Applied Rigging Practices New

BHARAT SAFETY TRAINING
Rigging & Lifting Safety

Training
Proprietary and Confidential 2 ARP.V.1.0.250310
Course Outline
Session one 4
1 Introduction To Rigging Gear 4

1.1 Slings...............................................................................................................................4
1.2 Beams..............................................................................................................................4
1.3 Rigging Hardware.............................................................................................................5
1.4 Lifting Devices..................................................................................................................6
2 Basic Concepts Of Load Safety. 7
2.1 Load Slippage...................................................................................................................7
2.2 Load, Sling And Workforce Protection.............................................................................7
2.3 Load Balance....................................................................................................................8
2.4 Load Levelling..................................................................................................................8
2.5 Surrounding Environment................................................................................................9
2.5.1 Temperature:...............................................................................................................9
2.5.2 Light:............................................................................................................................9
2.5.3 Foreign Material:.........................................................................................................9
2.5.4 Chemical:.....................................................................................................................9
2.6 Load Ratings...................................................................................................................10
2.7 Crane Safety...................................................................................................................11
2.7.1 Always Wear Personal Protective Equipment............................................................13
3 Review 1 14
Session 2 15
4 Use And Inspection Needs 15

4.1 Pre-Use Inspections.......................................................................................................15
4.1.1 Example 1..................................................................................................................16
4.1.2 Example 2..................................................................................................................16
5 Shackles 17
5.1 Inspection & Use............................................................................................................17
5.2 Common Shackle Types.................................................................................................19
5.3 Web Shackles.................................................................................................................20
6 Links. 20
7 Hooks 22
7.1 Types Of Hook................................................................................................................23
7.2 Choker Hooks.................................................................................................................24
7.3 Hook Latches..................................................................................................................24
8 Eye Bolts 25
9 Turnbuckles 29
10 Plate Clamps 30
11 Beam Clamps 31
12 Slings 32
12.1 Synthetic Slings (Round Or Web)....................................................................................32
12.2 Chain Slings....................................................................................................................37
12.3 Wire Rope And Wire Rope Slings...................................................................................38
12.3.1 Construction..........................................................................................................38
12.3.2 Description of Wire Rope.......................................................................................39
12.3.4 Types of Wire.........................................................................................................40
12.3.5 Wire Rope Cores....................................................................................................40
12.3.6 Rotation Resistant Ropes.......................................................................................41
12.3.7 Rope Lay................................................................................................................42
12.3.8 Wire Rope Diameter..............................................................................................44
12.3.9 Rope Design Elements...........................................................................................44
12.3.10 Wire Rope Inspection............................................................................................44
12.3.11 Broken Wires.........................................................................................................46
12.3.12 Wire Rope Failure Chart.........................................................................................48
13 Review 2 53
Session 3 56
14 End Fittings 56
14.1 Zinc Sockets...................................................................................................................57
14.2 Swaged Sockets.............................................................................................................59
14.3 Wedge Socket................................................................................................................60
14.4 Mechanical Splice..........................................................................................................61
14.4.1 Inspecting a Sling Eye.............................................................................................62
15 Sling Hitches 63
16 Load Weight. 66
17 Sling Angle Stress. 68
18 Centre Of Gravity 72
19 Calculating Sling Stress 74
19.1 Bridle Sling Rating Charts...............................................................................................76
19.2 3 Leg And 4 Leg Slings....................................................................................................78
20 Review 3 79
21 Hand Signals 78

Session one
Introduction To Rigging Gear
1.1 Slings
1.2 Slings are the usual method of attaching a load to the lifting hook of the crane
Beams
There are many types of beam that can be bought on the market or made in-house. Examples are shown
below.
These are often used when lateral loads and subsequent crushing and stability of the object being lifted are
of concern.

Used when 2 cranes are needed to lift an object
and the load

needs to be shared.
1.3 Rigging Hardware

This includes all the usual hardware used to connect rigging and a load to a crane.
Examples are shown below.

1.4 Lifting Devices
These are devices that fall outside the previously mentioned hardware (slings, beams and rigging hardware)
There is a wide range of tools available for a multitude of specific lifting needs
Examples are shown below.

2 Basic Concepts Of Load Safety.
Each load that is attached to a crane has a significant value to the company; it also has the potential to cause
extreme injury and death to operators and workers. It is necessary to understand the basic principles behind
safe loading.
There are several primary ways in which a load and slings can be damaged, possibly leading to injury or loss
of life.
2.1 Load Slippage

When lifting loose bundles of pipe or rod it is necessary to use a suitable hitch arrangement to prevent
movement of the load in transit. Any movement may create a life threatening situation.
2.2 Load, Sling And Workforce Protection

Loads with sharp edges are a danger because they can damage the slings used to lift them causing
premature failure. Edges that do not feel sharp will still damage a sling that is under tension. Softeners will
reduce potential damage but the choice of sling with the greatest resistance is the key to this problem.

Softeners such as wooden slats or planks also spread the load that the sling is putting on the object to be
lifted, reducing the potential for damage. (Notice the incorrect sling arrangement used in this picture!)
Crushing forces are also a

problem. The use of a soft web
sling will reduce the point
loading of an object.
A spreader of suitable strength

will hold the sling legs apart to
prevent damage.
2.3 Load Balance

It is important that the load is balanced when it is lifted. Locating the centre of gravity prevents load toppling
and unnecessary overloading of individual slings. It also prevents dangerous, unpredictable lifts. The
catastrophic results ARE predictable.
Avoid rigging a load

below its centre of
gravity to prevent
overturning.
2.4 Load Levelling

It is certain that a load will not always behave as predicted upon lifting. Not all loads are regular in shape and
weight distribution. When this happens it will be necessary to level, and re-level the load, paying attention
to sling forces, all the while making sure that the load is securely attached to the rigging to prevent slippage
and damage.

This load is safely secured
using a chain hoist
2.5 Surrounding Environment

There are many factors that affect crane rigging performance.
2.5.1 Temperature:
High temperatures in excess of 82° C can affect synthetic slings and low temperatures cause metal to
become brittle. Both present problems for crane rigging.
2.5.2 Light:
Ultraviolet light, over time, will reduce the strength of synthetic web slings.
“bleaching’’ and “fading”.
2.5.3 Foreign Material:

metal chips, weld splatter or heavy grit will adversely affect sling performance, especially synthetic web
slings.
2.5.4 Chemical:
Synthetic slings must never be exposed to chemicals. For nylon it is Acid, for polyester it is Alkali (caustic
solutions). Aluminium fittings are easily corroded by almost any chemical fumes, vapours and sprays,
including salt water!
Always store synthetic slings in a cool, dry and dark location out of direct sunlight. Other types of sling must
be at least covered, preferably kept inside for protection from the elements and contaminants.

Visible damage caused by
heat or chemical exposure…
sling must be removed from
service.
2.6 Load Ratings

There are hundreds of products available on the market for crane rigging and hardware. All of them fall
loosely under two categories: Load rated and non-load rated.
Load Rated means that the product has undergone a specific engineering design and testing process making
it suitable for crane and rigging usage.
Non-Load Rated means that whilst the product may look the same it has not been through the same
rigorous process and performance cannot be measured.
Non-Load Rated Products Are not To Be Used In Rigging Applications.
Load rated products confirm to international standards and have been specifically designed with overhead
lifting as the primary use.
Load rated products have been through a complete engineering, testing and production quality control
procedure to ensure that they meet the correct standards.
Load rated products have a built in safety factor.
Non Load Rated Products Look Like The Genuine Article But Are Not Manufactured And Tested In
Accordance With Standards And Are Not Suitable For Use In Rigging.

Non load rated chain is often misused for overhead lifting. Load rated chain will always be marked with the
load rating.
The 2 hooks below appear very similar.
This hook is commonly

used as a tie-down but
This hook is load rated,
should never be used for
and can be correctly
overhead lifting.
used for overhead
lifting.
“High test” is a low grade product, it is useful but not for overhead lifting. The hook marked “Alloy” is load
rated and therefore suitable within its documented loading structure.
It is important that all rigging gear has its load rating visibly embossed, stamped or otherwise visible. If it is
load rated it will be marked as such.
If you are uncertain then the product should be laid aside until it can be verified by a rigging gear inspector.
Inspectors have the resources necessary to determine if a product is rated or not and if it is suitable for this
particular lift.
2.7 Crane Safety

Common sense is the key factor here, listed below are some DOs and DON’Ts
DOs
Use taglines wherever possible to control loads. Placing hands on a load

means you are standing too close!

Be on the lookout for danger, slings and hardware fail suddenly, causing
hardware to drop freely and uncontrollably, probably on someone’s head!
Be aware of “rollback”. A crane with eddy current load control can allow a
suspended load to drop slightly when the operator restarts the lift. Stand
well back. Never place hands or feet under a suspended load.
Stay clear of the underside of an overhead hoist or crane. If the load block
exceeds its service limit because of a badly adjusted load brake, the load
block may touch the structure of the hoist causing failure of the hoist rope
or chain, dropping the load.
DON’Ts
Never stand under a suspended load
Never place your body between a load and any obstruction
Never place hands between load and slings. Wear gloves and use open palms
to position slings
Never attempt to stop a falling load with hands or body. GET OUT OF THE
WAY!
Never place hands on any hoist rope, the rope may appear to be stationary
but the load block may travel through that location, AND YOUR HAND!
Never stand under a crane’s boom
Never stand in front of a load that is about to be lifted. Boom deflection can
cause the load to swing outwards. You may be struck by the load.
Never walk between any obstruction and the crane’s superstructure. A

swinging crane can catch you between the upperworks and the obstruction,
causing severe injury or death.
Never attempt to loosen, move or remove any rigging hardware that is under
load
Notice the list of DON’Ts is longer than the list of DOs…….
You are responsible for your life and the lives of everyone around you.

2.7.1 Always Wear Personal Protective Equipment.
General PPE includes:

 Hard hat for overhead impact or electrical hazards
 Eye protection with side shields
 Gloves chosen for job hazards expected (e.g., heavy-duty leather work gloves for handling
debris with sharp edges and/or chemical protective gloves appropriate for chemicals
potentially contacted)
 ANSI-approved protective footwear
 Respiratory protection as necessary—N, R, or P95, filtering facemasks may be used for

nuisance dusts (e.g., dried mud, dirt and silt) and mould (except mould remediation).
Filters with a charcoal layer may be used for odours.
Points to remember about PPE:

 PPE is the last line of defence in the working environment. Safe systems of work should
already exist to reduce risks but there are always dangers when working in a difficult
environment.
 Discipline and PPE is what saves the life of the individual when other systems fail.
 PPE only works if you are wearing it.

3 Review 1
Name the following hardware
Circle the load which is safe and say

why the other is dangerous.
Think of 5 things that affect load safety.
1)…………………………………………………………..
2)…………………………………………………………..
3) …………………………………………………………..
4) …………………………………………………………..
5) …………………………………………………………..
Why is it important to use Load rated equipment?
1)…………………………………………………………..
2)…………………………………………………………..
3) …………………………………………………………..
4) …………………………………………………………..

How do you know its load rating?
………………………………………………………….
What PPE do you need on-site?
…………………………………………………………
If the load is in danger of being crushed you must use a ……………………………………………..

To protect slings from sharp edges you must use ………………………………………………………..
It is ok to touch a load with your hands during a lift. True/false
You should stand under the boom or near the crane during a lift . True/false
If a load starts to fall run to catch it, it is more valuable than you. True/ false
Session 2
4 Use And Inspection Needs
4.1 Pre-Use Inspections

There are three levels of inspection that should be carried out.
Periodic
Frequent
Pre-Use.
Periodic Inspections vary depending on organization and hardware type but are described by regulatory
bodies as “monthly to yearly”
Frequent Inspections are described as “daily to monthly”
Pre-Use Inspections happen every time the hardware is used.
A pre-use inspection Is Intended to:
 Notice damage on a component and remove item from service

 Notice damage of any type

 Call attention to suspected damage, demonstrate to a higher authority
A pre-use inspection is Not Intended to:
 Determine degree of damage

 Investigate damage
 Compare or measure damage
 Prepare reports on damage
The pre-use inspection is purely for the safety of the rigger. If it is not done suspected damage may go
unnoticed and unreported, compromising the safety of everyone on-site.Pre-use inspections are critical for
safe working conditions.
4.1.1 Example 1.
A wire rope sling appears to have a reduction in diameter over a short length.
What is the user required to do?
Measure the rope?
Compare results to rejection table?
Check for core damage?
No!
Remove The Sling From Service.
Tag the sling as out of service, remove from the work area, request detailed inspection by a qualified
inspector.

4.1.2 Example 2
A sling hook appears to have a spreading throat.
What is the user required to do?
Measure the hook to check for throat spread?
No!
Remove The Hook From Service.
Tag the hook as out of service, remove from the work area, request detailed inspection by a qualified
inspector.
Without proper training and tools it is difficult to perform a pre-use test on a hook, what was the original
dimension of the hook? Is there visible damage? Do you know what to look for?
It is important to keep proper records for each hook.
This is the first line of defence for rigging safety.
5 Shackles
5.1 Inspection & Use
Check shackle bearing areas for wear
Check for capacity marking
Check the pin for wear
Check for proper fit
Spread or damaged parts that do not fit properly

Shackles are easily damaged by loading in the wrong directions.
Using a shackle in this manner will not only damage the shackle but create an unnecessary danger.
Never run a rope on the shackle

pin….it WILL undo!
This is an approved use of a shackle.

Never exceed 120°. Shackles used symmetrically can be utilised to full load rating
5.2 Common Shackle Types
Round Pin Anchor Bolt Type Anchor

Do not replace pins or bolts
with standard bolts.
Check cotter pins for wear.
Check bearing points for

wear
Round Pin Chain Bolt Type Chain
Ensure screw pin is

screwed in all the way
Screw Pin Anchor Screw Pin Chain
5.3 Web Shackles.

Designed for use with flat synthetic web slings.
Inspect web shackles the same as

regular Chain shackles
6 Links.
Links are a commonly used item, either as part of a manufactured sling or as individual units

Check bearing points for damage
Any bowing (in or out) is cause to replace the link
Any bending is cause to replace the link
The same as other hardware, links must have a load rating stamp on them to be appropriate for use. If any
damage is evident, Remove From Service

7 Hooks
Check for missing safety latch
Check for excessive throat opening
Check for bowl wear
Although a limited amount of point twist

is acceptable within guidelines, if there is
visible twist the hook should be removed
from service until a qualified inspector
can assess it.
The same as other hardware, hooks must have a load rating stamp on them to be appropriate for use. (Refer
to load rating examples)

7.1 Types Of Hook
Sorting hook
This is the only hook designed for point loading.
Often used for moving steel by placing hook in boltholes, however do not use the
last 2 inches of hook point. The example here has been incorrectly used, been bent
and must be Removed From Service.
Swivel hook
Position before load is applied, do

not attempt to swivel after!
Standard hook.
Never point load a standard hook, never place the point in an eye bolt.

Only load in the area shown. Some hooks have a raised line in this region to show load area. Recommended
to use a link or shackle. Bridle arrangements must not exceed this limit.
7.2 Choker Hooks

There is No spread allowance for sliding choker hooks.
7.3 Hook Latches

Any hook latch must:
 Fully close the throat

 Have sufficient spring action to keep the throat closed
 Be the correct type for service

8 Eye Bolts
Check bearing points for wear
Remove from service if any

bending is present in shank
or eye.
Check for stripped threads and stretching Check for cracking and wear on shanks
on shanks. and threads at load concentration points.
Swivel eye bolts need careful checking. Many of the moving parts are internal and cannot be checked. If
in doubt, Remove From Service.

When used properly eye bolts are an efficient tool, with a high capacity for their size. Incorrect use reduces
capacity significantly.
Machinery type eye bolts have a fine thread compared to standard bolts. Using the wrong eye bolt will result
in a crossed thread and have costly if not catastrophic results. If the bolt becomes stiff to turn after only one
or two revolutions, it is the wrong item. Also if it is loose in the first couple of turns it is the wrong item.

Shouldered eye bolts can only be used at angles greater than 45° from
horizontal. Their capacity is greatly reduced when used at less than
90°.
Refer to manufacturer’s documentation for safe loading limits.
This is an extremely dangerous use of eye bolts.
The force actually acts between the arms of the triangle formed by this configuration. ( Imagine how a bow
and arrow works.)

A load may only be applied ‘in plane’. This means in line with the body of the eye bolt.
Never apply a load that is ‘out of plane’.
Shoulders of eye bolts must also be flush (flat) with the surface.
Correct
(Check manufacturer’s
specifications for angle loading)
WRONG!
Washers
may be used
for
shimming if
necessary
Shoulders MUST be flush

with contact surface

9 Turnbuckles
Check bearing points for wear
Never use nuts in this area
Check body and shanks for straightness
Check eyes, jaws and hooks for

damage.
If in doubt, remove from service.
A more thorough inspection may

allow a return to service.

Make sure turnbuckles used for overhead lifting are load rated. Many turnbuckles are designed as tie-
down equipment and are not load rated. All hook ends have a reduced capacity.
10 Plate Clamps
Plate clamps have many moving parts and

need close attention for wear. Pay attention
to gripping cams and jaws. Loose components
may indicate excessive wear.
Plate clamps are designed to lift, convey and position steel plates.
They can be used:
To move horizontally, plates in pairs or multiples.
To move vertically, single plate.
Plate clamps are available for most applications and must be made of drop forges steel. Manufacturer’s
recommendations must be followed closely for load limits and allowable plate thicknesses.
DOs and DON’Ts of plate clamps
 Read manufacturer’s instructions before use

 Lock clamp closed before lifting load
 Use adequate number of clamps to control/ balance load
 Insert plate or unit to full depth of throat opening
 Only use clamps within rated capacity
 Inspect before each and every lift
 Do not side load clamp
 Never lift loads over workers
 Never lift a plate from the bottom of a plate stack

 Never move more than one plate at a time in a vertical lift
 Do not lift plates with coatings or mill scale that prevents a solid grip on the base metal
 They are not designed as permanent connections
 Grit, dirt, etc trapped in oil/grease can wear moving parts, periodically place in
degreaser overnight. Re-oil moving parts.
11 Beam Clamps
Beam clamps are designed to provide an anchorage point when used correctly. It is vital to use them in line
with manufacturer’s recommendations.
They can be anchored to beams and columns, however, it is necessary to consider the strength of the beam
or column that you are attaching them to as these also carry the load and forces applied.
 The majority of beam clamps are designed to be used at 90° to the beam. Ensure the clamp is
properly seated and centred on the beam.
 Beam clamps must clearly show their WLL (weight load limit). This is independent of the beam
strength which Must be calculated separately.
 The beam must be structurally sound and the mounting point must be clean.
 It is usually necessary to consult a structural engineer for an accurate
evaluation.
If lugs are welded to the beam,

ensure they are of suitable
composition to be compatible
12 Slings
12.1 Synthetic Slings (Round Or Web)

Synthetic slings have substantially changed the way that many loads are rigged. They are light,
flexible and very strong when compared to other sling materials. The downside is that they are
easily damaged and therefore break easily when abused.
Advantages of synthetic web slings
 They mold themselves to the shape of the load.

 They spread the load better reducing potential damage to lifted items.
 They minimize spinning and twisting during lifts
 They are light and soft, promoting ease of use and minimal potential for human damage.
(bumping of empty sling, cuts, etc)
 Their elasticity absorbs shocks better, better load cushioning.
Grommet slings are very versatile, used in

many hitches and have extended life
because load points change for every load,
spreading wear.

Round slings
Synthetic slings work well when lifting pipe bundles

However, there is a long list of precautions to using synthetic slings to ensure safe usage:
 Never allow a synthetic sling to pass over a sharp edge, even edges that do not seem sharp can
do damage because of the stretching under load. Always Use Padding Around Any Edges.
 Because they are a synthetic material (nylon or polyester) heat from friction can be a problem,
friction between load and sling can cause a rotating load to part.
 Water caught between fibres can become hot enough to melt the sling when it stretches under
load. Keep Synthetic Slings Dry.
 Avoid placing slings on top of one another in shackles and hooks, the restriction to stretching
can cause a failure of the underlying sling.
 Never use synthetic web slings around chemicals especially caustic or acidic. Chemicals can burn
the fibres causing failure.
 Excessive heat will melt the sling. Temperatures above 82° C can be very harmful. Refer to
manufacturer’s literature for exact temperature rating.
 Never place a sling where welding is likely to take place, splatter will cause damage.
 Avoid low sling angles; it can cut the edges of the sling.
The web can tear

or be cut here
 Never attempt to repair a sling; stitching is done in a precise way with particular threads to
ensure strength is maintained.
 When not being used, keep slings inside away from direct sunlight, moisture and accidental
damage from vehicles, site machinery, loads etc
 Synthetic web slings are Only used for lifting, Never pulling or dragging.
 Never tie slings together, use other lifting hardware to create a longer sling if necessary.
 Never tie a knot in a synthetic web sling.
 Never use a sling where the tag cannot be read… You Do Not Know Its Rating.
 Watch for wear or damage that may reveal a red marker yarn. If you see a marker yarn, the sling
is irreparable, Remove From Service.
 Never use a synthetic sling that has any cuts, punctures, any visible damage that may have
weakened the yarns.
 Inspect the slings before each use, If It Is Necessary To Discard The Sling; Cut Out The Eyes Or
Cut Into Sections.

This was a $2.4 million
yacht…..before the sling
failed!
Damage such as shown below is enough to remove the sling from service. Even small seemingly
unimportant damage can be enough make a sling unsafe.

All synthetic slings must have a tag that clearly states:
 Manufacturer
 Rated loads for types of hitch
 Material type (nylon, polyester)

12.2 Chain Slings
Many companies do not allow chain slings on-site. Make sure it is permissible to use them on
your site.
Check for excessive wear at

bearing points
Turn links to check for excessive

wear at bearing points
Check for signs of stretch, usually

seen as bowing in of the link
All chain slings must have a tag which states:
 Size of link
 Grade of steel (80 or 100)
 Serial number
 Manufacturer
Chain links
None of these are suitable for

overhead crane operation

The mechanical coupling link is a
suitable load rated product
12.3 Wire Rope And Wire Rope Slings
Modern wire rope is a very specialized tool. It has been designed with a specific purpose in
mind, and engineered to a very high standard. The construction and behaviour of wire rope
must be understood by every user.
12.3.1 Construction
There are several types of rope

available on the market today but the
general structure conforms to that
shown here.
The number, type and size of

individual wires used in each
component part determines the
strength and size of the rope as a
whole.

12.3.2 Description of Wire Rope.
375 Feet, 5/8”, 6x25 Filler, Preformed, Extra improved Plow Steel, IWRC, RRL.
It looks complicated?
375 feet long.
5/8 inches wide
6 strands X 25 wires in each strand
Preformed means the wires have been bent into the helix already to reduce stress (PRF)
Plow steel is high carbon steel
IWRC (Independent Wire Rope Core) this is the type of core
RRL, Right regular lay is the direction of the strands and wires in the rope.
12.3.3 Construction
6X25

Unfortunately as ropes have developed, the number of classifications has increased and ropes fall loosely
into families which may not reflect their construction. (6X19 filler wire may actually be 6X21)
12.3.4 Types of Wire

Wire is available in many metals and alloys; steel, stainless steel, iron, monel and bronze.
The carbon steel used in wire rope comes in several grades; plough steel (PS), improved plough steel (IPS),
extra improved plough steel (XIP) and super, extra improved plough steel (XXIP). Each step in grade
represents an approximate 8-15% increase in yield strength.
12.3.5 Wire Rope Cores

The core provides the foundation upon which the rope relies for its strength and properties. The core holds
the strands apart, allowing for movement during flexing and bending.
Fibre Core Strand Core
Independent Wire
Rope Core

12.3.6 Rotation Resistant Ropes
These ropes need a small mention here as they are an

important rope classification. They are NOT to be used for
sling manufacture.
The Strands and core are laid in opposite directions. They also
have one or two extra strands. It is the extra strands and
counteracting core that produce the rotation resistance
NOT TO BE USED FOR SLINGS OR BOOM HOIST ROPES!

12.3.7 Rope Lay
The Rope lay can be divided into 3 main areas:
1. Rotation of the wires in the strands

2. Rotation of the strands
3. Length of rope for one strand to travel around the rope.
Regular or Ordinary lay: The wires in the

strands are laid in the opposite direction to
the strands themselves. This results in a line of
wires running down the rope. This produces a
stable, crush, kink, twist and distortion
resistant rope. (Due to the short length of
exposed wire)
This rope is very commonly used for sling

manufacture.
Lang lay: The wires in the strands are

laid in the same direction as the strands
themselves. Outer wires are exposed for
longer but run across the face of the
rope, increasing abrasion resistance, it is
also more flexible and resistant to
fatigue. Needs both ends fixed, cannot
be used with swivel hooks and NEVER
used for slings.
Alternate or herringbone lay: this rope is a mix that tries to capture the
advantages of the previously mentioned rope constructions. It should only
be used under direction of a crane or wire rope specialist and NEVER used
for slings.

Right lay:
The rope strands run in a clockwise direction down the rope.
This is the most common construction.
Left lay:
The rope strands run anti-clockwise down the rope.
This lay is only used in special applications.
Lay Length
This is the measurement of one strand making one complete revolution of the rope. Elongation of one
length or differences between lengths can be an early indication of core failure or over elongation of wires.

12.3.8 Wire Rope Diameter
All new ropes are wider than their rated nominal measurements. It is only when the rope goes below its
limits that it must be replaced.
Correct measurement of the rope diameter is a critical component of wire rope inspection.
Correct Incorrect
12.3.9 Rope Design Elements
 Grade of wire (IPS, XIPS, etc)

 Number and pattern of wires in the strands and core
 Type of lay
 Preforming
 Type of core.
12.3.10 Wire Rope Inspection.

One of the most important aspects of inspection is that of the rope itself, the inspection and assessment of
wear, abrasion, kinks, broken wires and corrosion is often more important than the actual strength of the
rope.

All Wire rope in continuous service should be observed constantly in every day operation and visually
inspected once a week. A thorough inspection must be made at least once a month and wire rope that has
been idle for a month or more should be inspected before being put into service.
A record of inspections should be kept, this assists in determining rope life and replacement schedule. Many
applications demand replacement based upon number of hours in service, regardless of condition. This
reduces potential for rope failure, or having a machine unexpectedly out of service for a rope change.
Regardless of your replacement criteria, it is good, safe practice to regularly and thoroughly inspect ropes.
Any deterioration which results in a loss of rope strength should be examined by an expert before further
use.
There is no exact timeframe after which a rope must be replaced; it depends upon many factors like:
 Seriousness of deficiencies noticed during inspection

 Time until next inspection
 Size and nature of lifts
 Frequency of lifts
 Possibility of injury or death to workers
 Possible loss of materials
It is only through proper inspection and results documentation that it can be determined if a rope should be
replaced or not.
There are 2 basic questions which must be addressed:
1. Does the rope’s condition present any possibility of failure?

2. Is the rate of deterioration such that it will be safe to use until the next inspection?
These questions may only be answered with proper inspection techniques and good judgment coming from
experience and knowledge. Wire rope inspection is difficult because there is no room for guesswork, get it
wrong and the results will be catastrophic.
The specific application will greatly influence replacement of ropes, however, there are some general
guidelines:

1. Broken wires (number, location and distribution)
2. wire wear (stretching, abrasion of individuals wires)
3. Reduction in diameter (core damage, stretching due to overload)
4. Stretch (elongation over life)
5. Corrosion (rust, chemical damage, internal and external)
6. Lubrication (Interior lubrication maintains the wire, exterior prevents corrosion)
7. damaged or improper splices (splices are the weak point in the rope)
8. Kinks and bends ( cause uneven loading of strands)
9. crushing, flattening (greatly reduces rope strength)
10. Heat damage (affects lubrication and temper of wires)
12.3.11 Broken Wires.

Wires will break throughout a rope’s life, possibly even from first use. The problem is not that there are
breaks, what determines the rope’s life is how many and where. It is common to find broken wires on the
outside of a strand, the areas of breakage should be noted, and re-inspected regularly for additional breaks.
Provided they are at well spaced intervals this is not necessarily of concern. It is the number of localized
broken wires that represents one of the criteria for replacement. Outside wires only represent a fraction of
the total wires in a rope so we must look for other clues. Valley breaks are breaks that happen between
strands and are a good indication of internal damage. More than 1 valley break in on lay length is cause to
replace the rope.
Some inspectors use marlin spikes to open the rope to view the inside of the rope. The potential for damage
here is huge. Only use a spike to open a rope if you are a highly experienced rope specialist.
Once the number of localized broken wires begins to increase, more will follow shortly, the rope is
approaching the end of its operational life. Attempting to get a little more use out of a rope that has more
than the allowable number of broken wires is asking for a catastrophe. Inspectors should carefully consider
their inspection schedule and the consequences of a rope failure.
ANSI Guideline for Rope Replacement based on Number of Broken Wires:

12.3.12 Wire Rope Failure Chart.

13 Review 2
What are the 3 types of inspection?
1)…………………………………………...
2)……………………………………………
3)……………………………………………
Place a tick next to the one which is your responsibility, which could save your life?
What is the purpose of a pre-use inspection?
A pre-use inspection is to ensure user safety. True/false.
A pre-use inspection is part of an in depth investigation. True/false.
A Pre-use inspection involves reports True/false.
A pre-use inspection involves measurements True/false.
A pre-use inspection removes an item from service for full True/false.
inspection by engineer.
Shackles.
Mark on this picture the inspection areas and important markings of a shackle.
What type of shackle is it?.......................................
Draw arrows on the above shackles showing the only approved directions for loading.

Hooks.
On the picture, Mark important inspection points.
Which of these eyebolts can

only be used in a vertical
lift?
Synthetic web slings should not be used near................. or …………….
Always make sure you can………… the label to see 1)…………, 2)………….. and 3)…………..
All chain slings must have a tag which states:
 ………………………
 ………………………
 ………………………
 ………………………
Only one product is suitable as a replacement chain link. What is its name?
…………………………………………………………………………………

Label the diagram with
the different parts of a
wire rope.
IWRC stands for…………………………
FC stands for……………………………
SC stands for …………………………...
What are the 3 types of strand lay, which is used for wire rope slings?
 ………………………………
 ………………………………
 ……………………………….
Do slings use a left lay or a right lay?
…………………………………………………………………………….
How many wires can be broken in a sling before it must be replaced?
………………………………………………………………………………………………….
How do you check for rope stretch?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
How do you know the core is broken or damaged?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
A missing tag from chain or synthetic web is ok. True/false

Chain slings are allowed on every site True/false
Synthetic web slings are easily damaged True/false
Only regular, right hand lay is suitable for making slings True/false
Session 3
14 End Fittings
The end fittings of wire rope are the greatest importance in safety because they develop less
than the full strength of the rope.
It is important to know the types of fitting, proper installation and safe working loads.
Safety requires inspectors and users to be aware of:
 Proper selection of fittings

 Proper installation
 Evaluation of safe load capacity
 Evaluation of deficiencies
For Overhead lifting, only forged fittings of weldless construction are recommended.
Fitting efficiencies are assessed as a percentage of rope strength.

Remember, neither wire clip or wedge sockets are suitable for slings.
The use of fibre core ropes will reduce these figures by up to 10%
14.1 Zinc Sockets
These are highly efficient but need careful inspection before putting into service. An improperly
applied socket will lead to extremely dangerous conditions.
 All wire elements must be held securely within the fitting or unequal loading and high
stranding will occur, greatly reducing rope strength and life.
 Must only be used in upright, standing applications, inflexibility leads to the wires breaking
just above the end of the socket.
 Corrosion of the rope where it enters the socket means flux or acid was not neutralized
properly at manufacturing.
 The rope may not have been aligned perfectly at manufacturing, check that the rope exits in
a straight manner, any bend or opening of the strands indicates a manufacturing fault.
 Immediately reject the socket if more than one broken wire is found at the fitting, or 2
within one lay length. If there are any foreign bodies in the cast zinc, reject the socket.
 Evidence of putty at the fitting shows it has not been rigorously inspected since
manufacture… don’t take any chances; get it inspected by qualified personnel.

A properly poured socket will have a little bit of zinc showing through and around the rope, this
shows the zinc was hot enough to achieve full penetration at pouring. There should also be a
slight, smooth dip at the top of the socket where the rope comes out; this shows the zinc was
fully molten when it was poured.
Make sure the sockets are aligned exactly and not rotated out of plane; this will introduce a
torsional stress reducing the load capacity and life of the rope and fitting.

14.2 Swaged Sockets
Swaged sockets have similar advantages, load capacity and disadvantages to poured sockets.
Inspection needs are also the same.
More than one broken wire at the fitting and more than two broken wires in one lay length is
enough to replace the item. It is not uncommon to replace this connection even when there is
no visible damage; we cannot see what is happening inside the connection. A general rule is that
the connection is replaced at every one third of expected rope life.

Wedge Socket
The wedge socket is never used for slings but is the most
common end fitting on mobile cranes.
They can be subject to incorrect fitting and require regular inspection because
they are known to produce excessive rope wear and complete failure if not
maintained correctly.
When inspecting the socket ensure that the rope

enters the correct side; the live rope must be in line
with the eye.
Maintain at least 8-
10 rope diameters
on the dead
end of the rope. Use wire rope clips or other method to prevent
the dead end slipping through the wedge
When inspecting, check the wedge for cracks using non destructive testing
(NDT).
Any rope which is removed from the fitting must be cut back and new
undamaged rope placed back into the socket. When using wire clips as a
security measure do not include the live end of the rope.
Even when properly installed a wedge socket only produces a connection of 70% rope strength.

Make certain you are using the correctly sized wedge for the socket. Even though they look the same
they aren’t………Never Use The Wrong Sized Wedge In A Socket.
14.3 Mechanical Splice

Most often found on wire rope slings. Sling eyes are often the weak point in a sling since they
rely on the strength of the fitting not the wire rope itself.
Fold-back and hand tucked eyes are

approved end fittings but they
aren’t as strong as other fittings
because the load is only carried up
one side. Some riggers prefer the
hand-tucked fitting because they
make a smooth wrap around the
load, sometimes referred to as ‘soft
eyes’
The Flemish eye splice is

very strong because it
shares the load up both
arms of the loop
Inspect all eye splices for broken wires near the metal fittings. If any distortion or damage is
visible, Remove From Service.
Wire rope clips should not be used to form eyes. This is

an unreliable, weak connection. If they must be used,
inspect closely, ANY damage or distortion is cause for
removal from service. Suitable for non lifting work- refer
Proprietary and Confidential 62 to manufacturer’s information
ARP.V.1.0.250310
The swaged socket (left) and the poured socket (right) are very
strong fittings but not usually found on slings.
14.3.1 Inspecting a Sling Eye
Check for broken wires
Swages should be uniform in shape and closed completely

around the rope body
Check for broken wires
Check for collapsing thimble
Check for damaged wires or pinching of the rope
Evidence of any of the above is cause for closer inspection by a qualified person.

This foldback is failing. If not noticed in a pre-use
inspection it may lead to a catastrophic failure.
This is a common failure mode. It is because the

centerline of the live rope is not the same as the
centerline of the eye, this offset produces a side
load.
15 Sling Hitches
How Should You Use A Vertical Hitch?
 In most cases use more than one sling. A single rope sling load
tends to rotate in a twisting action that unwinds cables causing
them to weaken.
 Do not use for lifting loose materials, long or unbalanced
loads.
How Should You Use A Turning Hitch?
 Use a doubled choker to turn loads.

 Place both sling eyes on top of the load pointing in the
direction opposite to the direction of the turn. This
sling will remain tight while the load is turning.
 Never use a basket hitch to turn a load.

How Should You Use Choker Hitches?
 The sling tightens on a load as it is lifted.

 Do not use on loose bundles.
 Use choker hitches at 75% or less of rated sling capacity.
Doubled Choker Hitch
 Provides more contact area to secure a load
double Wrap Choker Hitch
 This hitch compresses the load and prevents it from

slipping out of the sling.
 Where overhead space is limited, a double wrapped

choker hitch is acceptable.
How Should You Use Basket Hitches?
 Provide relatively good control and eliminate the

tendency of the load to twist, compared with a vertical
hitch.
 Do not use on a load that is difficult to balance.

Double Basket Hitches
 Balance loads by keeping slings apart.
 Prevent sling slippage by keeping the angle

between the load and sling 60° or more.
Double Wrap Basket Hitches
 Provide more contact for handling loose

material and pipe.
 Tend to draw the load together.
How Should You Use Bridle Hitches?
Bridle hitches:
 Are made of 2, 3 or 4 single leg hitches.

 Are used for hoisting an object that has lifting
lugs or attachments.
 Position the hook over the centre of gravity of

the load.
 Adjust sling leg lengths with turnbuckles to

level raised load.
 Check each sling leg angle to ensure sling is not overloaded.
How Does The Angle Of Hoisting Affect A Sling Load Limit?
 The angle affects the working load limit. The smaller the angle, the less load a sling can
carry.

16 Load Weight.
As a rigger it is important to be able to calculate the load weights. It is also important to use your intelligence and judgment.
As a general rule it is usually a good idea to round numbers up. If the accepted book weight of a material is 95kg per m 3,
calculate it as 100kg. This makes the mathematics easier and adds an extra safety factor to the lift.
This approach is not correct when lifting something that needs balancing carefully. In that case it is highly important to know
the right weight.
Basic Math
Area = Length X width.
Length =3cm

Width =2cm
Answer = 3 X 2 = 6cm2
Volume = Length X Width X Height.
6 X 6 X 6 = 216 cm3
Using these calculations it is

easy to calculate the weights
of basic shapes.
Often it is necessary to lift things that are not square. When this happens we must use π (Known as Pi). This represents the
relationship between diameter and circumference. It has a value of 3.142.
The circumference is the edge

around the circle.

Circumference is found using either 2πr or πD. These are two ways of writing the same thing.
If we wish to find area we must use πr2 or πD2
Example
Find area of a circle of diameter 60cm.
Or, since a circle has 79% of the area of a square we can

also say 0.79 x L x W.
π x 30 x 30 = 2827.43 cm2
In a circle L=W=D
OR
So in this example 0.79x60x60= 2844cm2
π x 60 x 60 = 2827.43 cm2
To find the volume of a round object, all we have to do now is add height.
πr2H or πD2 H
If we take the example above, and give the object a height of 15cm then the final answer is:
π x 30 x 30 x 15 = 42411.45 cm3
Finally multiply the result by the unit weight of the material and you have the weight of the item.
17 Sling Angle Stress.
When used in a straight pull, slings develop 100% of their strength. Unfortunately, when used in a bridle configuration, there
isn’t a straight pull and this reduces the sling’s overall capacity because of the introduction of hidden, extra loads.

We need to be able to calculate the extra load being placed on the slings so that we can understand if that particular sling is
strong enough to perform safely with this load.
We need the Load Angle Factor.
Very simply:

Sling angle LAF
900 1.000
This means that there is an additional hidden 3.5% load on the
slings. Total weight lifted by the slings is actually 4.14 tons, 2.07 850 1.004
tons each.
800 1.015
750 1.035
This difference isn’t much, but as we saw in the sling angle chart
700 1.064
before, this situation changes rapidly to be a large increase in
load and we need to be able to calculate that in order to choose
650 1.104
our slings. At 300 the sling has to carry twice as much load as
when it is straight. This means it needs to work at half its rated 600 1.155
capacity or it will fail.
550 1.221
500 1.305
0
Never use a sling angle of less than 45
450 1.414
400 1.555
When we know the LAF, multiply by the load (total weight) and
then divide by the number of slings. This will give you what each 350 1.742
sling needs to be able to carry.
300 2.000
In the prevous example,
250 2.364
200 2.924
1.035x4= 2.07 tons per leg 150 3.861
2 100 5.747
50 11.490

Look at the below diagrams to see the effects of sling angles:
18 Centre Of Gravity
It is very important when lifting a load to locate the centre of gravity. Not every load is symmetrical, but
every load must be lifted directly over the C of G. This prevents excess movement of the load as it corrects
itself and prevents overloading of any one sling. In short, the load is still in balance.
The concrete structure below is not symmetrical in shape.
We need to find the centre of gravity before we can lift it.
Looking at the 2 pictures below we can see the effect of an off-centre load.

How can we calculate where the centre of gravity is?
The answer is, quite easy . All we have to do is identify the total length of the object, the relative centres of each block, and
the weight of each block.
We already know how to find the weight of each block from the volume and mass calculations. We can measure the length.
And we can measure the centre of each block.
So if we look at the example above again but this time with weights in it we get:
We need to calculate what are called ‘moments’. This is a simple method of finding the effect of a weight at a distance. We
multiply each weight by the distance they are from one end, add them together, then we divide this total by the total weight.
So, looking at the first example:
3Kg X 0.5m = 1.5 Kg/m
3Kg X 3.5M= 10.5 Kg/m

Adding we get total 12Kg/m
12/6= 2m. Our centre is 2 metres along the beam, in the middle.
In the second example our weights are not equal so the balance point will not be in the middle. Let’s do the same calculation.
1Kg X 0.5m= 0.5 Kg/m
3Kg X 3.5m= 10.5 Kg/m
Adding we get total 11
11/4 = 2.75m
Our new centre is 2 .75 metres from the left side.
We can double check this by doing the same calculation from the other side.
3 Kg x 0.5m = 1.5 Kg/m
1 Kg x 3.5m = 3.5 Kg/m
Adding we get total 5
5/4 = 1.25
Our new centre is 1.25 metres from the right side.
Adding these two numbers should give us the total length of the beam.
2.75 + 1.25 = 4
Now we know the Centre of gravity for the off centre load and we have double checked it.
19 Calculating Sling Stress
We now need to find the individual sling stress, because if the C of G isn’t central, then the slings won’t be
carrying equal weights.
This is a very quick matter of finding the percentages of total weight on each sling.
This is done by dividing the distance of the centre of gravity over the total length which in this example is:
Left = 2.75/4 x 100 = 68.8

Right = 1.25/4 x 100 = 31.2
Does it make sense that the left side is carrying the majority of the load? NO.
Apply the percentage to the opposite side.
So, using this calculation we find the load for the Opposite Side.
As A Result The Left Side Is Carrying 31.2% And The Right Is Carrying 68.8%.
Total weight is 4Kg.
4/100 x 68.8 = 2.75Kg on the right
4/100 x 31.2 = 1.25Kg on the left.

We need to apply the LAF to get the correct load on the slings.
To find the load we need to calculate sling length.
In any 90o triangle:
A 2 + B 2 = C2
C represents the sling.
In our case, if we say the hook is 2.5m above the load. Then:
Left =2.752 + 2.52 = 13.8
I3.8 square root = 3.7m left sling.
Right= 1.252 + 2.52= 7.8
7.8 square root = 2.8m right sling
Now we have the sling length :
LAF = 3.7m/2.5m= 1.48
And 2.8m/2.5m = 1.12.
To avoid the mathematics……..measure distance from the hook to the pull point!!
1.48 x 1.248Kg = 1.84 Kg total left sling
1.12 x 2.752Kg = 3.08 Kg total right sling.

19.1 Bridle Sling Rating Charts
1) The heading indicates exactly the wire rope type, you must make sure that this is correct for your
slings before you use the chart.
2) Describes how the slings are measured, in this case, tons of 2000 lbs each.
3) Chart is broken into 2 and 3 leg bridles
4) Chart is broken into angles
5) Hand tucked or mechanical eye-splice
6) Diameter
7) Notice the angles are separated into horizontal and vertical
8) 450 is the same in both directions.
9) Chart is still broken into angles
10) Rope construction.
These charts are only accurate and therefore applicable if the centre of gravity is in the centre of the
item to be lifted. If it isn’t you CANNOT use these tables.
These charts have already had the sling angle stress accounted for, this is why they are divided into
angles. However, it can sometimes be quite difficult to guess the angles when working, the LAF
calculation should be done anyway.

When we compare LAF and single sling charts with the bridle sling charts they both suggest the same size sling, is this
coincidence? NO!

19.2 3 Leg And 4 Leg Slings
Neither ANSI nor OSHA provide charts for 4 leg wire rope slings, however, many manufacturers do.
It is vitally important to understand how a 4 leg bridle behaves. Firstly, any rigger will tell you and you can easily see that in
any 4 leg lift, one of the legs appears to be slack. This tells us that not all the legs are equally loaded.
This occurs for several reasons.
1) Manufacturing tolerances allow slight variance in the sling length

2) Sometimes 4 slings will be attached to a link but not all will be used, this gives more usage to certain
slings, introducing uneven stretching.
3) When all 4 are connected to a master link the radius changes, as the eyes move up the link .
4) Load rigidity, some loads are flexible and allow these variations to be absorbed, spreading the load
more evenly. The more rigid the load, the less load sharing there will be.
5) During movement, pendulum action will place more load on some slings than others.
Manufacturers do provide load charts with 4 leg slings but place many limitations on them: load must be sufficiently flexible,
slings must be allowed to stretch, statically indeterminate loads only (no swinging), slings must be of same length at start of
lift.
Because of these limitations (as riggers, how do you know flexibility of load? How can you guarantee same length of sling?) it
is strongly urged that you calculate 4 leg slings as 3 leg slings.
Whether using wire rope, chain, or web slings a 4 leg sling has only one advantage. STABILITY.
3 leg slings are great for round or ‘T’ shaped objects but 4 leg slings give much more versatility. Especially since so many
things are square or rectangular.
4 gives stability but calculate as 3!
Some agencies demand that because of the shifting loads in a 4 leg bridle, any 2 legs must be able to take the entire load
without failing.

Review 3
There are 6 common end fittings, which are most common in sling manufacture?
………………………………………………………………………………………
Circle the correct way to

install a wedge socket.
Why is the result still
not acceptable?
Which is the best mechanical splice for slings? Why?
………………………………………………………………………………………………………………
What should not be used to make a sling eye?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
When using a …………. Hitch 25% of single leg capacity is lost.
Calculate the volume of the following shapes

Calculate the volume of this pipe using Both methods.
Calculate the LAF for the following loads, and the resulting sling stress.
1) 2)
3) 4)

Calculate the above load.
Calculate volume.
Calculate Weight (concrete 2400 Kg per cubic metre)
Calculate centre of gravity
Calculate weight distribution
Calculate sling length if hook 2m above highest eye.
Calculate load on each sling.
Use this page for calculations.

20 Hand Signals


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BHARAT SAFETY TRAINING

Rigging & Lifting Safety

1 Introduction To Rigging Gear 4

4 Use And Inspection Needs 15

Proprietary and Confidential 4 ARP.V.1.0.250310

Proprietary and Confidential 5 ARP.V.1.0.250310

and the load

1.3 Rigging Hardware

Examples are shown below.

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Examples are shown below.

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2.1 Load Slippage

2.2 Load, Sling And Workforce Protection

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Crushing forces are also a

A spreader of suitable strength

2.3 Load Balance

Avoid rigging a load

2.4 Load Levelling

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2.5 Surrounding Environment

“bleaching’’ and “fading”.

2.5.3 Foreign Material:

Proprietary and Confidential 10 ARP.V.1.0.250310

2.6 Load Ratings

Non-Load Rated Products Are not To Be Used In Rigging Applications.

Load rated products have a built in safety factor.

Proprietary and Confidential 11 ARP.V.1.0.250310

The 2 hooks below appear very similar.

This hook is commonly

2.7 Crane Safety

Use taglines wherever possible to control loads. Placing hands on a load

Proprietary and Confidential 12 ARP.V.1.0.250310

Never stand under a suspended load

Never place your body between a load and any obstruction

Never stand under a crane’s boom

Never walk between any obstruction and the crane’s superstructure. A

Notice the list of DON’Ts is longer than the list of DOs…….

Proprietary and Confidential 13 ARP.V.1.0.250310

General PPE includes:

 ANSI-approved protective footwear

 Respiratory protection as necessary—N, R, or P95, filtering facemasks may be used for

Points to remember about PPE:

 PPE only works if you are wearing it.

Proprietary and Confidential 14 ARP.V.1.0.250310

Name the following hardware

Circle the load which is safe and say

Think of 5 things that affect load safety.

Why is it important to use Load rated equipment?

Proprietary and Confidential 15 ARP.V.1.0.250310

What PPE do you need on-site?

If the load is in danger of being crushed you must use a ……………………………………………..

4 Use And Inspection Needs

4.1 Pre-Use Inspections

Frequent Inspections are described as “daily to monthly”

Pre-Use Inspections happen every time the hardware is used.

A pre-use inspection Is Intended to:

 Notice damage on a component and remove item from service

Proprietary and Confidential 16 ARP.V.1.0.250310