ABSTRACT

Genetic modification is a biological technique that effects alterations in the genetic

machinery of all kinds of living organisms. Genetic Modified Food/Organism is defined as

follows by world health organization “Organisms (i.e. plants, animals or microorganisms) in

which the genetic material (DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by

mating and/or natural recombination”. The definition seeks to distinguish the direct manipulation

of genetic material from the millennial-old practice of improvement in the genetic stock of plants

and animals by selective breeding. With DNA recombinant technology, genes from one

organism can be transferred into another, usually unrelated, organism. This genetically modified

foods/organism naturally has its positive effect and negative effect. Some genetically modified

animals have certain genes inserted into their genomes so that they can produce ‘better’ milk,

eggs, and meat. These animals also are expected to have a higher resistance to disease and

overall better health, with better natural waste management. In theory, genetically modified

crops and animals will also be more environmentally friendly because they conserve water, soil,

and energy. Though it has helped us in so many ways this genetically modified foods/organism

has its risk also and one of those risks is allergies such as soybeans, in 1996 soybeans were

genetically engineered to have the same protein components as Brazil nuts. This allergy is just a

minor risk there is also one incident that caused problems in 1989 a genetically modified dietary

supplement of tryptophan allegedly killed 37 people, permanently disabled 1,500 people, and

caused 5,000 people to develop a blood disorder before the FDA was able to recall the product.

Aside from this negative side or the risks we it’s also worth looking for the improvements of

products of genetically modified food/organism such as soybeans, because soybeans produce

amino acids and genetically engineered soybeans can produce better quality of amino acids than
the natural. Also, if there is another alternative for protein components of brazil nuts then maybe

it is free from its risk of allergy.

Keywords: Genetically, Modified, Protein, Amino Acid, DNA, Genomes.

INTRODUCTION

Two billion people in the world suffer from various forms of malnutrition according to

Global Alliance for Improved Nutrition. Food scarcity caused by economic and environmental

factors and inability to access highly nutritious foods especially in the present context of rising

food prices, is a common cause of malnutrition. Poor feeding practices, such as inadequate

breastfeeding, offering the wrong foods, and not ensuring that the child gets enough nutritious

food, contribute to malnutrition. According to World Health Organization, more than one third of

child deaths is due to malnutrition although it is not often listed as a direct cause. This condition

is a major public health problem, and its incidence continues to increase at an alarming rate.

Foods that are packed with nutrients, also known as superfoods, and genetic engineering

gained the interest of many researchers. The amount of nutrients that can be obtained in such

foods and methods have help promoting benefits and disease preventing properties that offers

greater benefit in terms of durability or nutritional value or both.

Superfoods describes a food that is especially rich in phytochemicals. There is no official

definition of a superfood, and the term is currently being used to encompass a number of

different foods with different properties. However, research in the field of plant bioactive and

health is by no means definitive, and in most cases more studies are needed before any disease-
specific associations can be made (Buttriss 2003). However, in the case of some vegetables,

evidence is mounting to suggest a protective effect. For instance, cruciferous vegetables, such as

broccoli, cabbage, and sprouts contain compounds called glucosinolates which have the potential

to induce anti-carcinogenic defense mechanisms.

According to WHO, genetically modified organisms (GMOs) can be defined as

organisms like plants, animals or microorganisms in which the genetic material has been altered

in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural recombination. The technology

used in this laboratory process is often called “modern biotechnology” or “gene technology”,

sometimes also “recombinant DNA technology” or “genetic engineering”. It allows selected

individual genes to be transferred from one organism into another, also between nonrelated

species. GM foods are developed and marketed because there is some perceived advantage either

to the producer or consumer of these foods. This offers a product in which the nutritional value is

exceptional before it was altered.

SUPERFOODS

Superfoods are foods mostly plant-based but also some fish and dairy, thought to be

nutritionally dense and thus good for one's health. Blueberries, salmon, kale and acai are just a

few examples of foods that have garnered the "superfood" label (Wanjek, 2015).

However, there are no set criteria for determining what is and what is not a superfood,

according to American Heart Association, "Superfoods don't have their own food group," said

Despina Hyde, a registered dietician with the weight management program at New York
University's Langone Medical Center. "As a dietician, I think 'superfood' is more of a marketing

term for foods that have health benefits."

Wanjek (2015) stated that consuming foods that are packed with nutrients (as many so-

called superfoods are) is certainly a good idea, Hyde told Live Science. But the key to a healthy

diet is to consume a variety of nutritious foods in the right quantities, she added.

Popular superfoods. "Superfoods have extra-large doses of vitamins and minerals that can

help us ward off diseases and live a longer, healthier life," said Hyde.

Some of the nutrients that certain superfoods contain include antioxidants, thought to

ward off cancer; healthy fats, thought to prevent heart disease; fiber, thought to prevent diabetes

and digestive problems; or phytochemicals, the chemicals in plants responsible for deep colors

and smells, which can have numerous health benefits (Wanjek, 2015)

GENETICALLY MODIFIED FOODS

Genetic modification is a biological technique that effects alterations in the genetic

machinery of all kinds of living organisms. GMO is defined as follows by WHO (World Health

Organization): “Organisms (i.e. plants, animals or microorganisms) in which the genetic material

(DNA) has been altered in a way that does not occur naturally by mating and/or natural

recombination”. The definition seeks to distinguish the direct manipulation of genetic material

from the millennial-old practice of improvement in the genetic stock of plants and animals by
selective breeding. With DNA recombinant technology, genes from one organism can be

transferred into another, usually unrelated, organism.

Similarly, the FAO (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations) and the

European Commission define a GMO as a product “not occur naturally by mating and/or natural

recombination”. “GM foods” refer to foods produced from genetically modified plants or

animals.

However, Oliver pointed out the aforementioned definitions are somewhat imperfect,

giving Triticale as an example. Triticale is a grain widely used in bread and pasta. It was

developed the 19th century by crossing wheat with rye (a conventional, selective breeding

approach). However, the resulting hybrid is sterile, and in the 1930s, the chemical colchicine was

used to generate polyploid embryo cells, which are fertile. Triticale would seem unambiguously

to fit the definition of a GMO, even if the genetic modification is somewhat primitive by current

molecularly biological standards. Thus, Oliver suggests “biotechnologically modified organism”

as a closer definition for GMO.

Genetically Modified Organisms: Pros and Cons of GMO Food

Genetically Modified Organisms (GMOs) became a hot topic in 2012 when the people of

California had the chance to vote on Proposition 37 in November. Proposition 37 would have

required labels on food that contained such products.

According to the Office of Science at the U.S. Department of Energy, one of the pros of

genetically modified crops is a better taste, increased nutrients, resistance to disease and pests,

and faster output of crops. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations also

says that farmers can grow more food on less land with genetically modified crops.

Genetically modified animals have certain genes inserted into their genomes so that they

can produce ‘better’ milk, eggs, and meat. These animals also are expected to have a higher

resistance to disease and overall better health, with better natural waste management. In theory,

genetically modified crops and animals will also be more environmentally friendly because they

conserve water, soil, and energy.

The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations states that one of the

positives of GMOs is that farmers can produce more nutritious food. Many foods are in the

works for bio-fortification for this reason. Rice, for example, feeds 50 percent of the world’s

population, so genetically modifying rice to have more vitamin A would reduce vitamin A

deficiency in developing countries.

But what happens to these plants and animals that have been genetically modified? What

happens when we eat these foods? Unfortunately, no one knows for sure what happens, though

evidence is mounting that genetic modification may not be a good thing.

The Office of Science at the U.S. Department of Energy also lists some of the

controversies associated with genetically modified foods. One of these controversies are the

potential health risks, including allergies, antibiotic resistance, and unknown effects. Other

negatives that stem from GMOs is that scientists are tampering with nature by mixing genes and

no one knows what this is doing to the animals or the environment.

Phil Damery and colleagues at Iowa State University describe the risks of genetically

modified foods to humans in their paper, “The Debate on Labeling Genetically Modified Foods.”

Damery says that the agricultural food industry claims that GM foods are tested rigorously, but

the food companies conduct all their own testing. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration never

reviews the studies, just the conclusions that agricultural food companies provide to the FDA.

Damery states that, when studies were conducted by non-agricultural food organizations, they

found serious health risks with GM foods and the way they tested for safety.

Negative Side Effects of GMOs

One of the potential health risks of genetically modified food is allergies. To genetically

modify a food, scientists take genes from one food to put into another food. This can cause

allergic reactions and other side effects when people consume the modified foods.
 For example, in 1996 soybeans were genetically engineered to have the same protein

components as Brazil nuts. The problem researchers found was that the soybeans also contained

the allergic properties of the nuts.

Thankfully, this was discovered before they were released to the public.

However, not all instances of potential adverse effects have been discovered before being

released to the public. For example, in 1989 a genetically modified dietary supplement of

tryptophan allegedly killed 37 people, permanently disabled 1,500 people, and caused 5,000

people to develop a blood disorder before the FDA was able to recall the product.

Another serious concern is that GM foods contain antibiotic markers, which is thought to

be one of the reasons that the effectiveness of treatments are decreasing. This means that more

powerful drugs are going to be needed to treat infections and diseases in the future.

Humans health is not all that’s at risk. Damery reports that GM plants allow farmers to

increase the amount of pesticides and herbicides used on their land, which will increase the

amount of chemicals finding their way into the water system and damaging the soil.

GMOs: Weighing the Pros and Cons

These are just some of the pros and cons of genetically modified foods – with such a

controversy, it’s no wonder that the fight for Proposition 37 in California was so hard-fought on

both sides. Understanding the laws and what GMOs are and how they are made will allow

consumers to make an informed decision about purchasing and consuming foods that are

genetically modified.
LIFE AND HEALTH OF CELL

Amino acid

Amino acids are the organic compound that combine to form protein. Amino acid and protein are

the building blocks of life. When protein is digested or broken down, the amino acid is left and

the human body uses amino acid to make protein to help the body to break down foods, grow,

repair body tissue and perform many other body functions (medlineplus, n.d.)

Function of amino acids

According to Amino acids-studies.com (2018) A large portion of our cells’ muscles and tissue is

made up of amino acids, in other words they carry out many important functions in our body,

such as giving cells their structure. Amino acids have a key role in the transport and storage

nutrients and influence on the function of organs, glands, tendons and arteries. (Rea, Dequillo, &

Chua, 2017)

The 9 essentials of amino acids

There are 20 amino acids that are essential in the human body. We are capable of making

12 of these amino acids and the other nine must be consumed; thus, these nine amino acids are

called essential amino acids. The essential amino acids are histidine, isoleucine, leucine lysine
methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine. (Rea, Dequillo, & Chua, 2017).

According to Bare blends (2016) each of the 9 essential amino acids have a unique property and

play a role in our working bodies.

Leucine

Leucine helps to stimulate muscle strength and growth, and helps to retain lean muscle

when dieting. Leucine is the main amino acid directly responsible for activating an essential

compound in muscle called mTOR(mammalian target of rapamycin), which is directly

responsible for up-regulating protein synthesis. Leucine provides the basic building blocks for

muscle and helps to synthesize more. Leucine also helps to regulate blood sugar levels by

moderating insulin into the body during and after exercise, and has a positive impact on our brain

and neurotransmitters. Sources of leucine are cheese, soybeans, beef, pork, chicken, pumpkin,

seeds, nuts, peas, tuna, seafood, beans, whey protein, pant protein.

Isoleucine

Isoleucine is an isolated form of leucine that helps the body produce haemoglobin. Haemoglobin

carries iron in the blood and regulates blood sugar which is burned for energy in the muscles

during exercise. Whey protein isolate is naturally high in Isoleucine. Isoleucine also assists

nitrogen growth within the muscle cells, which is a large part of our structural and DNA makeup.

Sources of Isoleucine are soy, meat and fish, dairy and eggs, cashews, almonds, oats, lentils,

beans, brown rice, legumes, chia seeds.

Lysine
Lysine is one of the main amino acids that is responsible for muscle repair and growth, and has

also been shown to boost the body's immune system. Lysine also helps the absorption of other

minerals in the body and is needed for the synthesis of collagen which is the main element

needed for the formation of connective tissue and bones in the body. Sources of lysine are eggs,

meat, poultry, beans, peas, cheese, chia seeds, spirulina, parley, avocado, almonds, cashew, whey

protein

Methionine

Methionine is important for the growth of new blood vessels and muscle growth, and it contains

Sulphur, which is integral to tissue and muscle health. Without enough Sulphur in the body,

people can be susceptible to arthritis, damaged tissue, and have trouble healing. Methionine also

aids in the production of muscle growth and the formation of creatine, which is needed for

energy. Methionine can also dissolve fat within the body and reduces fat deposits in the liver.

Sources if methionine are meat, fish, cheese, dairy, beans, seeds, chia seeds, brazil nuts, oats,

wheat, figs, whole grain rice, beans, legumes, onions, and cacao.

Phenylalanine

Phenylalanine is turned into the amino acid tyrosine within the body, which is needed to make

proteins and brain chemicals such as epinephrine, L-dopa, norepinephrine, and thyroid

hormones. Phenylalanine therefore has a large impact on our mood and mental health. Sources of

phenylalanine are milk and dairy, meat, fish, chicken, eggs, spirulina, seaweed, pumpkin, beans,

rice, avocado, almonds, peanuts, quinoa, figs, raisins, leafy greens, most berries, olives, and

seeds.

Threonine
Threonine supports health function of the immune system, liver, heart, and the central nervous

system. It is also needed to create glycine and serine, amino acids that are necessary to produce

elastin, collagen, and muscle tissue. It is essential for the healthy working of the muscles, and

help to keep them strong and elastic. Threonine also helps to build strong bones, and can help to

accelerate the healing of wounds and tissue injuries. Sources of threonine are lean meat, cheese,

nuts, seeds, lentils, watercress and spirulina, pumpkin, leafy greens, hemp seeds, chia seeds,

soybeans, almonds, avocados, figs, raisins, and quinoa.

Tryptophan

When tryptophan is absorbed by the body, it is eventually turned into serotonin - the chemical

responsible for making us feel happy, is a neurotransmitter, and helps to lower stress levels and

depression. Tryptophan is also known for inducing a relaxing effect on the body, and promotes

healthy sleep patterns, as well as supporting brain function and nervous system function. Source

of tryptophan are chocolate, milk, cheese, turkey, red meat, yogurt, eggs, fish, poultry,

chickpeas, almonds, sunflower seed, pepitas, spirulina, bananas, and peanuts.

Valine

Valine is essential for optimal muscle growth and repair. It helps to supply the muscles with

extra glucose responsible for energy production during physical activity, making it essential for

endurance and overall muscle health. It also helps to smooth working of the nervous system and

cognitive function, as well as curing metabolic and liver diseases. Sources of valine are cheese,

red meat, chicken, pork, nuts, beans, spinach, legumes, broccoli, seeds, chia seeds, whole grains,

figs, avocado, apples, blueberries, cranberries, oranges, and apricots.

Histidine
Histidine supports brain health and neurotransmitters (in particular, the neurotransmitter

histamine). It also helps to detoxify the body by producing red and white blood cells, which are

needed for overall health and immunity. Histidine can even help protect tissues from damage

caused by radiation or heavy metals. Sources of histidine are red meat, cheese, white meat and

poultry, seafood, soybeans, beans, legumes, chia seeds, buckwheat, potatoes.

Amino acids and GMO

In a study of Yale university cited by Sarich (2015), the latest answers to Genetic

modified crop containment has been revealed by biotech- genetically modified amino acids.

“Scientist have derived a way to ensure genetically modified organism can be safety confined in

the environment, overcoming a major obstacle to widespread use of GMO’s in agriculture,

energy production, waste management, and medicine.”

The Yale study calls GM amino acids “a significant improvement over existing biocontainment

approaches for GM organisms. The work establishes important safeguards for organisms in

agricultural settings, and more broadly, for their use in environmental bioremediation and even

in medical therapies, but what time has shown with other GM technologies proves Isaacs could

be very wrong. Giving a GM bacteria whatever genetic code likes in hopes of limiting the spread

of GM organisms in the wild, but yet again, one of the simplest processes of nature seems lost on

people with multiple doctorate degrees.

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