Chapter 2 Soil Science
Chapter 2 Soil Science
Chapter 2 Soil Science
Soil Science
Unit 2
Soil Formation, Weathering and Development
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Topic Outline
Minerals
Types of minerals
Properties of soil forming rocks
Rocks
Classes of rocks
Rock cycle
Weathering and soil formation
Weathering
Soil development
Factors of soil formation
Soil profile
Mineral
2. Secondary minerals
b) Plagioclase feldspars
Albite – NaAlSiO8 Anorthite – CaAl2Si2O8
Primary minerals:
3. Mica group
These minerals are complex potassium
aluminosilicates which often contain iron and
magnesium. The two most micas are:
a) Muscovite H2KAl3(SiO4)3
b) Biotite H2K(MgFe)3Al(Si4)3
a) Hornblende H2Ca2Na(Mg,Fe)4(AlFeTi)3SiO6
It is a black colored amphibole
with distinct cleavage.
b) Augite Ca(Mg,Fe,Al,)(Al,Si)2O6
5. Apatite
a) Carbonatoapatite – Ca10CO3(PO4)6
b) Sulfatoapatite – Ca10SO4(PO4)6
c) Hydroxyapatite – Ca10(OH)2(PO4)6
d) Chloroapatite – Ca10Cl2(PO4)6
d) Flouroapatite – Ca10F2(PO4)6
Primary minerals:
6. Carbonate group
It is a group of primary
minerals made up of
carbonate of calcium and
magnesium found in
limestone and marble.
a) Calcite – CaCO3
b) Dolomite – CaMg(CO3)2
Secondary minerals:
1. Iron group
This group consists largely of the oxides of iron
in several hydration states.
a) Limonite (2Fe2O3.3H2O)
Its color varies from brown through
black and gives a yellow – brown
streak.
b) Hematite (Fe2O3)
It is known as “paintrock” or red ochre
and is a source of hydroxide of clays, iron
and color of soils.
Secondary minerals:
2. Aluminum group
This group consists of the oxides of aluminum in
several states of hydration.
a) Boehmite - AlOOH
b) Gibbsite – Al(OH)3
3. Gypsum (CaSO4.2H2O)
This mineral has a hardness of 2.0
and is a source of calcium and sulfur.
Secondary minerals:
4. Clay group
c) Montmorillonite group
1) Montmorillonite – Al4Si8O20(OH)4
2) Beidellite
3) Vermiculite
4) Nontronite
Rocks
2. Sedimentary rocks
3. Metamorphic rocks
3. Composition
Refers to the amount of the different mineral
present.
Rhyolite
Dacite Andesite Basalt
Pumice Scoria
Sedimentary Rock
Derived from weathering of some previously existing
rocks.
Transported, fragmented and deposited in areas of
accumulation by the action of water and wind.
Such loose deposits (sediments) are converted into
rocks by the process of lithification and diageneses
which include: compaction, dehydration,
cementation and recrystallization.
Generally, sedimentary rock is fairly soft and may
break apart or crumble easily. You can often see
sand, pebbles, or stones in the rock, and it is usually
the only type that contains fossils.
Diagenesis
The change of sediments or existing sedimentary rock
into a different sedimentary rock during and after rock
formation (lithification), at temperatures and pressures
less than that required for the formation
of metamorphic rocks.
It does not include changes from weathering.
It is any chemical, physical, or biological change
undergone by a sediment after its initial deposition,
after its lithification.
diagnesis
SR a SR b
Three classes of sedimentary rocks:
1. Clastic sediments
Shale
Conglomerate
Three classes of sedimentary rocks:
2. Chemical sediments
Are products of chemical precipitation
from solutions.
Examples: dolomite, limestone, chert
3. Organic sediments
Derived from plants and animal residues.
Examples: coal, lignite, petrified wood
Chemical Sedimentary Rock:
Name of Rock Precipitate Type
Halite Sodium and Chlorine
Silcretes Silica
Ferricretes Iron
Siltstone
Sandstone
– “change in form”
Metamorphic Rock
Granite Gneiss
Marble
Limestone
Rock Key:
The Rock Cycle
IGNEOUS ROCK
Metamorphism
How does the climate influence
the weathering of rock?
Oxidation Hydrolysis
Carbonation Dissolution
1. Silicate clays
Involves:
1) Mechanical disintegration
a) Influence of water
d) Influence of plants
Involves:
2) Thermal weathering
Result from movement or stress on the rock surface.
Variations of temperature, especially if sudden or wide
greatly influence the disintegration of rocks.
Rocks are aggregate of minerals that differ in their
coefficients of expansion when heated.
Peeling of the rock surface (exfoliation)
Where does it occur?
Physical weathering happens
especially in places where
there is little soil and few plants
grow, such as in mountain
regions and hot deserts.
Involves:
hydrolysis
KAlSi3O8 + H2O HAlSi3O8 + K + OH-
(solid) (liquid) (solid) (solution)
Clay precursor
B. Chemical Weathering
Involves:
hydration
2Fe2O3 + 3H2O 2Fe2O3.H2O
(hematite) (limonite)
B. Chemical Weathering
Involves:
Involves:
2) Reaction in acid solution
4FeO + O2 2Fe2O3
(Ferrous oxide) (Ferric oxide)
B. Chemical Weathering
Involves:
Reduction - the process of removal of oxygen and is
the reverse of oxidation
Ferric iron is converted to ferrous iron compounds.
Under conditions of excess water or water logged
condition (less or no oxygen), reduction takes place.
Removal of O2
Gain of electron (e-)
Decrease in oxidation
number or valence
Increase in size
Addition of O2
Loss of electron (e-)
Increase in oxidation
number or valence
Decrease in size
Weathering
Figure 3. A conceptual diagram showing how weathering breaks down rocks and
minerals; eventually, soil formation begins in place. Erosion or mass wasting involves
removal of particles offsite. Note: One, two or all three processes can be present to
weather rock depending on the environment. Image courtesy of UNL, 2005
Factors affecting weathering of rocks and minerals
B) Physical characteristics
Climatic Conditions
1) Particle size
Physical Characteristics
2) Hardness and cementation
Physical Characteristics
3. Mineralogy and structure of a rock
Mafic silicates like olivine and pyroxene tend to
weather much faster than felsic minerals like
quartz and feldspar.
Massive rocks like granite generally do not
contain planes of weakness whereas layered
sedimentary rocks have bedding planes that can
be easily pulled apart and infiltrated by water.
Weathering therefore occurs more slowly in
granite than in layered sedimentary rocks.
Quartz > Muscovite and K Feldspar > Na and Ca Feldspar > Biotite ,
Hornblende, Augite > Olivine > Dolomite > Calcite > Gypsum
Break
Soil Forming Processes
Grouped into:
a) Weathering
b) Horizon differentiation
or horizon formation
Parent Material
Two groups of inorganic parent materials:
1) Residual/Sedentary materials
– are those that are formed in place
2) Transported materials
- moved from one place to another
- loose sediments that have been transported
and deposited by gravity, water, ice, or wind.
These materials are classified on the basis of
the agents responsible for their movement and
deposition.
Parent Material: Sub-divisions based on
transportation/decomposition
b) Alluvial fans
– materials are gravelly and
stony, porous and well drained.
c) Delta deposits
– finer sediments carried by streams
that is not deposited in the flood plain
- often a continuation of flood plain
Parent Material: Sub-divisions based on
transportation/decomposition
Parent Material
Soil Formation
Weathering
1) Organic matter
3) Water
4) Oxides of Fe and Al
5) Silicate clays
Role of organic matter in
horizon differentiation
S = f (cl, o, r, p, t...)
Where, S represents the soil, cl for climate in a given
period, o for the organisms, r for relief or topography
(including hydrologic features such as water table), p
for parent material, t for time or relative age of the
soil and ... For additional unspecified factors. The
latter my include man.
Climate
• perhaps the most influential of the factors because it
determines the nature of the weathering that occurs.
Climate
Temperature
Climate
Organisms
Include plants, animals, human beings and microbial life.
Sandstone:
Texture – coarse
Soil pH – low
Fertility - low
Topography
• Relates to the configuration of the land
surface and is described in terms of difference
in elevation, slope, shape or contour of the
land surface and so on.
Translocation of soil
1) Catena/s
- Soils are developed on the same parent
material
- Soils only differ on drainage due to
variations in relief
2) Chronosequence
- Sequence of related soils that differ in
certain properties primarily as a result of
time as a soil-forming process
Soil groups based
on the factors of Soil Formation:
3) Lithosequence
- Group of related soils that differ in parent
material
4) Climosequence
- Sequence of soils that differ due to
changes in climate
5) Biosequence
- Soils that differ due to variations of
organisms
Development sequence of a tropical soil
A A
A
A
B
B B
C C
C C
D
Young soil Immature Mature soil Old soil
soil
Development sequence of a tropical soil
Young soil
Mature soil
Characterized by moderate clay accumulation
in the B horizon and the solum (A and B
horizons) is acid.
Old soil
Characterized as strongly acidic and severely
weathered soil and has less organic matter
with subdivisions in major horizons.
Soil Profile
O Horizon (organic)
Comprised of organic horizons that form above the
mineral soil. They result from litter derived from
dead plants and animals. O horizons usually occur
in forested areas and are generally absent in
grassland regions.
A Horizon
The topmost mineral horizon. It contain a strong
mixture of partially decomposed (humified) organic
matter, which tends to impart a darker color than
that of the lower horizons.
The master horizons and layers
E Horizon
Zone of maximum leaching or eluviation (from
Latin e, out, and lavere, to wash) of clay, iron and
aluminum oxides, which leaves a concentration of
resistant minerals, such as quartz, in the sand and
silt sizes. Generally lighter in color than the A
horizon and is found under the A horizon.
B Horizon (illuvial)
Commonly called the subsoil. Include layers in
which illuviation (from Latin il, in, and lavere, to
wash) of materials has taken place from above and
even from below.
The master horizons and layers
C Horizon
The parent material or partly decomposed
(weathered) rocks. Is the unconsolidated material
underlying the solum (A and B). From this layer,
the true soil is derived.
R Horizon
Underlying consolidated rock, with little evidence of
weathering such as granite, sandstone or
limestone.
Definition of Terms:
Furrow slice
The uppermost layer of an arable soil to the depth of
primary tillage. The layer of soil sliced away from the
rest of the profile and inverted by the moldboard plow.
Surface soil
The uppermost part of the soil, ordinarily moved in
tillage, or its equivalent in uncultivated soils. It ranges
in depth from 7 to 25cm and frequently designated as
the plow layer.
Sub-soil
The part of the soil below the plow layer.
Solum (plural, sola)
The upper and most weathered part of the soil profile,
the A and B horizons.
Definition of Terms:
Regolith
Unconsolidated mantle of weathered rock and soil
material of the earth’s surface; loose earth material
above the solid rock. It is composed of the A, B and C
horizons.
Eluviation
Removal of soil material in suspension from a layer or
layers of a soil.
Illuviation
Deposition of materials carried from an overlying layer.
Leaching
Removal of materials in solution from the soil.
1. A vertical section of the earth’s crust from the surface
through all its horizons down into the loose weathered
rock material.
a. Soil horizon
b. Soil profile
c. Solum
d. Pedon
2. The uppermost part of the soil, ordinarily moved in tillage,
or its equivalent in uncultivated soils.
a. Surface soil
b. Subsoil
c. E horizon
d. A and C
3. It is where leached materials from the overlying horizon
accumulated.
a. Zone of eluviation
b. Zone of illuviation
c. A Horizon
d. O horizon
4. It is a three-dimensional structure that contain all the properties of the
studied soil.
a. Soil profile
b. Monolith
c. Pedon
d. Soil horizon
5. The uppermost mineral horizon with significantly higher
amount of organic matter.
a. O horizon
b. A Horizon
c. B horizon
d. C horizon
6. The upper and most weathered part of the soil profile, the
A and B horizons.
a. Surface soil
b. Subsoil
c. Solum
d. Plow layer
7. A relatively stable product of decomposition with direct
effects on color, structure and consistence of soil horizons
a. Organic matter
b. Lignin
c. Humus
d. Cellulose
8. A soil whose parent materials were carried and deposited
in moving fresh water to form sediments is called
a. Residual soil
b. Transported soil
c. Alluvial soil
d. Subsoil
9. Five factors govern the soil development process are,
except one:
a. Parent material
b. Weathering
c. Climate
d. Topography
e. Time
10. Parent material deposited more simply by sliding or rolling
down a slope. This material is scattered in hilly or
mountainous areas is called
a. Lacustrine
b. Colluvium
c. Eolian
d. Alluvium
e. Residual
11. This soil is characterized as strongly acidic and severely
weathered with less organic matter with subdivisions in major
horizons
a. Young soil
b. Immature soil
c. Mature soil
d. Old soil
12. An organic layer made up of advanced and partially
decayed plant and animal debris.
a. O horizon
b. A horizon
c. B horizon
d. C horizon
13. A part of the soil profile where most plant roots grow and
it is consist of A, E, and B horizons.
a. Soil horizon
b. Pedon
c. Alluvial
d. Solum
14. This factor in the soil developments process affect soil formation by
changing water movement and soil temperature which resulted to
deep and rich soil in low lying areas while causes erosion in slopes.
a. Parent material
b. Topography
c. Weathering
d. Time
e. Climate
15. Most mineral soils come form parent materials moved
from one area to another by, except one:
a. Ice
b. Water
c. Gravity
d. Wind
e. Temperature