞
f (x) − f (x + 1)
= log dx. ≤ dx,
5 I f (x + n) a f (x)
For each x ∈ I, log f (x + N )/f (x + n) is a strictly and the last expression tends to 0 as a → ∞. Hence by
increasing unbounded function of n. By R the mono- the squeeze theorem, f (a + 1)/f (a) → 0 as a → ∞, a
tone convergence theorem, the integral I log(f (x + contradiction.
N )/f (x + n)) dx grows without bound as n → +∞,
a contradiction. Thus the original integral diverges, as B1 First solution. No such sequence exists. If it did, then
desired. the Cauchy-Schwartz inequality would imply
Remark. This solution is motivated by the commonly- 8 = (a21 + a22 + · · · )(a41 + a42 + · · · )
used fact that an infinite product (1 + x1 )(1 + x2 ) · · ·
converges absolutely if and only if the sum x1 +x2 +· · · ≥ (a31 + a32 + · · · )2 = 9,
3
contradiction. This sequence has the property that for any positive in-
Second solution. (Communicated by Catalin Zara.) teger j, the sum of the j-th powers of the terms of sn,z
Suppose that such a sequence exists. If a2k ∈ [0, 1] for equals 1/z j if j is divisible by n and 0 otherwise. More-
all k, then a4k ≤ a2k for all k, and so over, any partial sum of j-th powers is bounded in ab-
solute value by n/|z|j .
4 = a41 + a42 + · · · ≤ a21 + a22 + · · · = 2, The desired sequence will be constructed as follows.
contradiction. There thus exists a positive integer k for Suppose that we have a finite sequence which has the
which a2k ≥ 1. However, in this case, for m large, correct sum of j-th powers for j = 1, . . . , m. (For
a2m 2m 2m instance, for m = 1, we may start with the single-
k > 2m and so a1 + a2 + · · · 6= 2m.
ton sequence 1.) We may then extend it to a new se-
Third solution. We generalize the second solution to quence which has the correct sum of j-th powers for
show that for any positive integer k, it is impossible for j = 1, . . . , m + 1, by appending k copies of sm+1,z for
a sequence a1 , a2 , . . . of complex numbers to satisfy suitable choices of a positive integer k and a complex
the given conditions in case the series ak1 +ak2 +· · · con- number z with |z| < m−2 . This last restriction ensures
verges absolutely. This includes the original problem by that the resulting infinite sequence a1 , a2 , . . . is such
taking k = 2, in which case the series a21 + a22 + · · · that for each positive integer m, the series am m
1 +a2 +· · ·
consists of nonnegative real numbers and so converges is convergent (though not absolutely convergent). Its
absolutely if it converges at all. partial sums include a subsequence equal to the con-
P∞
Since the sum i=1 |ai |k converges byPhypothesis, we stant value m, so the sum of the series must equal m as
∞
can find a positive integer n such that i=n+1 |ai |k < desired.
1. For each positive integer d, we then have
B2 The smallest distance is 3, achieved by A = (0, 0), B =
n ∞
X
kd
X (3, 0), C = (0, 4). To check this, it suffices to check
kd − ai ≤ |ai |kd < 1.

that AB cannot equal 1 or 2. (It cannot equal 0 because
i=1 i=n+1
if two of the points were to coincide, the three points
We thus have |a1 |, . . . , |an | ≤ 1, or else the would be collinear.)
Pn cannotkd
sum i=1 ai would be bounded in absolute value The triangle inequality implies that |AC − BC| ≤ AB,
by n independently of d. But if we put r = with equality if and only if A, B, C are collinear. If
max{|a1 |, . . . , |an |} > 1, we obtain another contradic- AB = 1, we may assume without loss of generality
tion because for any ǫ > 0, that A = (0, 0), B = (1, 0). To avoid collinearity, we

X n

must have AC = BC, but this forces C = (1/2, y) for
lim sup(r − ǫ) −kd
kd
ai > 0. some y ∈ R, a contradiction. (One can also treat this
d→∞
i=1
case by scaling by a factor of 2 to reduce to the case
AB = 2, treated in the next paragraph.)
For instance, this follows from applying the root test to
the rational function If AB = 2, then we may assume without loss of gener-
ality that A = (0, 0), B = (2, 0). The triangle inequal-
n n
∞
!
X 1 X X ity implies |AC − BC| ∈ {0, 1}. Also, for C = (x, y),
kz
= akd
i zd, AC 2 = x2 +y 2 and BC 2 = (2−x)2 +y 2 have the same
i=1
1 − a i d=0 i=1 parity; it follows that AC = BC. Hence c = (1, y) for
which has a pole within the circle |z| ≤ r−1/k . (An some y ∈ R, so y 2 and y 2 + 1 = BC 2 are consecutive
elementary proof is also possible.) perfect squares. This can only happen for y = 0, but
then A, B, C are collinear, a contradiction again.
FourthPsolution. (Communicated by Noam Elkies.)
Since k a2k = 2, for each positive integer k we have Remark. Manjul Bhargava points out that more gener-
a2k ≤ 2 and so a4k ≤ 2a2k P , with equality only for ally, a Heronian triangle (a triangle with integer sides
a2k ∈ {0, 2}. Thus to have k a4k = 4, there must and rational area) cannot have a side of length 1 or 2
be a single index k for which 2 (and again it is enough to treat the case of length 2).
Pak = 2, and the other ak
The original problem follows from this because a tri-
must all equal 0. But then k a2m k = 2m 6= 2m for
any positive integer m > 2. angle whose vertices have integer coordinates has area
equal to half an integer (by Pick’s formula or the ex-
Remark. Manjul Bhargava points out it is easy to con- plicit formula for the area as a determinant).
struct sequences of complex numbers with the desired
property if we drop the condition of absolute conver- B3 It is possible if and only if n ≥ 1005. Since
gence. Here is an inductive construction (of which sev-
eral variants are possible). For n = 1, 2, . . . and z ∈ C, 2009 × 2010
1 + · · · + 2009 = = 2010 × 1004.5,
define the finite sequence 2

1 2πij/n for n ≤ 1004, we can start with an initial distribution
sn,z = e : j = 0, . . . , n − 1 .
z in which each box Bi starts with at most i − 1 balls (so
4
in particular B1 is empty). From such a distribution, no so we get a solution if and only if bc − ad = 1, as

moves are possible, so we cannot reach the desired final claimed.
distribution. Second solution. (Communicated by Catalin Zara.)
Suppose now that n ≥ 1005. By the pigeonhole prin- Again, note that p and q must be nonzero. Write
ciple, at any time, there exists at least one index i for
which the box Bi contains at least i balls. We will de- p(x) = p0 + p1 x + · · · + pm xm
scribe any such index as being eligible. The following q(x) = q0 + q1 x + · · · + qn xn
sequence of operations then has the desired effect.
with pm , qn 6= 0, so that m = deg(p), n = deg(q).
(a) Find the largest eligible index i. If i = 1, proceed It is enough to derive a contradiction assuming that
to (b). Otherwise, move i balls from Bi to B1 , max{m, n} > 1, the remaining cases being treated as
then repeat (a). in the first solution.
(b) At this point, only the index i = 1 can be eligi- Put R(x) = p(x)q(x+1)−p(x+1)q(x). Since m+n ≥
ble (so it must be). Find the largest index j for 2 by assumption, the coefficient of xm+n−1 in R(x)
which Bj is nonempty. If j = 1, proceed to (c). must vanish. By easy algebra, this coefficient equals
Otherwise, move 1 ball from B1 to Bj ; in case (m − n)pm qn , so we must have m = n > 1.
this makes j eligible, move j balls from Bj to B1 . For k = 1, . . . , 2m − 2, the coefficient of xk in R(x) is
Then repeat (b).
X j i
(c) At this point, all of the balls are in B1 . For i = − (pi qj − pj qi )
2, . . . , 2010, move one ball from B1 to Bi n times. k−i k−j
i+j>k,j>i
After these operations, we have the desired distribution. and must vanish. For k = 2m − 2, the only summand
is for (i, j) = (m − 1, m), so pm−1 qm = pm qm−1 .
B4 First solution. The pairs (p, q) satisfying the given
equation are those of the form p(x) = ax + b, q(x) = Suppose now that h ≥ 1 and that pi qj = pj qi is
cx + d for a, b, c, d ∈ R such that bc − ad = 1. We will known to vanish whenever j > i ≥ h. (By the pre-
see later that these indeed give solutions. vious paragraph, we initially have this for h = m − 1.)
Take k = m + h − 2 and note that the conditions
Suppose p and q satisfy the given equation; note that
i+j > h, j ≤ m force i ≥ h−1. Using the hypothesis,
neither p nor q can be identically zero. By subtracting
we see that the only possible nonzero contribution to the
the equations
coefficient of xk in R(x) is from (i, j) = (h − 1, m).
Hence ph−1 qm = pm qh−1 ; since pm , qm 6= 0, this im-
p(x)q(x + 1) − p(x + 1)q(x) = 1
plies ph−1 qj = pj qh−1 whenever j > h − 1.
p(x − 1)q(x) − p(x)q(x − 1) = 1,
By descending induction, we deduce that pi qj = pj qi
we obtain the equation whenever j > i ≥ 0. Consequently, p(x) and q(x)
are scalar multiples of each other, forcing R(x) = 0, a
p(x)(q(x + 1) + q(x − 1)) = q(x)(p(x + 1) + p(x − 1)). contradiction.
Third solution. (Communicated by David Feldman.)
The original equation implies that p(x) and q(x) have As in the second solution, we note that there are no so-
no common nonconstant factor, so p(x) divides p(x + lutions where m = deg(p), n = deg(q) are distinct
1) + p(x − 1). Since each of p(x + 1) and p(x − 1) has and m + n ≥ 2. Suppose p, q form a solution with
the same degree and leading coefficient as p, we must m = n ≥ 2. The desired identity asserts that the matrix
have
p(x) p(x + 1)
p(x + 1) + p(x − 1) = 2p(x). q(x) q(x + 1)
If we define the polynomials r(x) = p(x + 1) − p(x), has determinant 1. This condition is preserved by re-
s(x) = q(x + 1) − q(x), we have r(x + 1) = r(x), and placing q(x) with q(x)−tp(x) for any real number t. In
similarly s(x + 1) = s(x). Put particular, we can choose t so that deg(q(x) − tp(x)) <
m; we then obtain a contradiction.
a = r(0), b = p(0), c = s(0), d = q(0).
B5 First solution. The answer is no. Suppose other-
Then r(x) = a, s(x) = c for all x ∈ Z, and hence wise. For the condition to make sense, f must be
identically; consequently, p(x) = ax+b, q(x) = cx+d differentiable. Since f is strictly increasing, we must
for all x ∈ Z, and hence identically. For p and q of this have f ′ (x) ≥ 0 for all x. Also, the function f ′ (x) is
form, strictly increasing: if y > x then f ′ (y) = f (f (y)) >
f (f (x)) = f ′ (x). In particular, f ′ (y) > 0 for all
p(x)q(x + 1) − p(x + 1)q(x) = bc − ad, y ∈ R.
5
For any x0 , if f (x0 ) = b and f ′ (x0 ) = a > 0, then verge. One then gets a contradiction from any reason-
f ′ (x) > a for x > x0 and thus f (x) ≥ a(x − x0 ) + b able lower bound on f (y) for y large, e.g., the bound
for x ≥ x0 . Then either b < x0 or a = f ′ (x0 ) = f (x) ≥ αx2 from the second solution. (One can also
f (f (x0 )) = f (b) ≥ a(b − x0 ) + b. In the latter case, start with a linear lower bound f (x) ≥ βx, then use the
b ≤ a(x0 + 1)/(a + 1) ≤ x0 + 1. We conclude in either integral expression for g to deduce that g(x) ≤ γ log x,
case that f (x0 ) ≤ x0 + 1 for all x0 ≥ −1. which in turn forces f (x) to grow exponentially.)
It must then be the case that f (f (x)) = f ′ (x) ≤ 1 for
all x, since otherwise f (x) > x + 1 for large x. Now B6 For any polynomial p(x), let [p(x)]A denote the n × n
by the above reasoning, if f (0) = b0 and f ′ (0) = a0 > matrix obtained by replacing each entry Aij of A by
0, then f (x) > a0 x + b0 for x > 0. Thus for x > p(Aij ); thus A[k] = [xk ]A. Let P (x) = xn +
max{0, −b0/a0 }, we have f (x) > 0 and f (f (x)) > an−1 xn−1 + · · · + a0 denote the characteristic poly-
a0 x + b0 . But then f (f (x)) > 1 for sufficiently large nomial of A. By the Cayley-Hamilton theorem,
x, a contradiction.
Second solution. (Communicated by Catalin Zara.) 0 = A · P (A)
Suppose such a function exists. Since f is strictly
= An+1 + an−1 An + · · · + a0 A
increasing and differentiable, so is f ◦ f = f ′ . In
particular, f is twice differentiable; also, f ′′ (x) = = A[n+1] + an−1 A[n] + · · · + a0 A[1]
f ′ (f (x))f ′ (x) is the product of two strictly increasing = [xp(x)]A.
nonnegative functions, so it is also strictly increasing
and nonnegative. In particular, we can choose α > 0 Thus each entry of A is a root of the polynomial xp(x).
and M ∈ R such that f ′′ (x) > 4α for all x ≥ M . Then
for all x ≥ M , Now suppose m ≥ n + 1. Then
f (x) ≥ f (M ) + f ′ (M )(x − M ) + 2α(x − M )2 . 0 = [xm+1−n p(x)]A

In particular, for some M ′ > M , we have f (x) ≥ αx2 = A[m+1] + an−1 A[m] + · · · + a0 A[m+1−n]
for all x ≥ M ′ .
Pick T > 0 so that αT 2 > M ′ . Then for x ≥ T , since each entry of A is a root of xm+1−n p(x). On the
f (x) > M ′ and so f ′ (x) = f (f (x)) ≥ αf (x)2 . Now other hand,
2T 2T
1 1 f ′ (t)
Z Z
− = dt ≥ α dt; 0 = Am+1−n · P (A)
f (T ) f (2T ) f (t)2
T T = Am+1 + an−1 Am + · · · + a0 Am+1−n .
however, as T → ∞, the left side of this inequality
tends to 0 while the right side tends to +∞, a contra- Therefore if Ak = A[k] for m + 1 − n ≤ k ≤ m,
diction. then Am+1 = A[m+1] . The desired result follows by
Third solution. (Communicated by Noam Elkies.) induction on m.
Since f is strictly increasing, for some y0 , we can de- Remark. David Feldman points out that the result is
fine the inverse function g(y) of f for y ≥ y0 . Then best possible in the following sense: there exist exam-
x = g(f (x)), and we may differentiate to find that ples of n × n matrices A for which Ak = A[k] for
1 = g ′ (f (x))f ′ (x) = g ′ (f (x))f (f (x)). It follows k = 1, . . . , n but An+1 6= A[n+1] .
that g ′ (y) = 1/f (y) for y ≥ yR0 ; since g takes arbi-
∞
trarily large values, the integral y0 dy/f (y) must di-

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The Fifty-Sixth William Lowell Putnam Mathematical Competition

Saturday, December 2, 1995

and   with   . Then of a system of linear first-order differential equations

H H ; H Hd ;>=,==; H_fe H!_ ; H_H N

Manjul Bhargava and Kiran Kedlaya

 X  7 r Xq H D{n}2~|   n|  J 

 D % J *  D % J  &@% FD % J D % J 

B–4 Let P s X denotes the coefficient of % in the expansion

Manjul Bhargava, Kiran Kedlaya, and Lenny Ng

Z J S#UaÊ Z J Ê J !R!Ê!9+à.J á_fâ-Un~Ê +¦ç]/5/ , where ~+ H / is the Eu-

A–6 Let A, B, C denote distinct points with integer coordi- √

(|AB| + |BC|)2 < 8 · [ABC] + 1

Manjul Bhargava, Kiran Kedlaya, and Lenny Ng

   

max(r, s) = (r + s + |r − s|)/2. 2b2n+1 + b2n = 2an an+1 + 2an−1 an + a2n−1 + a2n

p(x) = q(x)r(x) so that

But responding integral for some polynomial with all of its

|ri | ≥ . If |ri | > 1,

Manjul Bhargava, Kiran Kedlaya, and Lenny Ng

Pm By symmetry, the area of the octagon can be expressed

√ and that the final integral converges absolutely by com-

max{a, b, c} ≥ (abc)1/3 ≥ (2r)1/3 > r1/3 . is equal to z −N times a polynomial of degree 2N .

X X B–6 For each point P in B, let SP be the set of points with

ased so that, when tossed, it has probability "#$ &%'()"

Manjul Bhargava, Kiran Kedlaya, and Lenny Ng

converge? B6 Let p be a prime number. Prove that the determinant of

Kiran Kedlaya and Lenny Ng

since there is a palindrome in each interval [kb, (k + ≡ xy p z p + yz p xp + zxp y p

A1 Let be a fixed positive integer. How many ways are

'   " #( *)"#  ' % %   % #( *)"#

and continue until 6 the

A4 Suppose that @ % AB"CD"EF"G are real numbers, IK H J

dips below the -axis. A return is a maximal sequence

B5 Let CDE , and G be equidistant points on the circumfer-

V ZX S V [ H V V \ V ]^   0  'b6 (   'ac ( 0 d 6 d c  0  'b6 ( 0 d 6 !

Manjul Bhargava, Kiran Kedlaya, and Lenny Ng

n−1 and it suffices to show that the sum onP

A3 Define a sequence {un }∞ n=0 by u0 = u1 = u2 = 1, and

is a sequence of squares, all of the same color, starting Y 1 + xn+1

mn − A + B. Hence adding the i-th square increases the expected

by the symmetry in how the Ri are defined. Hence = 2 ln 2 − 1,

A1 We proceed by induction, with base case 1 = 20 30 . segment joining (n − 1, 3) to (n − 1, 2) results in a path

u)/(1 + u) to obtain is an alternating series whose terms strictly decrease to

then the given equation rewrites as We conclude that

g(b − y) + log g ′ (y) + g(y) − y = b − y,

Second solution: We start by recalling a form of the yielding

We change to cylindrical coordinates, i.e., we put r =

Qn (x) = (1 + ix)n − ω(1 − ix)n Write r1 = OP, r2 = OQ, θ = ∠P OQ, so that

we find length of the altitude from (−1,

Variant (suggested by David Savitt): if S contained k + In general, if xn is a sequence with limn→∞ xn = c,

In fact, all we will need is that an → ∞ as n → ∞. (k+1)/k k+1

Hence by the differential equation

Kiran Kedlaya and Lenny Ng

f (x + n) − f (x) B2 Given that A, B, and C are noncollinear points in the

A1 The largest such k is ⌊ n+1 n

for n odd, it is achieved by the partition Since 10n ≥ n ≥ 2m ≥ m + 1, 10n isndivisible by 2n

(mod 102 + 1).

2f ′ (x) = f (x + 2) − f (x) Lemma 2. If x ∈ G is nonzero, and there exists y ∈ G

A3 If a = b = 0, then the desired result holds trivially,

in particular B1 is empty). From such a distribution, no so we get a solution if and only if bc − ad = 1, as

and with . Then of a system of linear first-order differential equations

H H ; H Hd ;>=,==; H_fe H!_ ; H_H N

X 7 r Xq H D{n}2~| n| J

D % J * D % J &@% FD % JD % J

B–4 Let P s X denotes the coefficient of % in the expansion

Z J S#UaÊ Z J Ê J !R!Ê!9+à.J á_fâ-Un~Ê +¦ç]/5/ , where ~+ H / is the Eu-

|ri | ≥ . If |ri | > 1,

ased so that, when tossed, it has probability "#$ &%'()"

' " #( )"# ' % % % #( )"#

A4 Suppose that @ % AB"CD"EF"G are real numbers, IK H J

B5 Let CDE , and G be equidistant points on the circumfer-

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