ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps

Week 7 Problem Solutions

IC Engine Air Standard Cycles

Air Standard Cycles

Problem 7.1
An ideal (air standard) 4-stroke Otto cycle engine has a total displacement of 2.0 litres
and a compression ratio of 11. The heating power input is 300 kW at 6,000 rpm and air
is induced at a pressure of 1 bar with minimal pressure drop at a temperature of 300 K.
Draw the p-V diagram and calculate:
a) peak cycle pressure and temperature
b) net work output per cycle
c) The thermal efficiency

Assume R for air is 287 J kg-1K-1, cv = 718 J kg-1K-1 and γ = 1.4.

Solution

p
3 𝑟𝑐 =
𝑉1
= 11
𝑉2
qQININ 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑑 + 𝑉2
wWOUT
OUT
𝑉1
→ 𝑉1 = 𝑉𝑑 +
𝑟𝑐
2 4 𝑟c 11
𝑉1 = 𝑉d =2× = 2.2 litres
𝑟c − 1 10
wININ qQOUT
OUT
W
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉d = 0.2 litres
Vd 1
2.0 litres
V2 V1 v
0.2 litres 2.2 litres

ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps

Wk 7 Problem Solutions – Idealised engine cycles

 a) Peak cycle pressure and temperature
The peak pressure and temperature will occur at the end of combustion at State 3.

Given conditions are:

𝑝1 = 1 bar = 1 × 105 Pa, 𝑇1 = 300𝐾
From the compression ratio and displacement volume, we have also calculated 𝑉1 (as
shown next to the plot above). We therefore know the conditions at Point 1 and can use
the ideal gas law to calculate the mass of air in the cycle:
𝑝1 𝑉1 1 × 105 × 2.2 × 10−3
𝑚air = = = 0.002555 kg
𝑅𝑇1 287 × 300
We can now begin to work our way around the cycle from Point 1.
Isentropic expansion from 1→2
For an isentropic process:
𝑝𝑉 𝛾 = constant and 𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = constant
Therefore:
𝑝1 𝑉2 𝛾
=( )
𝑝2 𝑉1
𝑉1 𝛾
→ 𝑝2 = 𝑝1 ( ) = 𝑝1 𝑟c 𝛾 = 1 × 105 × 111.4 = 2,870,448 Pa = 28.7 bar
𝑉2
𝑇1 𝑉2 𝛾−1
=( )
𝑇2 𝑉1
𝑉1 𝛾−1
→ 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 ( ) = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾−1 = 300 × 111.4−1 = 783K
𝑉2
The first law for a closed system is:
𝑄 = 𝑊 + ∆𝑈
An isentropic process is adiabatic (no heat transfer) and therefore Q = 0, so the first law
reduces to:
𝑊 = −∆𝑈
From the Engineering Databook though, we find that the change in the internal energy
of an ideal gas is given by:
∆𝑈 = 𝑚𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇
Therefore, the work input during the compression process, 𝑊in , is:

2
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
2
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 𝑊in = 𝑚air 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 0.002555 kg × 718 J kg −1 K −1 × (783 K − 300 K) = 886 J

Constant volume heat addition 2→3

The heating power (W) input is given, but in order to calculate State 3 we need to know
the heat input energy per cycle (J). The engine speed is 6,000 revolutions per minute or
6,000/60=100 revolutions per second. It is a 4-stroke engine, and therefore the number
of engine cycles per second is 100/2=50 cycles per second. The heat input per cycle,
Qin, is therefore

𝑄̇in 300,000 W
𝑄in = = = 6 kJ
Cycles/second 50 cycles/second

Again, applying the First Law for a closed system:

𝑄 = 𝑊 + ∆𝑈
This time however, the work, W, is zero since the system is at constant volume (neither
expanding nor contracting). The heat input, Qin, is therefore:
𝑄in = ∆𝑈 = 𝑚air 𝑐𝑣 ∆𝑇 = 𝑚air 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇2 )
Rearranging for T3:
𝑄in 6,000
𝑻𝟑 = 𝑇2 + = 783 + = 𝟒, 𝟎𝟓𝟒 𝐊
𝑚air 𝑐𝑣 0.002555 × 718
This value probably seems high. This is mainly because we have an idealised cycle with
constant specific heat, cv, and no heat losses. We will see in Weeks 8 & 9 that peak
combustion temperatures in real spark ignition engines are around 2,500°C.
For a constant volume process: p/T=constant (again, see Databook) and:
𝑝2 𝑝3 𝑇3 4,054
= → 𝒑𝟑 = 𝑝2 = 28.7 × = 𝟏𝟒𝟗 𝐛𝐚𝐫
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇2 783

We have now calculated the peak cycle temperature and pressure as required (i.e. T3
and p3).
We can now carry on around the cycle if we wish and calculate the work output during
the expansion process 3→4.
Isentropic expansion 3→4
The process is the same as for the compression from 1→2, except the gas is now
expanding, the pressure and temperature are decreasing and there is work output
instead of input. Again, for an isentropic process:

3
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
3
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 𝑝𝑉 𝛾 = const and 𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = const
Therefore:
𝑝3 𝑉4 𝛾 𝑉1 𝛾
=( ) =( )
𝑝4 𝑉3 𝑉2
𝑉1 −𝛾
→ 𝑝4 = 𝑝3 ( ) = 𝑝1 𝑟c −𝛾 = 149 × 105 × 11−1.4 = 519,082 Pa = 5.19 bar
𝑉2
𝑇3 𝑉4 𝛾−1 𝑉1 𝛾−1
=( ) =( )
𝑇4 𝑉3 𝑉2

𝑉1 1−𝛾
→ 𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ( ) = 𝑇3 𝑟𝑐 1−𝛾 = 4,054 × 111−1.4 = 1,554K
𝑉2
Again, apply the First Law for a closed system with Q = 0 for an isentropic process:
𝑊out = −∆𝑈 = 𝑚air 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) = 0.002555 × 718 × (4,054 − 1,554) = 4,586 J

b) Net work output

The net work output is equal to the work output during expansion from 3→4, Wout,
minus the work input during compression from 1→2, Win. We have calculated both of
these and so can calculate the net work output:
𝑊net = 𝑊out − 𝑊in = 4,586 − 886 = 3.7 kJ

c) Thermal efficiency
The thermal efficiency is:
𝑊net 3,700
𝜂= = = 0.6167
𝑄in 6,000
However, we could have taken a big shortcut to calculate the answers to b) and c). We
know that the efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle is related to the compression ratio and is
given by:
1−𝛾
𝜂 = 1 − 𝑟c = 1 − 11−0.4 = 0.6168
which to within a small rounding error is the same as the value we calculated by
working round the cycle. This should not be that surprising though, as the formula for
efficiency as a function of compression ratio was derived using exactly the same
equations. The net work output in part b) could then be calculated as:

1−𝛾
𝑊net = 𝜂𝑄in = (1 − 𝑟c )𝑄in = 0.6168 × 6,000 = 3.7 kJ

4
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
4
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 You should therefore think carefully about how to solve a problem, as there may be an
easier way to find a solution without having to work around the whole cycle.
If we do decide to complete the cycle, we could also calculate the heat output, Qout,
during the constant volume process from 4→1. This is a constant volume process as per
the process 2→3, but with heat output, Qout, and a reduction in temperature and
pressure back to the starting point 1:
𝑄out = 𝑚air 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇4 − 𝑇1 ) = 0.002555 × 718 × (1,554 − 300) = 2,300 J

Adding the heat and work inputs and outputs to the diagram:

p
3
𝑄in = 6,000qJIN

w𝑊OUT
out = 4,586 J

2 4

wINJ q𝑄OUT
out = 2,300 J
𝑊in = 886
Vd 1
2.0 litres
V2 V1 v
0.2 litres 2.2 litres

If we calculate the energy balance for the cycle:

∑𝑄 = ∑𝑊

∑ 𝑄 = 𝑄in − 𝑄out = 𝑄net = 6,000 − 2,300 = 3,700 J

∑ 𝑊 = 𝑊out − 𝑊in = 𝑊net = 4,586 − 886 = 3,700 J

We find that the energies balance for the cycle and Wnet = Qnet, as expected.
Another thing to note is that you will not need to derive the pressure, temperature, heat
input/output and work input/output relationships at every step – you can simply take
and apply the relationships from Pages 9 (Otto cycle) and 10 (Diesel) cycle of the IC
Engines Datasheet for the module. This example solution will hopefully help you to see
where the relationships come from though.

5
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
5
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 Problem 7.2
An ideal (air standard) 4-stroke, 4-cylinder Diesel engine has a displacement of 1.5
litres, a compression ratio of 16 and a cut-off ratio of 3. Air is induced at 300 K and a
pressure of 1 bar. Draw the p-V diagram and calculate:
a) The temperature after compression
b) The temperature after heat addition
c) The temperature after expansion
d) The heat input and net work output per kg of air
e) The thermal efficiency
f) The power output at 2,000 rpm
Assume R=287 J kg-1K-1, cp= 1005 J kg-1 K-1 cv= 718 J kg-1 K-1 and γ = 1.4 for air and that
the calorific value of Diesel is 43 MJ kg-1.
Solution

Displacement volume, 𝑉d = 1.5 litres = 1.5×10−3 m3

𝑉1 = 𝑉2 + 𝑉d
𝑉1 𝑉1
Compression ratio, 𝑟c = =
𝑉2 𝑉1 −𝑉d

𝑉𝑑 𝑟𝑐 1.5 litres×16
∴ 𝑉1 = = = 1.6 litres=1.6×10-3 m3
𝑟c − 1 16 − 1
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + 𝑉𝑑 = 1.6 − 1.5 = 0.1 litres = 0.1 × 10−3 m3
𝑉3
Cut-off ratio, 𝑟𝑐𝑜 = (by definition)
𝑉2

∴ 𝑉3 = 𝑟co 𝑉2 = 3 × 0.1 = 0.3 litres = 0.3×10-3 m3

6
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
6
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 (Note that there is work output
p during Diesel cycle heat input,
since the gas is expanding)

Q23 W23
2 3
W34
4
Q41
W12 1

V2 V3 V1 V
0.1 l 0.3 l 1.6 l

𝑝1 = 1 bar = 1 × 105 Pa (given)

T1 = 300K (given)
(a) Temperature after compression
Isentropic compression from 1→2
As per the Otto cycle example in Problem 7.1:

𝑇2 𝑉1 𝛾−1
=( ) = 𝑟c 𝛾−1
𝑇1 𝑉2
→ 𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑐 𝛾−1 = 300 × 161.4−1 = 𝟗𝟎𝟗K

(b) The temperature after heat addition

Unlike the Otto cycle, the heat addition is isobaric (constant pressure) from 2→3.
From the Databook, for a constant pressure process:
𝑉
= constant
𝑇
𝑉3 𝑉2
→ =
𝑇3 𝑇2
𝑉3
∴ 𝑻𝟑 = 𝑇2 = 𝑇2 𝑟co = 909 × 3 = 𝟐, 𝟕𝟐𝟕 K
𝑉2

(c) The temperature after expansion

7
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
7
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 Isentropic expansion 3→4
The calculation is the same as for the Otto cycle, except the isentropic expansion starts
at the volume V3, which is no longer the same as V2.
For an isentropic process: 𝑇𝑉 𝛾−1 = constant

𝑇3 𝑉4 𝛾−1
→ =( )
𝑇4 𝑉 3

but 𝑉4 = 𝑉1
𝑉4 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑟c
∴ = = =
𝑉3 𝑉3 𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑟co

𝑟co 𝛾−1 3 0.4

𝑻𝟒 = 𝑇3 ( ) = 2,727 ( ) = 𝟏, 𝟑𝟗𝟔K
𝑟c 16

d) Heat input and net work output per kilogram of air

From the Engineering Databook, for a constant pressure process:

qin = q23 = cp(T3 - T2) = 1005 ✕ (2,727-909) =1,827 kJ kg-1

Note that for the heat input in the Diesel cycle we are using cp, rather than cv that was
used for the Otto cycle. This is because the heat input is now at constant pressure instead
of constant volume. Note also that we have been asked to calculate per kg of air (lowercase
q [J kg-1]), and so don’t need to multiply by the mass as we did in Problem 7.1.
There are a few ways that we could calculate the net work output. From the information
we already know however, we can first calculate the heat rejected in the constant volume
heat rejection from 4→1:

qout = q41 = cv(T4 - T1) = 718✕(1,396-300) =787 kJ kg-1

And then we know that the net work output is equal to the net heat input for a closed
engine cycle. Therefore:
wnet = qnet = q23 - q41 = 1,827 – 787 = 1,040 kJ kg-1

e) Thermal efficiency
𝑤net 1,040
Thermal efficiency, 𝜂 = = 1,827 = 0.569
𝑞𝑖𝑛

As a double-check on this value, we can use the equation for ideal Diesel cycle thermal
efficiency based on compression and cut-off ratios:
1−𝛾
𝛾
𝑟c
(𝑟co − 1) 16−0.4 (31.4 − 1)
𝜂 = 1− = 1− = 0.569
𝛾(𝑟co − 1) 1.4(3 − 1)

8
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
8
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 Again, as with Problem 7.1, we could have used this result in part d) to calculate the net
work output:
1−𝛾 𝛾
𝑟c (𝑟co −1)
𝑤net = 𝜂𝑞in = (1 − ) 𝑞in = 0.569 × 1,827 = 1,040 kJ kg −1 ,
𝛾(𝑟co −1)

which agrees with the previous calculation from the net heat input.

f) Power output at 2,000 rpm

Each engine cycle produces 1,040 kJ of net work per kg of air. To calculate the power
output, we need to calculate the mass of air (since we are asked for the power output and
not the power output per kg of air) and the time to complete one cycle.
From the known conditions at State 1 and the ideal gas law:
𝑝1 𝑉1 1 × 105 × 1.6 × 10−3
𝑚air = = = 0.00186 kg = 1.86 g
𝑅𝑇1 300 × 287
The net work per cycle is then:
𝑊net = 𝑤net 𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 = 1,040 kJ kg −1 × 0.00186 kg = 1.93 kJ

The engine is stated to be a 4-stroke, i.e. there are 2 revolutions per engine cycle.
There are 2,000 revolutions per minute, which is 2000/60 = 33.33 revolutions per second.
There are therefore 33.33/2 = 16.67 cycles per second.
The power output is then:
𝑊̇net = 𝑊net × cycles/second = 1.93 kJ × 16.67 cycles/sec = 𝟑𝟐. 𝟐 kW

Mean Effective Pressure

Problem 7.3
Calculate the brake mean effective pressure of the engines in the table at the peak
torque and peak power points.
Solution
Mean effective pressure is defined as:

𝑊net 𝑊̇net 𝑛𝑐 2𝜋𝑛c 𝜏

𝑝me = = =
𝑉d 𝑉d 𝑛 𝑉d
where:

9
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
9
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 pme = Mean effective pressure (Pa)
Vd = Engine displacement (m3)
nc = Number of revolutions per cycle (4-stroke: 2, 2-stroke:1)
n = Engine speed (revolutions per second)
τ = Torque (Nm)
Wnet = Net work output per cycle (J)

𝑊̇net = Net power output (W)

‘Brake’ values are those based on the actual engine output power and torque.
The calculation for the first engine in the table is as follows:
Ford Ecoboost 1.0 138 PS
BMEP at maximum power:

𝑊̇net = 103 kW
𝑛 = 6,000 rpm / 60 = 100 rps
Engine is 4-stroke, ∴ 𝑛c = 2

𝑊̇net 𝑛𝑐 103,000 × 2
𝑝me = = = 2.06 MPa = 20.6 bar
𝑉d 𝑛 0.999 × 10−3 × 100
BMEP at maximum torque:
2𝜋𝑛c 𝜏 2𝜋 × 2 × 180 Nm
𝑝me = = = 2.26 MPa = 22.6 Bar
𝑉d 0.999 × 10−3

10
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
10
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 Completing the table, taking care to note whether an engine is 2-stroke or 4-stroke:

Engine Engine type Cylinders Vd (litres) Comp. Max. Max. BMEP @ BMEP @
(Vehicle) ratio power torque Max Max
Power torque
Ford 4-stroke, 3 0.999 10 103 kW 180 Nm
Ecoboost spark @ 6,000 @ 1,500-
1.0 138PS ignition, rpm 5,000 rpm 20.6 bar 22.6 bar
(Fiesta/Foc- turbocharged
us cars)
Alfa Romeo 4-stroke, 4 2.143 15.5 132 kW 380 Nm
2.2 JTD compression @3,750 @1,750
19.7 bar 22.3 bar
(Guilia car) ignition, rpm rpm
turbocharged
Mazda 1.5 4-stroke, 4 1.496 13 97 kW 152 Nm
SkyActiv-G spark @7,000 @ 4,500
(MX5 car) ignition, rpm rpm 11.1 bar 12.8 bar
naturally
aspirated
F136 F V8 4-stroke, 8 4.497 14 419 kW 540 Nm
(Ferrari 458 Spark @9,000 @6,000
car) Ignition, rpm rpm 12.4 bar 15.1 bar
naturally
aspirated
Scania 4-stroke, 8 16.4 16.7 566 kW 3,183 Nm
DC16 385A compression @1,800 @1,500
23.0 bar 24.4 bar
(Scania ignition, rpm rpm
trucks) turbocharged
Sulzer RTA- 2-stroke, 14 25,602 20 80,080 -
96C (Ships) compression kW @102
18.4 bar -
ignition, rpm
turbocharged
Mercedes 4-stroke, 6 1.6 ? 625 kW / -
AMG F1 spark 10,500
M10 ignition, rpm 44.6 bar -
(Formula 1 turbocharged
2020)
Renault 4-stroke, 10 3.0 13 708 kW / -
RS25 V10 spark 19,000
(Formula 1 ignition, rpm 14.9 bar -
2005) naturally
aspirated
Honda 2-stroke, 4 0.499 ? 149 kW -
NSR500 spark @12,000
(Racing ignition, rpm 14.9 bar -
motorbike naturally
2001) aspirated

11
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
11
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 Notes about the solution
The table is colour coded:
Red: Spark ignition, turbocharged
Blue: Compression ignition, turbocharged
Green: Spark ignition, naturally aspirated
‘Naturally aspirated’ means that the inlet air is drawn into the cylinder by movement of
the piston with atmospheric pressure at the engine inlet. Turbochargers recover energy
from the exhaust gas to increase the inlet air pressure and density to the engine. They
will be covered further in Week 9.
Things to note about the trends between engines and engine types:
- The BMEP limit for naturally aspirated spark ignition gasoline engines is about
15 bar, as can be seen from the values for the 2005 Formula 1 engine, the Ferrari
458 engine and the 2-stroke Honda racing bike engine. A more typical, mass-
produced naturally aspirated gasoline engine is the Mazda Skyactiv-G with a
BMEP of around 13 (Worked Example 7.1). This limit on BMEP arises:
- Because the heat input per cycle is limited by the amount of fuel that
can be burnt with the air available in the cylinder at atmospheric
pressure (combustion of the fuel consumes the oxygen). The net work
per cycle is then limited by the heat input.
- And because of the limits of mechanical efficiency.
- Turbocharged engines have a higher BMEP, as they have a higher inlet air
density and therefore a greater mass of air in the cylinder to support combustion.
More fuel can be burnt giving greater heat input and thereby greater net work
output.
- Diesel (compression ignition) engines are almost always turbocharged. Naturally
aspirated diesel engines have a low BMEP, as the quantity of fuel that can be
burnt is limited by production of smoke. Turbocharging allows a greater quantity
of fuel to be burnt without producing smoke and thereby a higher BMEP. This
will be covered further in Weeks 8/9. Diesel engines can have very high air
intake pressures with turbocharging – as high as ~4 bar in some engines.
Turbocharged gasoline engines however may begin to knock with high boost
pressure, as the in-cylinder temperatures will be greater. Diesel engines do not
suffer from knock, so in general can have higher turbocharger boost pressures
and a higher BMEP (around ~24 bar as per the Scania truck engine).
- The current generation of small, turbocharged gasoline engines such as the Ford
Ecoboost break this trend though and have a very high BMEP, similar to a turbo-
Diesel engine. They achieve this by using direct injection (fuel is sprayed directly
into the cylinder) to cool the cylinder and reduce the likelihood of knock, and by
reducing the compression ratio slightly. It should be noted though that this is the
highest output variant of this engine.

12
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
12
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 Problem 7.4

The Scania truck engine in the table in Problem 7.3 has a brake specific fuel
consumption of 204 g/kWh at maximum power (566 kW @ 1,800 rpm). Calculate the
cycle temperatures and pressures assuming an air standard Diesel cycle and intake
conditions of 3.5 bar and 50°C. Assume the calorific value of the diesel fuel is 42.7
MJ/kg (given in the engine manufacturer’s specifications). Calculate the indicated
efficiency, mechanical efficiency and brake efficiency of the engine.

Solution

If 204 grams of fuel are burnt per kWh of work output this is 204/3.6 = 56.67 g fuel per
MJ work output (1 kWh = 3.6 MJ) or, taking the inverse, 0.01765 MJ work per g fuel =
17.65 MJ work per kg fuel.

The brake thermal efficiency is then:

𝑊net 17.65 MJ work/kg fuel
𝜂brake = = = 0.413
𝑄in 42.7 MJ heat / kg fuel

𝑉d = 16.4 × 10−3 m3
𝑟𝑐 = 16.7
𝑟𝑐 16.7
𝑉1 = 𝑉d = 16.4 × = 17.44 litres = 17.44 × 10−3 m3
𝑟𝑐 − 1 15.7
𝑉2 = 𝑉1 − 𝑉𝑑 = 17.44 − 16.4 = 1.04 litres = 1.04 × 10−3 m3

𝑝1 𝑉1 3.5 × 105 × 17.44 × 10−3

𝑚𝑎𝑖𝑟 = = = 0.06585 kg
𝑅𝑇1 287 × (50 + 273)

13
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
13
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 p

Q23 W23
2 3
W34
4
Q41
W12 1

V2 V3 V1 V
1.04 litres 17.44 litres

Isentropic compression 1→2

𝛾
𝑝2 = 𝑝1 𝑟𝑐 = 3.5 × 16.71.4 = 180 bar
𝛾−1
𝑇2 = 𝑇1 𝑟𝑐 = (50 + 273) ∙ 16.70.4 = 996 K
𝑊12 = 𝑚air 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇2 − 𝑇1 ) = 0.06585 × 718 × (996 − 323) = 31.82 kJ

Isobaric (constant pressure) heat addition 2→3

Specific fuel consumption is 56.67 g per MJ work output and the power output is 566
kW, therefore the fuel mass flow rate is:

𝑚̇fuel = 56.67 g fuel per MJ work × 0.566 MJ work per s. = 32.08g s −1 = 0.03208 kg s−1

At 1,800 rpm, a 4-stroke engine will complete 1,800/2/60=15 cycles per second.
The fuel injected per cycle is therefore:
𝑚̇fuel 0.03208
𝑚fuel = = = 0.00214 kg
cycles/second 15
The heat input per cycle, Qin, is therefore:
𝑄in = 𝑚fuel ∆ℎ𝑐 = 0.00214 × 42.7 × 106 = 91.31 kJ
where Δhc is the heat of combustion of the fuel.

𝑄in 91,310
𝑇3 = 𝑇2 + = 996 + = 2,376 K
𝑚air 𝑐𝑝 0.06585 × 1,005
Isobaric, so 𝑝3 = 𝑝2 = 180 bar

14
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
14
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 Isobaric process: V/T = constant

𝑉2 𝑉3 𝑇3 2,376
= → 𝑉3 = 𝑉2 = 1.04 × = 2.481 litres
𝑇2 𝑇3 𝑇2 996

The cut-off ratio is therefore:

𝑉3 2.481
𝑟co = = = 2.39
𝑉2 1.04

The work out during heat addition, W12, is:

𝑊23 = 𝑝2 (𝑉3 − 𝑉2 ) = 180 × 105 ∙ (2.481 × 10−3 − 1.04 × 10−3 ) = 25.94 kJ

Isentropic expansion 3→4

𝑟co 𝛾−1 2.39 0.4

𝑇4 = 𝑇3 ( ) = 2,376 × ( ) = 1,092 K
𝑟𝑐 16.7
𝑟co 𝛾 2.39 1.4
𝑝4 = 𝑝3 ( ) = 180 × ( ) = 11.8 bar
𝑟c 16.7

𝑊34 = 𝑚air 𝑐𝑣 (𝑇3 − 𝑇4 ) = 0.06585 × 718 ∙ (2,376 − 1,092) = 60.71 kJ

The ideal Diesel cycle efficiency is then:

𝑊net 𝑊23 +𝑊34 −𝑊12 25.94+60.71−31.82

𝜂Diesel = = = = 0.6005
𝑄in 𝑄in 91.31

However, we also now know the cut-off ratio and can calculate the ideal Diesel cycle
efficiency from the relationship:

𝛾1−𝛾
𝑟𝑐
(𝑟𝑐𝑜 − 1) 16.7−0.4 (2.391.4 − 1)
𝜂diesel =1− = 1− = 0.6023
𝛾(𝑟𝑐𝑜 − 1) 1.4(2.39 − 1)

Which agrees with only rounding error difference. This again highlights that it was not
necessary to calculate the work input and output in order to calculate the efficiency.
Once the cut-off ratio was determined, the efficiency could be found.

The mechanical efficiency is then the ratio of brake efficiency to indicated efficiency (in
this case indicated efficiency is taken to be the ideal cycle efficiency):

𝜂brake 0.413
𝜂mech = = = 0.686
𝜂indicated 0.6023

Another thing to note about the solution is that this is a diesel engine operating at
maximum power, and the cut-off ratio was only ~2.4. Therefore, charts showing Diesel
engine efficiency for cut-off ratios of 4 and 5 or more are slightly misleading. We will
look at the limit to the cut-off ratio in Week 8 and 9.
15
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
15
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles
 Problem 7.5

Current Formula 1 regulations limit the fuel flow to the engine to 100 kg/hour at 10,500
rpm and above, and to a lower limit than this below 10,500 rpm. The Mercedes team
stated in 2017 that their engine had exceeded 50% thermal efficiency. Given the fuel
flow limit, show that this statement aligns with the power output given for the engine in
the table in Problem 7.3. Assume that the calorific value of the fuel (petrol/gasoline) is
45 MJ/kg.

Solution
Maximum fuel flow rate of 100 kg/hour is 100/60/60=0.02778 kg/s.

The maximum heat input power, 𝑄̇in , is therefore:

𝑄̇in = 𝑚̇fuel Δℎ𝑐 = 0.02778 × 45 × 106 = 1.25 MW

If the engine has a thermal efficiency of 50%, then the maximum power output is:

𝑊̇brake = 𝜂brake 𝑄̇in = 0.5 × 1.25 = 0.625 MW = 𝟔𝟐𝟓 𝐤𝐖

(for those more familiar with horsepower, this is 838 bhp).
Before 2014, Formula 1 regulations limited neither the fuel use per race nor the
maximum fuel flow rate. Fuel efficiency was only important in so far as a less fuel-
efficient engine would require more fuel to cover the race distance and the car would
therefore be heavier (slower acceleration, slower cornering, higher tyre wear). Higher
power, less efficient engine modes could be used in qualifying and for brief periods
during the race though. Since 2014 there has been a fuel flow rate limit of 100 kg/hr,
which means, as shown by the above calculation, that increased thermal efficiency is the
only route to achieving more power from the engine itself (not including the hybrid
system).

16
ES3B5 Engines and Heat Pumps
16
Wk 7 Problem solutions – Idealised engine cycles