OUR LEARNING

DESIGN PRINCIPLES

What research tells us about how to design

effective learning experiences
 WHY LEARNING DESIGN PRINCIPLES MATTER HOW WE DEVELOPED OUR PRINCIPLES

Interest in how people learn has grown in recent years, due to At LearnJam, we help businesses, educational institutions, start-
the need to navigate change arising from major shifts in the way ups and individuals to create online and mobile courses, learning
that we live and work. Research points to a number of influences: products and services, and training programmes. In order to help
technological disruption, growing populations in developing them make these learning experiences as effective as possible, we
countries, aging populations in more developed countries, and needed to develop a clear set of practical, evidence-based principles
migrating workforces – to name just a few. There is an ever- to apply to everything we do. To achieve this, we carried out an
increasing focus on how to educate, retrain and upskill people to extensive review of the research and then combined this with our
keep pace with a rapidly changing world. own first-hand experience and input from leading experts in the field.
We believe the end result is a set of principles that can help anyone
By 2022, no less than 54% of all employees will require involved in designing and developing learning products or materials.
significant reskilling and upskilling.
In summary, our research tells us that effective adult learning relies
(The World Economic Forum, 2018) on three key elements:

1
Despite the increasing emphasis on learning, it seems harder Learning materials that have been designed based on an
and harder to know what really works when designing learning understanding of the learner and their context;
solutions for those challenges, given the lack of research in some
areas and the disproportionate interest in others. This confusing
state of affairs is exacerbated by the bold claims made by some 2
Responding to what the learner already knows;

3
EdTech providers and the high-profile failures of government digital Providing effective practice over time in order to ensure
education programmes in several countries.In this context, it’s that learning sticks.
critical to understand what makes for effective learning, and for this
understanding to guide the design of learning products and content. In this document, we’ll be explaining each principle, along with
suggestions on how to apply them in practice when designing and
1 For a complete list of the research literature which informed the development developing learning experiences.
of these principles, see the Appendix at the end of this document.

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 THE THREE LEARNJAM PRINCIPLES
Got any questions, or want to
send feedback? Email us at:
We’ve organised everything we know about what works in learning
into three practical principles that are essential to the design of any
[email protected]
effective adult learning experience. Each principle is then broken down
into a handful of key areas of focus which help to put it into practice.

1 DESIGN FOR
THE LEARNER
AND THEIR
CONTEXT

1.1 Develop intrinsic motivation

1.2 Promote a positive emotional state
1.3 Provide opportunities for collaboration
2 RESPOND
TO WHAT
THE LEARNER
ALREADY KNOWS

2.1 Establish a strong foundation

2.2 Provide challenge and support
2.3 Raise self-awareness
3 PROVIDE
EFFECTIVE
PRACTICE
OVER TIME

3.1 Use spaced repetition and massed practice

3.2 Use testing to strengthen memory
3.3 Make practice focused and deliberate
1.4 Respect the limits of working memory 3.4 Provide timely and specific feedback
1.5 Focus attention

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 PRINCIPLE ONE
DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER
AND THEIR CONTEXT

Learners are people first, and understanding them and the context
in which they are learning is the first step in designing a learning
experience that will work for them. Learning is influenced not only
by the limits of the human brain, but also by how a learner feels,
their level of motivation, and by the context and conditions in which
learning is happening.

Effective learning isn’t simply a case of transmitting information

from expert to novice; learners need to understand how the
learning process itself works and how it relates to their own context,
experience and identity.

Our job as learning designers is to optimise – where possible –

the context in which learning is happening; and where that isn’t
possible, to design in a way that takes into account the challenges
or difficulties learners might face. For example, if we know that
a learner is not likely to be interested in the subject and is only
studying it because they have to, or if their learning environment is
noisy, stressful and full of interruptions, then we need either to fix
these problems or to allow for them in our learning design.

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 DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER
AND THEIR CONTEXT

1.1 DEVELOP INTRINSIC MOTIVATION

In practice

Intrinsic motivation (inherent interest in or enjoyment of the Provide opportunities for choice and self-direction, so learners
subject) is generally a better incentive than extrinsic motivators such can choose what is most interesting and relevant to them.
as rewards, points and badges, punishment or coercion. We need to
understand how a learning goal is important to our lives, to believe Give positive feedback on performance, so learners feel a
in our own ability to achieve it, and to have some degree of control sense of progress and achievement and that their effort
in directing our own progress towards it. is worthwhile.

Learning new things isn’t easy, so if there’s no real motivation from Encourage learners to persevere in their efforts – despite
within we’re likely to give up or just go through the motions. This is setbacks, difficulties or failures – by focusing them on their
a common problem if the course or learning task has been imposed goals and reasons for learning.
(by an employer, for example) rather than having been chosen.

A key factor here is perseverance of effort. In the face of difficulty or

obstacles, successful learners will be those who keep going – those
who feel driven to finish what they’ve started.

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 DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER
AND THEIR CONTEXT

1.2 PROMOTE A POSITIVE EMOTIONAL STATE

In practice

How we’re feeling affects how we learn, and negative emotions Develop learners’ self-regulation strategies and raise their
can get in the way of learning. But, as learning designers, we awareness of how these can contribute to more
can help learners to self-regulate negative emotions in order to effective learning.
improve focus and learn better. For example, encourage explicitly
naming the emotion (e.g. ‘I’m feeling nervous’), before a potentially Promote a sense of control and influence over the outcomes
stressful task. Cognitive reappraisal – changing how you think of learners’ effort, and avoid giving rise to feelings
about a situation in order to make it more appealing (e.g. ‘this is an of powerlessness.
opportunity to improve my memory, which is important for success
at university’) – can also help. Help any learners with negative past experience to understand
that this learning is likely to be different from what they
experienced at school.

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 DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER
AND THEIR CONTEXT

1.3 PROVIDE OPPORTUNITIES

FOR COLLABORATION
In practice

Through working together, learners can support the development Where appropriate, explicitly and actively encourage peer
of each other’s skills and strengths. In settings where people are support and skill sharing.
learning in teams, collaborative learning allows people to pool
their thoughts and abilities, listen actively to each other’s ideas Encourage effective collaboration in group-learning situations
and consider a range of alternatives – as long as there are good by promoting trust between team members and
interpersonal relationships and everyone feels psychologically and avoiding competitiveness.
socially safe enough to take risks, make mistakes and voice
their opinions. Use interdependent tasks that can only be completed
successfully if learners work together.
What’s more, when the success of individual goals or tasks actually
depends on teammates’ own successes, this improves social Provide physical or virtual spaces for learners to collaborate
cooperation and fosters a sense of shared responsibility. Essentially, in reaching their learning goals, regardless of whether their

3
everyone succeeds when everyone succeeds. A team with a shared individual goals are the same or different.
goal is quite distinct from a group of people who happen to occupy
the same space. Provide plenty of opportunities
throughout the curriculum for
learners to reflect and to talk with
each other about their learning.

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 DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER
AND THEIR CONTEXT

1.4 RESPECT THE LIMITS OF

WORKING MEMORY
In practice

Working memory is where the brain temporarily holds the Reduce extraneous cognitive load by providing worked examples.
information needed for the task currently being worked on. Unlike
long-term memory, its capacity is limited to about four chunks Highlight relevant information with visual or verbal cues.
of information. The brain can only process a certain amount of
information at a time, and overloading it results in too great a Allow learners to control the speed and pace of information that
cognitive load, which impairs the ability to learn. is presented to them.

Don’t include seductive details (i.e. information that is interesting

but irrelevant to the task) in learning material.

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 DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER
AND THEIR CONTEXT

1.5 FOCUS ATTENTION

In practice

Multitasking is a myth. For conscious learning, a single focus of Remove opportunities for distraction, whether within the
attention is very important. In those instances where we feel that learning content itself or in the learner’s wider environment,
we do manage to split our attention effectively, this is probably such as background noise, interruptions or notifications.
because one of the things we’re focusing on is already well known
and/or automatic. Present spoken text and related graphics simultaneously,
not sequentially.
So, as learning designers, it’s important to help learners to focus
and to avoid unnecessary distraction. Don’t present identical information in different modalities
(for example, both spoken and as written text). It can confuse
learners if they don’t realise one of the sources is redundant or
if they are unable to ignore it.

5
Generally, it’s better to combine audio with images (requiring
listening and looking) than to combine
written texts with images (which
requires reading and looking).

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 PRINCIPLE TWO
RESPOND TO WHAT THE
LEARNER ALREADY KNOWS

We learn by building on, and making connections with, what we

already know. Some types of learning are more or less linear –
we simply add new knowledge to what we already have. Others
(such as learning a language) are more complex, with knowledge
accumulating in such a way that the whole is greater than the sum
of its parts. In all cases, we need to generate our own meaningful
connections between what we’re learning and what we already know
or can do. We also need to be aware of the extent and limits of our
existing knowledge and abilities before we can build on
them effectively.

To design an effective learning experience, it’s vital to begin with

2
an understanding of what parts of learning are already in place, and
then support the learner in building on these to develop a richer
understanding or a more advanced level of skill.

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 RESPOND TO WHAT THE LEARNER
ALREADY KNOWS

2.1 ESTABLISH A STRONG FOUNDATION

In practice
Existing knowledge or skill can help learners to focus, remember Test learners to find out what they already know, e.g. via a quiz
and recall more easily. Generally, the more we already know, or a ‘write down what you know’ activity.
the more we learn. In particular, tasks that are more cognitively
demanding (e.g. making connections between concepts, analysing, Use prediction and reflection tasks to draw attention to
explaining) are easier with more prior knowledge of the subject background knowledge.
or skill we’re learning. In other words, the development of higher-
order cognitive skills depends on first mastering lower-order skills. Use prediction tasks to activate existing mental models. Invite
learners to connect what they are about to learn with what
It’s vital at the start of a learning experience to establish if a they already know.
learner’s prior knowledge is very limited, inaccurate or non-
existent. But even if any of these is the case, it’s important to
resist the urge to be too helpful. As learners, we benefit most from
generating our own connections to new ideas and information,

2
potentially resulting in an ‘Aha!’ moment, rather than just looking
up or being given the answers.

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 RESPOND TO WHAT THE LEARNER
ALREADY KNOWS

2.2 PROVIDE CHALLENGE AND SUPPORT

In practice
We learn better when faced with ‘desirable difficulties’, i.e. For learners with no/limited prior knowledge:
appropriately cognitively demanding tasks which help us extend Provide direct instruction (e.g. explicitly show connections,
and deepen existing knowledge. explicitly explain new terms).
Provide scaffolding (e.g. complete or partially complete
Learners with less prior knowledge will benefit from more worked examples ).
‘scaffolding’ and direct instruction. Tasks should be structured
and sequenced to become gradually more demanding, moving Use concept maps, diagrams or simple narratives/stories
from guided practice to independent practice to discovery-based to provide a conceptual framework for new information.
learning approaches, and should be designed and delivered in a For learners with more prior knowledge:
way that minimises cognitive load.
Provide independent practice in figuring out connections
between concepts.
Promote more cognitively demanding tasks such as

22
analysing, explaining and drawing conclusions.

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 RESPOND TO WHAT THE LEARNER
ALREADY KNOWS

2.3 RAISE SELF AWARENESS

In practice
As learners, awareness of our own thinking (meta cognition) and Give learners opportunities to test themselves, both to
of the learning process itself can help us to develop better learning recognise their progress and to identify any gaps in
strategies and goals. their knowledge.

We benefit from understanding how learning works, from actively Provide time and space to reflect on strategies that have
controlling how we’re focusing our attention, from increasing our worked and why.
awareness of our own knowledge and any gaps in it, and from
explicitly connecting learning content to our own personal identity. Prompt learners to think about why they are learning
something and how this relates to the bigger picture of what
In a world where re-skilling and up-skilling are among employers’ they are trying to achieve.
priorities and where adult learning experiences are increasingly
taking place online or in self-study contexts, it’s critical that learners When learners receive feedback, encourage them to reflect on

23
are able to manage their own learning effectively. it and identify specific areas for improvement and how they
might achieve this.

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 PRINCIPLE THREE
PROVIDE EFFECTIVE PRACTICE OVER TIME

To store new ideas in long-term memory, we need to encounter

them many times, ideally through deliberate practice and in
conditions similar to those in which we’ll use the knowledge in real
life. Once something is in long-term memory, we can later retrieve it
and connect it to yet more new content, contexts or problems. And
in doing so, the learning process naturally continues, as this store of
knowledge in long-term memory frees up working memory capacity
for processing new things.

The type of learning usually being referred to when we talk about

committing to memory is declarative knowledge (what to do); but
there is also procedural knowledge (how to do something).
Together, these contribute to the development of more complex
skills. So, for an effective learning experience, it’s important to know
what the focus of learning is, and to choose learning methods and
tasks accordingly in order to make sure that practice is as effective
as possible.

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 PROVIDE EFFECTIVE PRACTICE OVER TIME

3.1 USE SPACED REPETITION

AND MASSED PRACTICE
In practice
For declarative knowledge, where the goal is to memorise facts, Provide plenty of opportunities for practice, and actively
figures, dates, rules, vocabulary etc, spacing out study sessions encourage rest between practice sessions.
(little and often) is much more effective than cramming.
Especially for tasks that are more cognitively demanding,
For more complex skills (e.g. proficiency in a new piece of software, space out study sessions by 12+ hours overnight, to allow
learning a language), we need to combine both declarative and for sleep.
procedural knowledge – what to do, and how to do it. In this case,
spaced repetition may help at first for remembering the elements Within individual study sessions, interleave content (i.e. mix
or steps involved. But, to make a new procedure more automatic, a different kinds of task and different kinds of material).
more experiential learning process (i.e. learning by doing) involving
practising intensively in a short burst may be necessary. Raise learners’ awareness of when spacing or massed practice
is more appropriate.
This is known as massed practice.

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 PROVIDE EFFECTIVE PRACTICE OVER TIME

3.2 USE TESTING TO STRENGTHEN MEMORY

In practice
Actively trying to remember something and then getting feedback Prioritise retrieval over re-study.
on whether we were right helps us to learn. Just trying to remember
is helpful, even if we don’t get the right answer. Use frequent, low-stakes quizzes and tests to practise retrieval
from memory.
Particularly for declarative knowledge (facts, figures, details, etc),
testing is much more effective for long-term recall than Treat testing more as a means of learning than as a means
merely re-studying. of assessment.

Make learners aware that testing is much more effective than

highlighting and re-reading.

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 PROVIDE EFFECTIVE PRACTICE OVER TIME

3.3 MAKE PRACTICE FOCUSED

AND DELIBERATE
In practice
To develop complex skills, we need both declarative and procedural Use a wide variety of task types and complexity, all focused on
knowledge. The interplay between them is not fully understood, but one learning goal.
we do know that it’s not enough to just repeat the same thing many
times or over a long period of time. When we make a deliberate Set specific learning goals to improve performance.
effort to improve, we’re more likely to do so, even if we are already
quite experienced. Raise learners’ awareness of the need for them to make a
deliberate effort.
Deliberate practice means well-defined activities at the right level of
difficulty (enough to stretch us, but not so hard as to be frustrating), Repeat content and tasks, with feedback and further instruction,
with the conscious intention to improve. in order to successively refine the learner’s expertise.

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 PROVIDE EFFECTIVE PRACTICE OVER TIME

3.4 PROVIDE TIMELY AND

SPECIFIC FEEDBACK
In practice
Effective feedback doesn’t just tell us whether we got something Ensure that feedback is:
right or wrong. It should be meaningful, clearly explained, and focus Task-directed or goal-directed
our attention so we understand any gaps in our knowledge and can
Specific
proceed to fill them.
Objective and unbiased
In this sense, good feedback overlaps somewhat with further Timely
instruction, by reshaping and developing what we already know. It Ongoing
should be given as soon as possible, while it is still relevant.
Given in a way that supports and respects the learner.

Show learners how to do the task more effectively next time.

Give plenty of feedback in low-stakes contexts. Learners may

4
not take it in if they are under stress or feel their self-esteem
to be under threat.

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 FURTHER READING
What next?
We hope you’ve found these principles useful. If you did, we’d
This document is based on a more extensive white paper which
really appreciate it if you could help spread the word – to
includes a full list of research sources and references, and provides
share with friends and colleagues, just send them this link:
more detail. If you’d like a copy of the white paper or any of the other
learnjam.com/learning-science resources, you can download it here.

And do get in touch with any thoughts or comments, or to

share your own experience of using the principles – we’d love
to hear from you at:

[email protected] HOW WE DEVELOPED OUR PRINCIPLES

The concept for these principles was developed by Laura Patsko and
Alex Walters, with Laurie Harrison. The principles were researched
and written by Laura Patsko with input from the LearnJam team – Katy
Asbury, Tim Gifford, Laurie Harrison, Nick Robinson, Berta Rojals, Jo
Sayers, Alex Walters and Lucy Williams. The process of developing the
principles was managed by Alex Walters. Our expert reviewers were
Philip Kerr and Scott Thornbury, and we are extremely grateful for their
crucial input. And thanks to Zahra Davidson, André Hedlund, Anne
Aalund Sørensen and Richard Whiteside for their valuable comments
and suggestions.

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 APPENDIX

REFERENCES FOR INTRODUCTION: REFERENCES FOR PRINCIPLE ONE:

WHY LEARNING DESIGN PRINCIPLES MATTER DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER AND THEIR CONTEXT

BBC [Coughlan, S.] (2015). Computers ‘do not improve’ pupil results, says Bird, C. M., & Burgess, N. (2008). The hippocampus and memory: Insights
OECD. Retrieved 9 October 2019 from https://www.bbc.com/news/ from spatial processing. Nature Reviews Neuroscience, 9(3), 182–94.
business-34174796 doi:10.1038/nrn2335

Cheek, D.W. (2015). ‘A panoramic view of the future of learning and the role of CESE [Centre for Education Statistics and Evaluation] (2017). Cognitive load
design(ers) in such experiences.’ In B. Hokanson, G. Clinton & M. W. Tracey theory: Research that teachers really need to understand. Published online
(Eds.), The design of learning experience: Creating the future of educational by NSW Government [Australia] at https://www.cese.nsw.gov.au/images/
technology, London: Springer, pp. 5-37. stories/PDF/cognitive-load-theory-VR_AA3.pdf

Gartner (2019). Supply chain brief: Amazon’s plan to retrain 100,000 employees Cheek, D.W. (2015). ‘A panoramic view of the future of learning and the role of
puts new emphasis on building internal skill sets. Retrieved 22 October design(ers) in such experiences.’ In B. Hokanson, G. Clinton & M. W. Tracey
2019 from https://www.gartner.com/en/documents/3955982 (Eds.), The design of learning experience: Creating the future of educational
technology, London: Springer, pp. 5-37.
World Economic Forum (2018). The future of jobs report 2018. Retrieved 22
October 2019 from http://www3.weforum.org/docs/WEF_Future_of_ Chen, O., Castro-Alonso, J. C., Paas, F. & Sweller, J. (2018). ‘Undesirable
Jobs_2018.pdf difficulty effects in the learning of high-element interactivity materials’.
Frontiers in Psychology, 9(1483), pp. 1–7.

Churchill, E., Okada, H., Nishino, T., & Atkinson, D. (2010). ‘Symbiotic gesture
and the sociocognitive visibility of grammar in second language acquisition’.
The Modern Language Journal, 94, p. 234–253.

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 APPENDIX

REFERENCES FOR PRINCIPLE ONE:

DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER AND THEIR CONTEXT

Credé, M., Tynan, M. C. & Harms, P. D. (2017). Much ado about grit: A Immordino-Yang, M. H. and Damasio, A. (2007). ‘We Feel, Therefore We
meta-analytic synthesis of the grit literature. Journal of Personality Learn: The Relevance of Affective and Social Neuroscience to Education.’
and Social Psychology, 113(3), 492–511. Accepted manuscript version Mind, Brain, and Education, 1: 3–10. doi:10.1111/j.1751-228X.2007.00004.x
retrieved 17 October 2019 from https://pdfs.semanticscholar.
Leroy, V., Grégoire, J., Magen, E., Gross, J. J. & Mikolajczak, M. (2012).
org/000a/51e0d37b8a557318559e19905d0f07f9ea00.pdf
Resisting the sirens of temptation while studying: Using reappraisal to
Davachi, L., Kiefer, T., Rock, D., & Rock, L. (2010). Learning that lasts through increase focus, enthusiasm, and performance. Learning and Individual
AGES: Maximizing the effectiveness of learning initiatives. NeuroLeadership Differences, 22, 263–268.
Journal, 3.
Lieberman, M. D., Inagaki, T., Tabibnia, G., & Crockett, M. J. (2011). Subjective
Davis, J., Balda, M., Rock, D., McGinniss, P. and Davachi, L. (2014). responses to emotional stimuli during labeling, reappraisal, and distraction.
The science of making learning stick: An update to the AGES model. Emotion, 11(3), 468–480.
NeuroLeadership Journal, 5.
Maclachlan, K. (2004). ‘We can giggle about being thick together’: utilising
Deci, E. L. & Ryan, R. M. (2000). Self-determination theory and the facilitation the social dimensions of learning in the workplace. Research in Post-
of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being. American Compulsory Education, 9(3), 337–352.
Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.
Murray, G. (2014). The social dimensions of learner autonomy and self-
Dörnyei, Z. (2009). ‘The L2 motivational self system.’ In Dörnyei, Z. & Ushioda, regulated learning. Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 5(4), 320–341.
E. (eds). Motivation, language identity and the L2 self, pp. 9–42. Bristol:
Neelen, M. & Kirschner, P. (2018). Why and how to use worked examples in the
Multilingual Matters. Retrieved 16 October 2019 from https://pdfs.
workplace. Retrieved 14 June 2019 from https://3starlearningexperiences.
semanticscholar.org/f4ee/5fae81ae33942821e4d52ee5124c3f2b0c91.pdf
wordpress.com/2018/11/13/why-and-how-to-use-worked-examples-in-
See also the extensive publications of Zoltán Dörnyei and Ema Ushioda the-workplace/
on the topic of language learners’ motivation and the “ideal L2 [second-
language] self”.

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 APPENDIX

REFERENCES FOR PRINCIPLE ONE: REFERENCES FOR PRINCIPLE TWO:

DESIGN FOR THE LEARNER AND THEIR CONTEXT RESPOND TO WHAT THE LEARNER ALREADY KNOWS

Schweppe, J. & Rummer, R. (2014). Attention, working memory, and long- Bjork, E. L., & Bjork, R. A. (2011). ‘Making things hard on yourself, but in a good
term memory in multimedia learning: An integrated perspective based on way: Creating desirable difficulties to enhance learning.’ In M. A. Gernsbacher,
process models of working memory. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), R. W. Pew, L. M. Hough, J. R. Pomerantz (Eds.) & FABBS Foundation,
285–306. Psychology and the real world: Essays illustrating fundamental contributions
to society (pp. 56–64). New York, NY, US: Worth Publishers.
Sheard, M. (2009). Hardiness commitment, gender, and age differentiate
university academic performance. British Journal of Educational Burns, A. (2016). ‘Teaching speaking: Towards a holistic approach’. Paper
Psychology, 79, 189–204. presented at 25th ETA-ROC Anniversary Conference: Epoch Making in English
Language Teaching and Learning. Taipei, Taiwan. November 2016.
Van den Bossche, P., Gijselaers, W. H., Segers, M., & Kirschner, P. A. (2006).
Social and cognitive factors driving teamwork in collaborative learning Davis, J., Balda, M., Rock, D., McGinniss, P. and Davachi, L. (2014). The science
environments: Team learning beliefs and behaviors. Small Group Research, of making learning stick: An update to the AGES model. NeuroLeadership
37(5), 490–521. Journal, 5.

Ward, P., Hodges, N. J., Williams, A. M., & Starkes, J. L. (2004). ‘11 Deliberate Forehand, M. (2005). Bloom’s Taxonomy: Original and revised. In M. Orey (ed.),
practice and expert performance’, in Skill acquisition in sport: Research, Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved
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uploads/sites/59/2010/06/12092513/BloomsTaxonomy-mary-forehand.pdf

Goh, C. C. M. & Burns, A. (2012). Teaching speaking: A holistic approach.

Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Hase, S. & Kenyon, C. (2000). From androgogy to heutagogy.

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 APPENDIX

REFERENCES FOR PRINCIPLE TWO:

RESPOND TO WHAT THE LEARNER ALREADY KNOWS

Kirschner, P. A. & Neelen, M. (2019). What we already know determines Reinders, H. & White, C. (2016). 20 years of autonomy and technology: How far
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already-know-determines-what-how-and-how-well-we-learn/
Schweppe, J. & Rummer, R. (2014). Attention, working memory, and long-term
Kirschner, P. A., Sweller, J., & Clark, R. E. (2006). Why minimal guidance during memory in multimedia learning: An integrated perspective based on process
instruction does not work: An analysis of the failure of constructivist, models of working memory. Educational Psychology Review, 26(2), 285–306.
discovery, problem-based, experiential, and inquiry-based teaching.
Simonsmeier, B. A., Flaig, M., Deiglmayr, A., Schalk, L. & Schneider, M. (2018).
Educational Psychologist, 41(2), 75–86.
Domain-specific prior knowledge and learning: A meta-analysis [manuscript
Kounios, J., & Beeman, M. (2009). The Aha! moment: The cognitive in progress]. Retrieved 22 May 2019 from https://www.uni-trier.de/
neuroscience of insight. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 18(4), fileadmin/fb1/prof/PSY/PAE/Team/Simonsmeier/SimonsmeierEtAl2019.pdf
pp. 210–216. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8721.2009.01638.x
Stein, M. K., & Smith, M. S. (1998). Mathematical tasks as a framework for
Lantolf, J. P. & Thorne, S. L. (2006). Sociocultural theory and the genesis of reflection: From research to practice. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle
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